AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA: Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector

Transcription

1 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA: Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector by Professor Abukutsa Mary Oyiela Onyango BSc (Agri), MSc (Agron)[UoN], Ph.D (Hort)[London] Professor of Horticulture, Department of Horticulture, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) Website: Typesetting and Printing: by JKUAT ISBN

2 2 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Dedication This Inaugural Lecture is Dedicated to my Father, the Late Mwalimu Enos Abukutsa Masele for His Unswerving Support and Encouragement in my Academic Work and for Teaching me Virtues of Integrity, Hard work, Excellence, Humility and Honesty at a Tender age And To My Two Sons Douglas and Anthony for Refueling my Research Interest in unraveling the potential of African Indigenous Vegetables by Constantly Questioning the Rationale of having them in our Daily Diet

3 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 3 Table of Contents Dedication... 2 Biography... 6 Abstract Introduction Background: Food Security and Nutrition The Role of Horticulture Sector The Role of Agricultural Biodiversity Objectives of the Lecture African Indigenous Vegetables Historical Perspective of African Indigenous Vegetables Value and Potential of African Indigenous Vegetables Nutritive Value Medicinal value and Health benefits Agronomic Advantages Income Generation and employment opportunities Constraints to optimal Production and Utilization of AIVs : Neglect and Stigmatization : Inadequate awareness of the value and potential of AIVs : Lack of Quality Seed : Lack of Agronomic and Utilization technical packages : Short Shelf Life and Lack of Preservation and Processing technologies : Poor Marketing Strategies : Consequences of the constraints Overview of Research Activities Goal and Objectives of the Research on African indigenous vegetables : Multidisciplinary Projects Undertaken on African Indigenous Vegetables : Germplasm, Collection, Evaluation, Characterization and Multiplication of Priority AIVs : Agronomic, Physiological and Nutritional Studies : Agronomic Studies : Physiological Studies Nutritional Studies : Development and Evaluation of Recipes and Products of AIVs... 35

4 4 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 4.0 Strategic Repositioning of AIVs in the Horticulture Sector Overview of repositioning Advocacy and Promotion Capacity Building, Curricula development and training in Universities Researchers and Scholars Community based organizations and Farmers Policy makers Development of Dissemination Materials Sustainable Quality Seed supply systems Conservation of African Indigenous Vegetables Markets for Indigenous vegetables Recipes, Processing technologies and Product prototypes Acceptability of Indigenous vegetables for consumption Significance of research on AIVS to development and its impact Increased number of Students researching on AIVs Availability of Quality seed: Increased Yields and Production of AIVs Increased Popularity, Availability and Consumption of African indigenous vegetables Availability of dissemination materials Increased research and reference materials on indigenous vegetables Consequently a Contribution has been made to: Conclusions Recommendations Conclusions Research Directions and Perspectives Suggested ways to engage Industry, the Private Sector and other Partners Parting Shot Acknowledgement References Annexes Annex 1 Honours and Awards Annex 2: Achievements and Research Impact Annex 3: MY APPEAL... 63

5 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 5 Professor Abukutsa Mary Oyiela Onyango BSc (Agri), MSc (Agron)[UoN], Ph.D (Hort)[London] Professor of Horticulture

6 6 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA BIOGRAPHY Family Background Professor Abukutsa Mary Oyiela Onyango was born on 20th February 1959 in a small village called Ematsuli, in Emuhaya Division,in larger Kakamega District in Western Province, Kenya. She is the third born in a family of eight children of a renown educator, the late Mr. Enos Abukutsa Masele (Papa) and Mama Rosebella Amumbwe Abukutsa, a dedicated, housewife. Her father believed in equal opportunities for girls and boys. Prof Abukutsa attributes her success in academia to the encouragement and support she received from her late father who was her mentor, and the care and love from her mother. At a very early age these dedicated parents instilled in her a strong sense of Love, Hard work, Integrity, Excellence, Discipline, Honesty, Timeliness, Cleanliness, Organization, Freedom from debts, Commitment, Independence, Peace, Generosity and Hospitality, most of all, they taught her to love God. She was baptized at Ilungu Seventh Day Adventist church in August, 1975 by Pastor Washington Buka. Prof Abukutsa was very fond of her late father, so much so that she wishes that he had lived long enough to witness this occasion, however his legacy lives on, in her. Professor Abukutsa wedded Prof J.C Onyango at Bondo CPK church on 3rd April 1987, and they were blessed with two boys Douglas Ochieng and Anthony Okelo. Following the principles of hard work, honesty and a desire to excel, the boys have risen from the small Maseno Mixed Primary School in a rural set up to National Schools (Starehe Boys Centre and Maseno School) and to reputable National (JKUAT, Kenya) and International (Williams College, USA) Universities. Education and Career Development Prof Abukutsa grew up in a rural setting and went to Ematsuli Primary School in Emuhaya, between 1966 and 1972 and later proceeded to Bunyore Girls High School where she studied between 1973 and 1976 obtaining EACE, certificate with First Division. She was then admitted to Ng iya Girls High School in 1977 for Advanced level studies in Biology, Chemistry and Mathematics where she obtained EAACE certificate with three very good principals, that qualified her to study medicine, her father s wish, but she preferred Agriculture as she already had a vision to unravel the secret behind African indigenous vegetables she had survived on due to allergy to animal protein. She graduated with honours from University of Nairobi with a BSc in Agriculture in She worked as a District Horticultural

7 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 7 officer in Kisii district for two years before University of Nairobi sponsored her for a Masters in Agronomy which she completed in record time of two years and graduated in After completing her Masters she held several positions in the Ministry of agriculture that included; Technical information disseminator at Agricultural Information Centre, as Horticultural Export Produce Inspector at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport and at the Ministry Headquarters Kilimo house as the officer in charge of Monitoring and Evaluation of the Food situation in the country and advising the office of the president on a monthly basis. In 1990 she joined Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology as a Junior Research Fellow in the Division of Research Production and Extension where she started her work on African Indigenous Vegetables. She moved to Maseno University as a lecturer in 1992 and in the same year she won a Joint Japanese World Bank Graduate Scholarship Program (JJWBP) Scholarship to undertake a Doctorate degree at the University of London-Wye College., U.K. Prof Abukutsa had wished to continue her research on African Indigenous Vegetables but she was advised by her supervisor to change as these were considered as weeds so she had to shelf her childhood dream and settle on Onions. She again completed her doctorate studies in record time of three years from November 1992 to November 1995 and returned to Maseno University where she was promoted to Senior Lecturer in 1997 and as Associate Professor in In December 2007, she took up an appointment as Professor of Horticulture, Department of Horticulture at The Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. Professor Abukutsa has had a distinguished career in University teaching, research, administration and leadership. She steadily and competitively rose up academic ranks from Junior research fellow in, 1990 to lecturer, 1992 to Senior Lecturer, in 1997, became Associate Professor in 2003 and Full Professor of Horticulture in December, She has been instrumental in programme development, she developed the Horticulture programme at Maseno University in , and has been instrumental in including African indigenous Vegetables in the BSc and MSc Programmes at Maseno University and JKUAT. She has served diligently as an external examiner for University of Nairobi, Moi University, Egerton University and Kenyatta University for their undergraduate and post graduate programmes and theses. She serves as a reviewer of several high profile scientific journals most of which are open access journals. Professor Abukutsa was in 1999, appointed as the first coordinator at the Centre of Research in Natural sciences and Technological Development at Maseno University, a position she held till 2003, when she was appointed Dean Faculty of Science a post she held for two years. In 2006 she was appointed Director, School of Graduate Studies at Maseno University a post she held till she moved to Jomo

8 8 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. At JKUAT she was in November 2008 appointed coordinator of JKUAT Resources Mobilization Team Research and Scholarly work Prof Abukutsa has been a prolific scholar and researcher and an effective educator, imparting knowledge and skills to both undergraduate and postgraduate students. She has successfully supervised 55 BSc, 15 MSc and 5 PhD students (candidates). Prof Abukutsa is an active researcher in several programs: She has worked as a researcher in NERICA-rice research initiative promoted by Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and AICAD on NERICA rice adaptability trials in Kenya, Agronomy, physiology and cropping systems of traditional rain fed rice in the Lake Victoria region. This research initiative working with Ministry of Agriculture and KEPHIS has released three NERICA rice varieties, Nerica1, Nerica 4 and Nerica11, to farmers in Kenya. She was involved in conservation of endangered species and biodiversity research where she was a co-researcher in the establishment of Botanic Garden, Glass house and herbarium at Maseno University. This project was sponsored by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, under the BIOTA-East Africa, E12 project , on vegetation, regeneration and ethno-botany of East African Mountain Forests. Currently 20% of the plants conserved at the garden are African indigenous vegetables a contribution from Professor Abukutsa. She has conducted extensive and pioneering research on African indigenous vegetables that has contributed to them being recognized by funding agencies, policy makers, educators, health workers, nutritionists and supermarkets and five star hotels and hospitals raising their status from weeds to internationally recognized vegetables. Her work has identified several indigenous vegetables with high nutrition and economic potentials. Professor Abukutsa s outstanding research work is evidenced by her numerous publications, 30 papers in refereed journals, 40 in refereed scientific conference proceedings and contribution to five book chapters and one University level Book. She initiated the African Indigenous Vegetable Research working group in 1991 at JKUAT and in 1996 at Maseno University. In this initiative Prof Abukutsa, as Principal Investigator has successfully developed and implemented over 15 multidisciplinary research projects and attracted funds from reputable National, Regional and International funding agencies. The funding agencies include, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology s Research Production and Extension [RPE] funds, Maseno University s Institute of Research and Postgraduate Studies [IRPS] African Highland Initiative [AHI], SIDA-SAREC through IPGRI now Bioversity International. Lake Victoria Research Initiative, [VicRes, SIDA-

9 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 9 SAREC,IUCEA] Project, International Foundation for science [IFS], European Commission [EU] and Commission for Higher Education [CHE] as the major ones. Awards and Recognitions Besides, Prof Abukutsa has won several Awards and Recognitions for her scholarly work, the most notable ones include: Recognition to showcase of her research on indigenous vegetables to US Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton on 5th August 2009 at NARL-KARI during her visit to Kenya; Recognition by African Union for winning First Prize and RUFORUM trophy for Africa wide CTA/FARA/ ATPS/RUFORUM/ NEPAD/AGRA Young Professionals and Women scientist Research Competition in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, April 2009 The CGIAR Science Award for Outstanding Communications by the Consultative Group in Agricultural Research (CGIAR) in 2007 for the work done by the Team members of the African Leafy Vegetable Project American Ambassador s Girl-child School Calendar project in 2006 as a role model from Nyanza Province The Rockefeller Gender and Diversity mentoring program (FELLOWSHIP) ; An Award of the International Scientist of the year 2002 by International Biographical centre, Cambridge, England. Awarded Certificate of Excellence in recognition of outstanding Performance at the Sixth KARI Scientific Conference for Second best overall presentation (Non- KARI Scientist) in Nairobi Prof Abukutsa s Mission Statement Reads as follows: I am committed to Live, Learn and Provide Excellent Service with Integrity, Love, Joy, Kindness, Humility and Honesty so that I am Optimally used for Worthy Purposes in the Community and Leave a Legacy

10 10 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Abstract The year, 2010 has been declared the International Year of Biodiversity by the United Nations to celebrate diversity of plants and animals. Horticultural biodiversity including African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) that used to form an integral part of Kenyan diets should be part of this celebration. However, with the introduction of exotic temperate crops like cabbage, indigenous greens lost popularity in Kenya and started to be regarded as weeds and `poor man s food. With 60% of the Kenyan population living below the poverty line, resulting in malnutrition and poor health, there is need for a paradigm shift in the production patterns to harness the nutrition and economic potential of indigenous vegetables. In recent years, Kenyans have seen an increase in diet related ailments such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and anaemia. Indigenous vegetables are micro nutrient dense and could prove a powerful weapon in the fight against poverty and malnutrition since they are suited to local conditions. However, a number of factors have conspired against sustainable production and use of these greens including negative perception, poor quality seed, lack of technical packages, poor marketing and high perishability affecting their strategic repositioning in the Horticultural sector. To raise the status of indigenous vegetables, this professorial inaugural lecture will take you through a journey of pioneering research initiated at JKUAT and Maseno Universities in the early 1990s by Prof Abukutsa. The programme which continues today has yielded tangible achievements over the years including the following: AIVs with nutrition and economic potential selected; germplasm collected, characterized and evaluated; quality seed packaged and availed; technical protocols developed and disseminated; seed support systems established; AIVs promoted; capacity built; conservation done; product prototypes developed. These achievements have led to increased production and availability. Although there is reason for some celebration, the future focus is envisaged to be the development of good agricultural practices (GAP), efficient seed delivery system, breeding, conservation, commercialization, processing, value addition and product development of indigenous vegetables in Kenya. African Indigenous Vegetables have a crucial part to play in revolutionizing the Horticultural sector for food security, nutrition, income and sustainable development in Kenya. It is therefore, time to strategically reposition AIVs in the horticultural sector and restore their lost glory. Key words: African indigenous vegetables, horticulture, biodiversity, repositioning.

11 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector Introduction 1.1 Background: This second Professorial inaugural lecture at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology is in the discipline of Horticulture. Horticulture is a name derived from two Latin words hortus, and cultura meaning garden and cultivation respectively. It is a branch of the larger agricultural discipline and deals with the science or art of cultivating vegetables, fruits, flowers and ornamental plants, shrubs and trees. Horticulture originally meant the practice of gardening and, by extension, now means the cultivation of plants once grown in gardens. In contrast, the term agriculture, by derivation, referred to more open forms of culture such as the production of grains and grasses, known as agronomic crops, which are cultivated on a large scale. The original distinctions have been so blurred that many crops formerly considered either agronomic or horticultural are now categorized sometimes in one field, sometimes in the other, depending on the intended use of the crop. Thus a plant grown for home consumption may be called horticultural; the same plant cultivated for forage is regarded as an agronomic crop. Horticulture includes the growing and production of vegetable crops, called olericulture; fruit (especially tree fruits), known as pomology; production of flowers, termed floriculture; and ornamental horticulture, known also as landscape gardening, which includes the maintenance and design of home grounds, public gardens and parks, private estates, botanical gardens, and recreational areas such as golf courses, football fields, and baseball diamonds. Agricultural scholars, writers and main stream horticulturalists considered and positioned African Indigenous vegetables as weeds classical examples: vegetable amaranths, has been referred to as pigweed, black jack which is a delicacy in Zambia has widely been known as a weed. Even with the current presence of spiderplant in mainstream super markets in Kenya and Tanzania as a vegetable publications still refer to them as spider weed (HCDA, 2008). 1.2 Food Security and Nutrition Food insecurity and malnutrition is an issue of concern in Kenya (GoK, 1999) and other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Over 60% of the rural population live below the poverty line, resulting in malnutrition, poor health and inadequate access to basic necessities. Nearly 3 billion people or half of the world population live on less than two dollars a day, of these, 1.2 billion live on less than one dollar a day. The situation is particularly pathetic in Sub Saharan Africa where nearly half of the population live on less than one dollar a day. Africa is where the share of

12 12 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA the population that is undernourished is highest in the world as indicated in Figure 1. Despite very good economic growth rates over the past decade, the continent continues to face serious challenges meeting its Millenium Development Goal (MDG) on hunger and poverty. Poverty is defined by the poor themselves as a situation where one cannot afford goods and services such as food, clothing, housing, health care and education.malnutrition in children is manifested in various forms and it has been reported that over 50% of the Kenyan children under five years are underweight, stunted or are suffering from iron-deficiency anaemia. The most serious malnutrition problems are a result of inadequate consumption of micronutrients normally referred to as hidden hunger. Micronutrient malnutrition results in impaired intellectual development, anaemia, blindness, and mortality in children; and is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity and decreased worker productivity. The paradox is that while these malnutrition problems are prevalent, Kenya and other African regions on the continent are endowed with agricultural biodiversity (Schippers, 2000), which could significantly contribute to resolution of the problem. The Policy Paper on the Horticultural Industry in Kenya describes the outcomes of accelerating the growth of horticultural production: as improving food security, earning foreign exchange, generating employment and income, alleviating poverty and enhancing development in arid and semi-arid areas. It also sets out a range of strategies to accelerate the growth of the industry: improvement of infrastructure such as roads, telecommunication, irrigation and electricity supply; financing; supply of inputs; extension services; and research. With regard to vegetable production, the GoK aims to increase production of quality vegetables, diversify varieties, improve post-harvest technology, register nurseries for plant propagation, and set quality standards for the domestic market. The policy environment in Kenya is therefore conducive to initiatives supporting further development of the horticultural sector with vision 2030 in place. Africa is very diverse in climate, agro-ecologies, topography, altitudes, agrobiodiversity and this calls for a uniquely African Green Revolution that can accommodate these challenges of diversity.

13 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 13 Figure 1: Proportion of undernourished people in various parts of the world Source: FAO, The Role of Horticulture Sector Agriculture remains the mainstay economic activity in Kenya accounting for over 24% of Gross Domestic Product, though only 20% of the land suitable for cultivation. Farming in Kenya is typically carried out by small scale producers that account for over 70% of the total production. The agriculture sector provides the basis for subsistence for the majority of the population and it is a primary source of foreign exchange earnings, with horticultural products, tourism, and tea being the leading forex earners. Horticulture sector has grown in the last decade to become the most vibrant industry and a major foreign exchange earner, employer and source of food in the country.the sector employs millions of people directly and indirectly, majority of whom are women. Table 1 shows the overall horticultural production and value between 2005 and 2007, while the quantities produced did not change significantly, the period realized a steady increase in the value of horticultural produce from KShs101,188,370 in 2005 to KShs 119,700,734 in 2007 as shown in Table 1 with vegetables contributing over 40% of the total value. Table 1: Overall Horticultural production ( 000) and values (Million KShs) Product Quantity 000MTs Value Million KES Vegetables 4,533,352 4,327,375 4,337,883 46,221,364 45,627,283 48,191,578 Fruits 2,463,984 2,478,570 2,547,339 34,184,178 37,349,857 39,338,356 Nuts 97, , ,035 4,407,100 5,224,260 4,600,200

14 14 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Product Quantity 000MTs Value Million KES Flower 102, , ,878 16,375,728 22,692,268 27,570,600 Total 7,197,266 7,035,977 7,102, ,188, ,893, ,700,734 Source: HCDA, 2008 Of the total production only 20% of horticultural produce was exported contributing between 44 and 58 billion Kenya Shillings. In 2008, the value of horticultural produce exported both fresh and processed was about KSH 74 billion of this about 30% were from vegetables where Kenya is the second largest exporter of vegetables to the European Union. There is a distinct export and domestic market for horticultural products. There has been a marked increase in the volume of product types and volumes handled by super markets, greengrocers and other outlets outside Nairobi. Although some indigenous vegetables like African nightshades, vegetable amaranths and spiderplant are found in the domestic markets the demand is still largely unsatisfied. Percentage contribution of indigenous vegetables to the value of vegetables in the domestic market rose from 4% in 2001 to 10% in 2007 according to HCDA (2008) and yet none is exported The Role of Agricultural Biodiversity The United Nations proclaimed 2010 to be the International Year of Biodiversity, and people all over the world are working to safeguard this irreplaceable natural wealth and reduce biodiversity loss. This is vital for current and future human wellbeing. We need to do more. Now is the time to act. The International Year of Biodiversity is a unique opportunity to increase understanding of the vital role that biodiversity plays in sustaining life on Earth. We are an integral part of nature; our fate is tightly linked with biodiversity, the huge variety of other animals and plants, the places they live and their surrounding environments, all over the world. We rely on this diversity of life to provide us with the food, fuel, medicine and other essentials we simply cannot live without. Yet this rich diversity is being lost at a greatly accelerated rate because of human activities. This impoverishes us all and weakens the ability of the living systems, on which we depend, to resist growing threats such as climate change. Agricultural biodiversity the diversity of animals and plants that underpins agriculture is critical to human survival but is significantly undervalued. The United Nations has declared 2010 to be the International Year of Biodiversity, promising a wealth of opportunities for raising awareness of the role that biodiversity plays in the lives of people and the special importance of agricultural biodiversity need to be most prominent. Climate change and increasing pressures on agricultural land are putting at risk the very tool that

15 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 15 can help farmers adapt to these challenges: agricultural biodiversity. Bioversity International is mounting a global awareness campaign Diversity for Life which will gain momentum during 2010, the International Year of Biodiversity. Diversity for Life will undertake a range of communications and educational activities targeting policymakers, the media and schools in a number of countries around the world. The campaign will provide an opportunity for consistent advocacy of key objectives for example that people should diversify their diets and that policymakers should integrate the conservation and use of biodiversity into national poverty reduction strategies and plans. Diversity for Life tells the stories of people whose passion for diversity is helping in small ways and large to create a healthier, more food secure world. It focuses on the images and stories of the Guardians of Diversity: individuals who have dedicated their lives to safeguarding the diversity of plants and animals and making sure that it is used by people to improve their lives. Africa abounds in agricultural biodiversity resources genetic resources, crop species, trees, fish, livestock, as well as microbes, pollinators, and production environments. The legend of African Indigenous vegetables will contribute to this celebration and offer some strategies for the African green revolution. Despite stigmatization of African Indigenous Vegetables, they have played a very important role in food security and nutrition on the African continent. There is a dire need currently to strategically reposition indigenous vegetables in the horticultural sector so that their potential can be fully exploited for food nutrition and income generation and contribute in achieving vision 2030 and Millenium development goals. Re-positioning involves changing the identity of a product, relative to the identity of competing products, in the collective minds of the target market. Strategic repositioning is seeking to exploit opportunities or deliberate influence of any audience of significance without controlling them. 1.5 Objectives of the Lecture Present an overview of my Research on African Indigenous Vegetables and inform my academic peers, students research collaborators, policy makers, development partners and the public about research results achieved Discuss my contribution in Strategic Repositioning of African Indigenous Vegetables in the Horticulture Sector Discuss the significance of the research to development in general and its implications for the discipline of Horticulture, the impact on society and improving livelihoods and prosperity of humans.

16 16 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Suggest future research directions and its implications to the discipline Suggest ways to engage with local industry and businesses, as well as with the wider general public

17 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector African Indigenous Vegetables 2.1 Historical Perspective of African Indigenous Vegetables Africans have traditionally made use of edible leaves of species growing wild as weeds whose origin was in the African continent. These vegetables were well known to the rural people and were often planted in home gardens as intercrops with staples and could find their way to local markets. For some traditional vegetables, wild collection is still practiced in many parts of Africa especially Southern Africa. Some work done in selected countries in Africa has identified some of the traditional vegetables that are utilized throughout the continent and could be developed as cultivated crops. Some of the indigenous vegetables that were consumed on the African continent include vegetable amaranths, (Amaranthus species), spiderplant (Cleome gynandra), African vegetable nightshades (Solanum species), cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), African eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum), African kale (Brassica carinata) and jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius) as indicated in Table 2 (Schippers, 2000). The use of these vegetables was part of cultural heritage, playing a significant role in customs and traditions and in maintaining equity within the family structure since the appearance on the family table depends largely on the activities of women (Mnzava, 1997). The introduction of exotic vegetables in the African continent had some negative impact on the consumption and domestication (cultivation) of indigenous vegetables. During the colonial time, a deliberate suppression of the indigenous vegetables was done and a lot of efforts were made to promote the exotic vegetables such as cabbage. The net effect of such suppression flowed into the post independent era where the governments perpetuated the agricultural policies developed by the colonial rulers. It is only very recently that there has been a significant interest toward Africa s indigenous vegetables grown in home or backyard gardens. Even in the area of crop research, indigenous vegetables have only won some recognition recently at the International, regional and National institutions. These institutions include AVRDC-The World Vegetable Center Regional Center for Africa in Arusha, Tanzania, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI)-now Bioversity International, Nairobi and ICRAF-World Agroforestry Centre, Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA), National Agricultural Research Centres (Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), National Museums of Kenya (NMK)) and Universities in various countries (Maseno, Moi, Egerton, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology in Kenya, Makerere and Mbarara University of Science and Technology in Uganda, Sokoine University of Agriculture, and Dar es salaam

18 18 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA in Tanzania Dscsshang in Cameroon, Hannover in Germany and University of Greenwich in UK) and IndigenoVeg research group, Ministry of Agriculture and Non-Governmental Organization among others. African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) have been grown and utilized traditionally by many African communities and possess several advantages and potentials that have not been fully exploited (Schippers, 2000). African indigenous vegetables can be defined as those vegetables whose primary or secondary centre of origin is known to be in Africa (Schippers, 2000). Vegetables whose secondary centre of origin is Africa may be refered to as African traditional vegetables (Schippers, 2000). However, the word traditional is used when indigenous or introduced species which due to long use have become part of the culture of a people. Vegetables are a vital component of human diet as they provide essential micronutrients that ensure proper development of the human body and good health (Abukutsa- Onyango, 2007a). Vegetables have also been known to contain substantial amounts of chemicals normally classified as anti-oxidants. These chemicals are essential for scavenging for and binding harmful radicals in the body if left unchecked could cause diseases like cancer and diabetes. Table 2: Some African Indigenous Vegetable found on the continent Common Name Amaranths Slenderleaf Cowpea leaves African nightshades African eggplant Spiderplant Jute Mallow Botanical Name AMARANTHACEAE Amaranthus blitum/lividus Amaranthus cruentus/hybridus Amaranthus dubius, A.hypocondriacus LEGUMINOSAE Crotalaria brevidens/ochroleuca Vigna unguiculata SOLANACEAE Solanum scabrum/villosum/ americanum Solanum aethiopicum/anguivi/macrocarpon CAPPARACEAE Cleome/Gynandropsis gynandra TILIACEAE Corchorus olitorius Corchorus tricularis

19 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 19 African kale Pumpkin leaves Common bitterleaf Sweet bitterleaf White vine spinach Red vine spinach West African okra Common okra Roselle (purple) CRUCIFERAE Brassica carinata CUCURBITACEAE Cucurbita moschata Cucurbita maxima ASTERACEAE Vernonia amygdalina Vernonia hymenolepis BASELLACEAE Basella alba Basella rubra MALVACEAE Abelmoschus caillei Abelmoschus esculentus Hibiscus sabdafiffa var sabdariffa Source, Schippers, 2000 and Abukutsa-Onyango, Value and Potential of African Indigenous Vegetables Nutritive Value African indigenous vegetables have high nutritive value. They contain high levels of minerals especially calcium, Iron and Phosphorus. They also contain significant amounts of vitamins and proteins (Mnzava, 1997). In most cases the mineral and vitamin contents is equivalent to or higher than that found in popular exotic vegetables like cabbage as shown in Table 3. On average 100g of fresh vegetable contain levels of calcium, iron and vitamins that would provide 100% of the daily requirement and 40% for the proteins (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2003). African indigenous vegetables are therefore a valuable source of nutrition in rural areas where they contribute substantially to protein, mineral and vitamin intake (Mnzava, 1997). They are compatible to use with starchy staples and represent cheap but quality nutrient source to the poor sector of the population in both urban and rural areas where malnutrition is widespread. Healthy people need a balanced diet consisting not just of starchy foods but also protein and micronutrient rich foods.

20 20 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA People often consider vegetables to be of limited importance, mainly because they are not aware of the nutritive value. This is a clear misconception because the human body needs major minerals like iron, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium as well as trace elements and vitamins that are essential for the health of the people, especially vitamins such as ß-carotene and ascorbic acid. The nutrient content of these vegetables could be affected by several other factors like stage of growth, storage, cooking, processing and these factors need to be investigated if the nutritional potential is to be fully exploited. Loss of between 57% and 78% of Vitamin C after 30 minutes of cooking has been reported. For the case of vitamin A, there is low conversion rate of beta-carotene to retinol equivalent the form in which vitamin A is utilized in humans. In case of mineral nutrients such as calcium, iron and zinc the bioavailability is not assured as certain phyto chemicals like phytates bind them making them unavailable (Makokha and Ombwara, 2005). There is need for studies on bioavailability of such micronutrients. Table 3: Nutrient content of 100 g fresh weight edible portion of some indigenous and exotic leafy vegetables Protein (%) Ca (mg) Fe (mg) Vit A (mg) Vit C (mg) Indigenous Vegetables Amaranthus spp (amaranths) Cleome gynandra (spiderplant) Solanum villosum (nightshade) Vigna Unguiculata (cowpea) Curcubita moschata (pumpkin) Corchorus olitorius (jute mallow) Exotic vegetables Brassica oleracea Var. acephala (kale) Var. capitata (cabbage) Lactuca sativa (lettuce) Spinacia oleracea (spinach) Recommended Daily Allowance Source : Maundu et al, 1999, Abukutsa-Onyango 2003.

21 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector Medicinal value and Health benefits African Indigenous Vegetables have medicinal properties as they are usually bitter and some have been known to heal stomach-related ailments (Olembo et al., 1995). Most of such vegetables have been reported to have medicinal properties (Kokwaro, 1993, Olembo et al., 1995) for instance spiderplant has been reported to aid constipation and facilitate birth while African nightshades has been reported to cure stomachache. Limited information available on the mode of preparation suggest that the presence of undesirable chemical compounds in these potential crops cannot be overruled. Most of the indigenous vegetables have been reported to contain anti-nutrient factors. Oxalates found in Amaranthaceae and Solanaceae vegetables may bind calcium and render it unavailable, Alkaloids found in the bitter types of Crotalaria and Solanum species may cause stomach-ache if eaten in excess, Spiderplants contain phenolic compounds which bind proteins thereby reducing the nutritional value of the vegetable. The smell of spiderplant caused by an acrid volatile oil has a high phenolic content and glucosinolates which interfere with iodine metabolism as occurs in Brassica carinata. These factors need to be investigated as some of the phenols can be anti-oxidants Due to the limitations mentioned above, successful commercial exploitation of African Indigenous Vegetables, need to be explored. Another area that could be exploited is phyto-chemicals or Nutraceuticals which are biologically active, non-nutrient compounds that provide health benefits. These phytochemicals help promote optimal health by lowering risk of occurrence of chronic diseases like cancer. Some of the phytochemicals are called antioxidants, scavenge for and bind free radicals that occur in the body these radicals could cause cancer and other ailments if left unchecked. Further investigation need to be done to elucidate the medicinal properties of these African indigenous vegetables Agronomic Advantages Indigenous vegetables are well adapted to harsh climatic conditions and disease infestation and are easier to grow in comparison to their exotic counterparts. African indigenous vegetables can produce seed under tropical conditions unlike the exotic vegetables. They have a short growth period with most of them being vegetables ready for harvesting within 3-4 weeks, and respond very well to organic fertilizers. Most of them have an in built ability to withstand and tolerate some biotic and abiotic stresses. They can also flourish under sustainable and environmental friendly cropping conditions like intercropping and use of organics. Furthermore, because most of them have not been intensively selected, they have wide genetic bases, which will be important in sourcing for new genotypes and/or genes for adaptation to climate change

22 22 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Income Generation and employment opportunities African indigenous vegetables have considerable potential as as cash income earners, enabling the poorest people in the rural communities to earn a living (Schippers, 2000, Onyango, 2003). Socio-economic survey on traditional vegetables conducted in various parts of Africa particularly in Central, Western and Eastern Africa (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2002; Schippers 2000) revealed that indigenous vegetables are important commodities in household food security. They provide employment opportunities and generate income for the rural population. There appears to be a high demand of indigenous vegetables in cities and major towns, making the intensive production in and around the towns and trading of the same important sources of household income for the urban poor and the unemployed. Over 70% of the traded vegetables in rural markets were indigenous vegetables while in bigger towns was about 10%. However, there was generally a poor marketing system in some of the countries. (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2002, Schippers, 2000) 2.3 Constraints to optimal Production and Utilization of AIVs 2.3.1: Neglect and Stigmatization Changed food habits in favour of introduced temperate vegetables lowered the demand of indigenous vegetables, due to the fact that the former fetched higher prices in local markets. Indigenous vegetables were considered out of fashion, poor man s food that could only be used as a last resort. Thus they enjoyed less social prestige, being associated with the low-income group. As the poor sought to imitate the eating habits of the affluent and were exposed to more fashionable exotic species, the indigenous species became neglected. The neglect and stigmatization was perpetuated by stakeholders like the policy makers, agricultural training institutions, traders, researchers, consumers and the traders. (Mnzava, 1997). Having been branded and denoted by the agriculturalists and researchers as weeds, the tendency was to eradicate them and not conserve them as it were. This trend started changing gradually after the promotion and sensitization workshops that were held in Nairobi, Limbe and Maseno in 1995, 1997 and 2003 respectively. (Guarino, 1997, Schippers and Budd, 1997 and Abukutsa-Onyango et al. 2005)

23 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector : Inadequate awareness of the value and potential of AIVs Lack of awareness of the merits and opportunities of indigenous of vegetables was due to negative attitudes developed by all stakeholders. Although there were indications that indigenous vegetables had some great attributes many stakeholders did not take the facts seriously. This therefore called for deliberate awareness campaigns to promote these indigenous vegetables. This started in the early 1990 s and intensified with time 2.3.3: Lack of Quality Seed Lack of quality seed has been a major hinderance to sustainable production and utilization of indigenous vegetables. Some of the vegetables perpetuate themselves untended, they were harvested whenever they occurred and this system of seed procurement heavily depended on the soil borne seed pool and the ability of these species to reseed themselves. Seed production has for a long time virtually remained in the hands of farmers, although seed sale in markets was common. For a very long time these vegetables were harvested from the wild, but as the pressure on land increased, they were domesticated and the need for quality seed set in. Normally AIVs are grown as a subsistence crop and most farmers save their own seed from season to season, and sell surplus to other growers. The quality of such seeds is poor in terms of purity, viability and seed dormancy issues. There is need for production and supply of quality seed to increase yields and quantities produced to meet the unsatisfied market demands of priority indigenous vegetables especially in urban centres 2.3.4: Lack of Agronomic and Utilization technical packages Indigenous vegetables have often been grown as intercrops with other vegetables or staples, however there has been hardly any technical information on optimal production and appropriate cropping systems. There has been lack of agronomic and preparation packages and access to technical information has been very limited, therefore extension workers have limited knowledge to advise indigenous vegetable growers. This necessitated research on development of optimal production packages for indigenous vegetables and recipe development

24 24 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 2.3.5: Short Shelf Life and Lack of Preservation and Processing technologies Most of the African Leafy vegetables are highly perishable with a shelf life of less than 24 hours at room temperature. This problem would affect quality of the produce at the market and to overcome this problem preservation and processing technologies need to be developed 2.3.6: Poor Marketing Strategies Marketing of indigenous vegetables has been poor dis- organized leading to great losses of the produce in transit or in markets. The major constraints of marketing include: abundance of vegetables during the rainy season leading to low prices and scarcity during the dry season; exploitation of traders due to lack of market information; lack of inadequate market and transport infrastructure. This calls for identification and creation of markets for indigenous vegetables and possibly linking farmers/farmer groups to appropriate markets 2.3.7: Consequences of the constraints The consequences of the constraints were low production and poor distribution of indigenous vegetables. Farmers achieved very low yields of 1 3 tonnes per hectare, far below the optimal levels that range from 20 to 40 tonnes per hectare (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2003) leading to low consumption and utilization resulting in loss of biodiversity. Increased and sustainable production and utilization of AIVs can be attained by ensuring supply of quality seed and development of environment-friendly production and utilization technologies. Improved production technologies like spacing, fertilizer rates and use of organic sources of manure will lead to increased yields and improved nutrition and economic empowerment of the rural communities in Kenya and other parts of Africa, and in urban and periurban regions.

25 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector Overview of Research Activities 3.1 Goal and Objectives of the Research on African indigenous vegetables Given the advantages and potential value of AIVs and the constraints that cutrail their optimal production and utilization, a multi disciplinary AIVs research programme was initiated at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology (JKUAT) in 1991 and Maseno University in The Goal was to contribute to alleviation of food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty in Kenya and other African countries by raising the status of African indigenous vegetables. The aim of the Programme was to promote sustainable production and utilization of African indigenous vegetables for nutrition and wealth creation. Specific objectives were to: Develop multidisciplinary projects on AIVs and solicit for funding Identify priority AIVs with nutritional and economic potential Collect, characterize, evaluate and multiply germplasm of priority AIVs Conduct Agronomic, physiological and Nutritional studies on priority AIVs Develop and evaluate recipes and products of African Indigenous Vegetables. 3.2: Multidisciplinary Projects Undertaken on African Indigenous Vegetables. Fifteen (15) national, regional and international research projects were undertaken between 1992 and 2009 on various aspects of African Indigenous Vegetables. This was achieved by developing over 20 research proposals and soliciting for funding, with 15 of these ultimately receiving funding. Table 4 shows eleven of the projects undertaken three of which were funded by the Government of Kenya, seven by international funding agencies, and one was self-funded. Three of these projects also covered other African countries and the remaining six were in Kenya. 3.3: Priority African Indigenous Vegetables with Nutritional and Economic Potential. Priority AIVs in Kenya, East African region and Sub Saharan Africa were identified through a series of household, baseline and market surveys in various countries. Sampling methods included systematic, random, stratified and purposive sampling schemes using checklists and structured questionnaires. The nine priority African leafy vegetables grown and consumed in Vihiga, Kisumu and Kisii districts of

26 26 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Western Kenya in order of priority were spiderplant, African nightshade, pumpkin, cowpea, amaranths, jute mallow, slenderleaf and African kale which represented seven botanical families (Abukutsa-Onyango 2007 a). The most important African indigenous vegetables marketed in Kakamega, Chavakali and Kiboswa markets in western Kenya included cowpeas, vegetable amaranths, African nightshade, jute mallow, spiderplant, slenderleaf, African kale and pumpkin (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2002). Priority AIVs grown and marketed in urban and peri-urban Nairobi were African nightshade, vegetable amaranths, vegetable cowpea, spiderplant, pumpkin, African kale, jute mallow, stinging nettle and slenderleaf and in Kisumu city, vegetable cowpeas, spiderplant, African nightshade, slenderleaf, jute mallow, vegetable amaranths, pumpkin leaves and African kale were identified (Abukutsa- Onyango et al. 2007a). Priority AIVs in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania using five criteria as shown in Table 5 included: cowpea, African nightshade, Vegetable amaranths, spiderplant, pumpkin, slendeleaf, African kale, jute mallow, African eggplant, cucumber, Vine spinach and moringa (Abukutsa-Onyango et al., 2006). Plate 1 shows the top eight priority species. In a survey of small scale processing of AIVs, total thirty four (39) processors were identified in Bondo (5) and Mbarara(14) and Magu (20). The female respondents constituted 71%. Of the total number interviewed. One small scale processor was identified at Bondo site. She was processing cowpea leaves by sun drying during the rainy season to be used for home consumption during the dry season. In Uganda the vegetables were harvested dried in the sun, pounded and packed in polythene bags and sealed. These were then utilized during periods of scarcity but not for commercial purposes. The main vegetables processed included cowpeas, vegetable amaranths and African nightshade in Bondo, vegetable amaranths, African nightshade, bitter berries and scarlet eggplant in Mbarara and cowpeas in Magu. In Uganda the vegetables were harvested dried in the sun, pounded and packed in polythene bags and sealed. These were then utilized during periods of scarcity but not for commercial purposes. The processing methods used by small scale farmers need to be validated in the laboratory for quality and food safety. (Abukutsa-Onyango et al., 2006) Table 4: Projects on African Indigenous Vegetables between 1991 and 2008 Title of Project Funding Agency Year & Location 1 Viability, growth and seed production study of six indigenous vegetables JKUAT 1992, Western Kenya

27 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 27 Title of Project Funding Agency Year & Location 2 Response of some African traditional vegetables to organic and inorganic fertilizer application 3 Effect of nitrogen rates on growth and yield of slenderleaf (Crotalaria brevidens) 4 Market Survey on African Indigenous Vegetables in Western Kenya 5. Vegetation Regeneration and ethnobotany of East African Mountain Forests 6 Germplasm management of African leafy vegetables for the nutritional and food security needs of the vulnerable groups in Sub-Saharan Africa 7 Intercropping African kale with other selected African indigenous vegetables for sustainable production in the Lake Victoria region 8 Development of appropriate farming technologies for sustainable production and utilization of AIVs for improved land use in the Lake Victoria basin 9 Networking to promote the sustainable production and marketing of indigenous vegetables through urban and peri-urban Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa 10 Assessment of water use efficiency of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean) for food and nutrition security in Kenya 11 Assessment of water use efficiency of Slenderleaf (Crotalaria ochroleuca) for food, nutrition and health security African Highlands Initiative and Maseno University Maseno University Self-funded Federal Republic of Germany under BIOTA East Africa Project IPGRI now Bioversity International International Foundation for Science 1997, Western Kenya 1997 in Western Kenya 2001 Western Kenya Western Kenya 2001 to2005 Kenya and 4 other African countries 2004 to 2008 Kenya SIDA-SAREC (VICRES) 2005 to 2009 Kenya, Uganda & Tanzania European Commission 2006 to African and 5 EU countries CHE JKUAT 2007 ongoing 2008 ongoing

28 28 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Market surveys conducted in fourteen cities in seven African countries Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, Benin, Ivory coast and Senegal indicated that the priority AIVs were: Eastern Africa-vegetable cowpea, nightshade, amaranths, spiderplant, pumpkin and jute mallow; Western Africa- vegetable amaranths, African eggplant, jute mallow and okra and Southern Africa vegetable amaranths, okra, spiderplant, pumpkin leaves and cowpeas ( Abukutsa-Onyango et al., 2007 and Shackleton et al., 2009) Table 5: Prioritization of indigenous vegetables in East Africa using five criteria (the number of countries where they occur out of three) AIVs Selection Criteria Household survey /3 Marketed /3 Processed /3 Researched and promoted/3 Selection from Lab /3 Total /15 Cowpeas Nightshade Amaranths Spiderplant Pumpkin Slenderleaf African kale Jute mallow African eggplant Cucumber Okra Vine Spinach Moringa Source: Abukutsa-Onyango et al., 2006

29 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 29 a) Vegetable cowpea b) African nightshade c) Vegetable amaranths d) Spiderplant e) Pumpkin leaves f) Slenderleaf g) African kale h) Jute mallow Plate 1: Priority African Indigenous Vegetables with Nutrition and Economic Potential

30 30 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 3.4: Germplasm, Collection, Evaluation, Characterization and Multiplication of Priority AIVs A total of 128 accessions were obtained by collecting seeds each of eight vegetable species in eight districts in western Kenya (Kisumu, Siaya, Vihiga, Butere- Mumias, Kisii, Nyamira, Homa Bay and Bondo). Collected seeds were subjected to laboratory analysis and field evaluation. Selection was based on the weight, percentage germination and moisture content. Seeds of selected accessions of spiderplant, African nightshade, jute mallow, slenderleaf, vegetable cowpea and African kale were multiplied, evaluated and packaged for a test run of seed distribution (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2007b). The seed yields ranged from 1.1 to 1.4 tons per hectare with a thousand seed weight of 1.0 to 100g. Only 12% of the 70 contact farmers to whom seed was distributed were able to produce quality seed for their use using training provided by the project. Dipping seed in boiling water for 10 seconds, soaking in water for 24 hours and soaking in 95% acetone for 30 minutes, as seed treatment methods significantly improved germination in spiderplant and African nightshade but not jute mallow In another study in the East African region, a total of 95 accessions were collected in Kenya representing nine different vegetable types. The selected top five vegetable types were Vegetable Cowpea, Slenderleaf, Spiderplant, African kale and African nightshades. In Uganda 95 accessions representing 9 vegetable types out of which five priority vegetables were selected based on the evaluation results and these included cowpea, slenderleaf, spiderplant, African kale and African nightshades. For Tanzania 59 accessions were collected representing 8 vegetable types out of which five priority vegetables based on the evaluation results and these included vegetable cowpea, vegetable amaranths, pumpkin, spiderplant and jute mallow. (Abukutsa-Onyango et al., 2005) Fifty accessions of, the vegetable of choice, African nightshades (Solanum sec solanum) from eastern, western and Southern Africa were characterized using both morphological and cytological characters of the living material to distinguish accessions belonging to different species and ploid y levels. The study revealed the occurrence of nine Solanum section solanum species comprising a polyploidy series with two diploid (Solanum americanum and Solanum chenopodioides), five tetraploid (S.retroflexum, S. villosum, S.florulentum,S.grossidentatum and S. tarderemotum) and two hexaploid (S.nigrum and S.scabrum). Further research is needed to elucidate the taxonomic status of Solanum florulentum/tarderemotum group as well as intra-specific variants of Solanum villosum,solanum scabrum and Solanum retroflexum.(mwai et al., 2007) (Plates 2 & 3)

31 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 31 Figure 2: Clustering pattern of 50 African Solanum section Solanum accessions using morphological and cytological descriptors. The dotted line demarcates variation between (right) and within (left) species. 1: S. retroflexum; 2: S. grossidentatum; 3: S. scabrum; 4: S. americanum; 5: S. tarderemotum; 6: S. florulentum; 7: S. chenopodioides; 8: S. villosum; 9: S. nigrum a 6b 7 8a 8b 8c A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A Si il i C ffi i Similarity Coefficient Plate 2: Morphological features of purple-stemmed S. scabrum variant. Erect growth habit; leaves medium (i) to large (ii); with varying intensities of purple coloration. Flowers (iv) usually deep purple, with distinctly brown anthers.

32 32 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Plate 3: Morphological features of large leaved S. scabrum variant. Erect habit; leaves large (i and ii); few flowers/fruits per inflorescence (iii). Leaves and stems green; flowers (iv) white with yellow anthers. 3.5: Agronomic, Physiological and Nutritional Studies 3.5.1: Agronomic Studies African indigenous vegetables were reportedly grown mainly in home gardens, mostly within the homestead. These are areas where the management practices are easier and use of farm yard manure is facilitated. However hardy vegetables like cowpea and slenderleaf could be grown in main cropping lands as intercrops. The vegetables were cultivated at a subsistence level, in home gardens and intercrop systems with organic manures where the use of chemical fertilizers and chemicals was almost non-existent (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2007a). Home gardens where most of indigenous vegetables are grown plays a significant role in food security and nutrition in western Kenya according to Musotsi et al.(2008) as most of the households had home gardens though they were poorly maintained. It has also been demonstrated that growing indigenous vegetables in home gardens will contribute significantly to household food security and nutrition (Musotsi et al 2008) Table 6 indicates that there is potential to use organic sources of fertilizer like farm yard manure and tithonia leaf biomass without compromising the yield of indigenous vegetables and they could increase yield five times compared to the controls. The table also shows that organic and inorganic fertilizers may delay

33 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 33 flowering in spiderplant. However, jute mallow did not respond to the organic and inorganic application of fertilizer an indication of its ability to thrive in low fertility soils. (Abukutsa-Onyango,1999). Nitrogen application in the range of 0 to 100 kg/ha had no significant effect on growth, leaf and seed yield of slenderleaf (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2007c), this gives an indication that slenderleaf can thrive in low nitrogen soils probably due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. African kale was found to be a suitable intercrop for cowpea, African nightshades, spiderplant and slenderleaf as they had Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) greater than one. It has been demonstrated that African kale is a suitable Intercrop with other indigenous vegetables like cowpea, nightshade, spiderplant and amaranths (Oseko et al., 2006 ). This is a system that could be exploited as it has several advantages for sustainable production of a diversity of indigenous vegetables. Table 6: The effect of sources of fertilizer on yield and %flowering of cowpea and spiderplant at 8 weeks after sowing Treatment Cowpea Spiderplant Yield % Flowering Yield % Flowering T1-Control T2-Tithonia T3-Tithonia+DAP T4-Tithonia T5-DAP +CAN T6-Farmyard manure Significant p 0.05 p 0.01 p 0.05 ns LSD

34 34 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 3.5.2: Physiological Studies Topping which is the removal of the apical stem could be used to delay flowering in those indigenous vegetables that flower early like spiderplant. Spiderplant which normally flowers early within 4 weeks after planting responded to topping by delayed flowering and increased branching and leaf yield as a result of removal of apical dominance. Topping can be employed as an agronomic practice to delay flowering increasing the yield of spiderplant. It has also been demonstrated that spiderplant could tolerant medium salinity and could be grown in slightly saline soils. Other studies have demonstrated that in Jute mallow (Abukutsa-Onyango et al.,1999) spiderplant ( Mwai et al., 2007 ) and slenderleaf (Abukutsa-Onyango et al., 2007c) can tolerant abiotic stresses like salinity,(plate 4) low fertility and water deficit. Studies were also initiated at JKUAT in 2008 on water use efficiency in bambara nuts (Vigna subterranea) and slenderleaf (Crotalaria ochroleuca), which are believed to possess tolerance traits to water deficit. Plate 4: Response of spiderplant to salinity levels of 0,-0.3, , and -1.2 MPa Nutritional Studies Nutritional evaluation of priority AIVs was conducted between 2004 and 2008 at both Maseno University and the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology in Kenya. Results indicated that the iron content of the vegetables ranged from 14.7 mg/100g FW for slender leaf and 50.0 mg/100 FW for pumpkin for the Maseno site and between 16 mg/100g FW for cowpeas and slender-leaf and 50 mg/100g FW for pumpkin and nightshade for JKUAT site as shown in Table 7. The table also shows that iron contents found in all the vegetables contained over 70% and 80% of the recommended daily requirement of iron for Maseno

35 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 35 and JKUAT respectively. The protein content of indigenous vegetables found could contribute 18-54% of the recommended daily allowance. Table 7: Iron and Protein Content of priority African indigenous vegetables in two sites Maseno University JKUAT Vegetable Iron (mg/100gfw) %Protein Iron (mg/100gfw) %Protein Nightshade Amaranths Spiderplant Cowpea Pumpkin Slenderleaf Jute mallow LSD 5% : Development and Evaluation of Recipes and Products of AIVs Cooking has been shown as one of the factors that affect nutrient contents of vegetables and to follow up on this, recipe collection, standardization and evaluation was conducted. Survey of indigenous knowledge on traditional recipes was done in western Kenya in 2002, documented and standardized for vegetable amaranths, slenderleaf, spiderplant, African nightshade, cowpeas, pumpkin, cowpeas, African kale and vine spinach. Ten recipes were collected and the main methods of cooking involved boiling in unspecified amounts of water contributing to nutrient loss using additives like bicarbonate of soda, lye (traditional salt), milk, sesame and groundnut paste whose effects were unknown. Consequently, methods of preparing AIVs had to be standardized in order to minimize nutrient loss. Findings from the indigenous knowledge survey on recipes recommended the use of pots rather than pans for cooking, as pots retain heat and give better simmering effects. Also, the covering of the cooking pot was preceded by sealing it completely with banana leaves. This would help to retain steam, which escapes

36 36 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA with some volatile nutrients and the aroma. Results also showed that the recipes were based on a mixture of different vegetables (Musotsi et al 2005) Based on the findings on indigenous knowledge, a follow up study was done in 2007 to develop recipes of African Indigenous Vegetables in the Lake Victoria region, established acceptability levels and determined the micro-nutrient content. Thirty AIVs recipes were developed out of which twenty were vegetable recipes while ten were vegetable product recipes. Recipes prepared with lye were significantly accepted by all testers both in terms of appearance and taste. The developed recipes were high iron (Table 8), copper and Vitamin C. These recipes were adequate to supply consumers with the recommended daily allowances especially for iron (Habwe et al.,) Those recipes that were faster to make could be adopted by industry, companies, hotels, hospitals and institutions and individuals especially the younger generation Although, micronutrients like iron and calcium may show significantly high contents in fresh plant material but their bio-availability to the human body when consumed is not guaranteed and this calls for further investigation. Table 8: Iron content (mg/g) of ten developed recipes of AIVs in Lake Victoria Region Recipe Boiled Fried Nightshade Cowpea Slenderleaf Amaranth Nightshade+amaranths Nightshade+slenderleaf Nightshade+cowpea Amaranths +slenderleaf Amaranths + cowpea Slenderleaf +cowpea Significance level LSD 5% Source: Habwe et al., 2008

37 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector Strategic Repositioning of AIVs in the Horticulture Sector 4.1 Overview of repositioning One key to successful strategic repositioning is recognizing that success involves innovative change and requires advocacy, capacity building and marketing for a technology or commodity. This should as much as possible involve as many players as possible in the value chain. In repositioning African indigenous vegetables in the Horticultural sector, the following strategies are vital: advocacy and promotion; capacity building;; sustainable seed supply system conservation; marketing Provision of technical information, 4.2 Advocacy and Promotion Advocacy and Promotion is a powerful tool in repositioning a commodity. This strategy has been used since 1999 to reposition AIVs in the Horticultural sector. The main target groups were chosen as strategic partners and these included farmers, students, researchers, policy makers and consumers. The objective was to let stakeholders know about value and potential of African indigenous vegetables and the constraints hindering optimal exploitation. Methodologies used were diverse and user friendly and encouraged participatory in nature. These included: orature, song dance and narratives, demonstration plots, the print media, leaflets, posters and newpapers, lectures, seminars and workshops, exhibitions and shows, radio and TV, documentaries and cooking competitions and radio (Irin Radio: -). These methods were used in an endevour to sensitize and make a case for indigenous vegetables to all stakeholders and some are shown in Plate 5 Two documentaries on DVDs have been developed on indigenous vegetables titled African indigenous vegetables: Research and related activities: A synopsis by Prof Mary Abukutsa Onyango The Role of Universities in Promoting Underutilized Crops: The case of African indigenous vegetables at Maseno University- A research by Prof Mary Abukutsa-Onyango 2008

38 38 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA a) DVD b) Leaflet c) The Newspapers d) Exhibitions at KICC and at grassroots Plate 5: Advocacy Tools and Methods 4.3 Capacity Building, Curricula development and training in Universities University students from Agricultural faculties normally form the major human resource in research and extensions services. It is important to build capacity of the human resource that will undertake research on indigenous vegetables and those who will effectively disseminate information on indigenous vegetables. At the university level I contributed to developing human resource and expertise on African Indigenous Vegetables by restructuring undergraduate and postgraduate programmes, by including AIVs as a topic in the Bachelor of Science in Horticulture Programme, and as a unit in the Master of Science programme at Maseno University in 2005 and at JKUAT in I have Supervised 55 undergraduate research projects and 20 Masters and doctorate theses 95% of which were on African Indigenous vegetables. Trained two students on internship from University of Hannover, Germany, Horticulture department for three months on African indigenous vegetables and conservation of endangered tropical plants at Maseno University (Herbst, 2007)

39 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 39 Maseno University Undergraduate Supervision on projects on AIVs Kithi, L.R. (2007). Survival of vegetatively propagated African nightshade (Solanum scabrum) as affected by length of stem cutting Maritim, M.C. (2007). Response of slenderleaf (Crotalaria ochroleuca) to intercropping with Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Tonui, K.B. (2007). Response of African nightshade (Solanum scabrum) to topping Asetso, C.A. (2006). Response of vegetable cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) to inorganic phosphorus Application. Kamande, B.G. (2006). Effect of intercropping corn (Zea mays) with slenderleaf (Crotalaria ochroleuca) on their growth and yield Kavita, P.M. (2006). Effect of organic and inorganic sources of nitrogen on growth and development of cucumber (Cucumis sativa) Mukonzo, M.W. (2006)-Response of spiderplant (Cleome gynandra) to topping Mutebi, C.M Effect of Inorganic Nitrogen Sources on Nodulation of Slenderleaf (Crotalaria ochroleuca) Owenga, F.O. (2006). The Effect of Inorganic phosphatic fertilizer on growth and yield of Bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranean) Wachira D. (2006). Effect of Calcium concentration on lodging, growth and development of soybeans (Glycine max) Fedha M. (2005)-Response of vegetable Cowpea(Vigna unguiculata) to application of inorganic phosphorus Kiambi, J.M.(2003) Response of leaf amaranths (Amaranthus blitum) to organic and inorganic fertilizers Odhiambo, M. (2002) Effect of seed treatment on AIVsto break dormancy Oduor, S.A. (2002) Response of African kales to different nitrogen sources. Tengeya, L.N. (2002) Response of spiderplant to organic and in-organic fertilizer

40 40 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Andika, D.O. (2002) Effect of organic & inorganic fertilizers of growth and yield of solanum scabrum Ayuya, O.A. (2002). Growth responses of cowpeas to Application of Mexican Sunflower as a source of Nitrogen. Luchibia A.O. (2002) Effect of wild sunflower(tithonia diversiolia) leaves on growth and yield of sunnhemp(crotalaria brevidens) Karimi K.J Effect of nitrogen on pot grown Solanum scabrum. Maseno University Shilliebo, A.O.2001 Effect of Mexican sunflower (Tithonia diversifolia) on seedling emergence of some African indigenous vegetables in Western Kenya. Maseno University Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology undergraduate supervision Kipsang, E.K., M.K.Liharaka & N.A. Ekhuya (2009) Management of aphids in kale using selected companion crops Waithira, K.H.,H.N. Kibiru & R.W. Chege (2009). Effect of seed storage duration and temperature on seed germination and seedling vigour of selected African indigenous vegetables Post graduate Thesis Supervision on AIVs: Maseno University Mwai, G.N Growth Responses of spiderplant (Cleome gynandra L.) to Salinity. MSc (Botany-Physiology&Biochemistry)-MSU Musotsi A.A The role of home gardens in food security among rural households in Butere division, Western Kenya. MSc (Community nutrition) Maseno University Obuoyo J.A The Role of Traditional Crops in Promoting Food Security in the Dry Siaya. District, Kenya. MA (Geography), Maseno University. Maritim, J Response of African nightshade (Solanum scabrum) to intercropping

41 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 41 with tea(camellia sinensis). MSc (Botany- Physiology and Biochemistry option) MSU Otiende, M.A Survival of propagated roses (Rosa hybrida) as affected by age and storage periods of cutwood. MSc (Horticulture-Floriculture option) Maseno University. Mwai, G.N. (2007). Characterization and Evaluation of Vegetable African Nightshades (Solanum L. section Solanum) Ph.D (Botany- Physiology and Biochemistry option) Maseno University. Oseko J.K. (2007) Response of African kale (Brassica carinata) to intercropping with Four African Indigenous Vegetables.( MSc (Horticulture-Olericulture option). Maseno University. Ekesa B.K (2007) Effect of Agricultural bio-diversity on dietary intake and morbidity of preschool children in Matungu Division, Western Kenya MSc (Community nutrition) Maseno University Habwe F (2008). Development of High iron recipes of African indigenous vegetables from Eastern Africa. MSc (Community Nutrition and Development) Otiato D.A.(2009): Effect of intercropping Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean) and rice (Oryza Sativa) on their productivity and soil fertility. PhD. Thesis project Researchers and Scholars Availability of reference materials for researchers and other scholars is key in repositioning AIVs in research agenda at research institutions and universities. I have widely published in refereed scientific journals, refereed conference proceedings, book chapters and books on various aspects of indigenous vegetables as indicated in the selection below: Scientific Journals Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. & J. Karimi (2007). Effects of Nitrogen Levels on Growth and yield of Broad Leafed African nightshade (Solanum scabrum) Acta Horticulturae 745: Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. (2007). Seed Production And Support Systems For African Leafy Vegetables In Three Communities In Western Kenya. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.(AJFAND) online journal www. ajfand.net 7:3 ISSN

42 42 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. (2007). Response Of Slenderleaf (Crotalaria brevidens Benth) To Inorganic Nitrogen Application. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.(AJFAND) online journal 7:3 ISSN Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. (2007). The Diversity Of Cultivated African Leafy Vegetables In Three Communities In Western Kenya. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.(AJFAND) online journal 7:3 ISSN Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. (2003). Unexploited potential of Indigenous African Vegetables in Western Kenya. Maseno Journal of Education Arts and Science 4(1): ISSN: X Book Chapters Habwe, F.O.,K.M. Walingo and MOA Onyango (2009). Food Processing and Preparation Technologies for Sustanainable Utilization of African Indigenous Vegetables for Nutrition Security and Wealth Creation in Kenya. Chapter 13. In: Using Food Science and Technology to improve Nutrition and Promote National Development Eds Robertson, G.L. and Lupien, J.R. International Union of food Science & Technology, 2009 Oluoch, O, G.N.Pichop, D.Silue, MO Abukutsa-Onyango, M. Diouf and C.M.Shackleton (2009). Production and Harvesting Systems for African Indigenous Vegetables Chapter 6: In:African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agriculture eds C.M.Shackleton, M.W.Pasquini and A.W. Drescher. Pasquini, M.W., F.Assogba-Komlan, I.Vorster, C.M.Shackleton and MO Abukutsa- Onyango (2009). The production of African indigenous vegetables in urban and peri-urban agriculture: A comparative analysis of case studies from Benin, Kenya and South Africa: Chapter 6: In:A frican Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agriculture eds C.M.Shackleton, M.W.Pasquini and A.W. Drescher.: Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. (2004) Basella alba.in:plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables Book (Eds Grubben, G.J.H.and Denton, O.A.) PROTA Foundation,, Wageningen, Netherlands/Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands/CTA Pg Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. (2004) Crotalaria brevidens. In:Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables Book (Eds Grubben, G.J.H.and Denton, O.A.)

43 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 43 (Eds Grubben, G.J.H.and Denton, O.A.) PROTA Foundation,, Wageningen, Netherlands/Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands/CTAPg Proceedings of a workshop organized on AIVs can be found on the link below: Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O, A.N. Muriithi, V.E. Anjichi, K. Ngamau, S.G. Agong, A.Fricke, B.Hau and H.Stützel, Proceedings of the third Horticulture Workshop on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics,26th -29th November Maseno University. ext/.../secure.php?u I have also examined over ten postgraduate theses from University of Nairobi, Moi University, Maseno University, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology and Egerton university 95% of which were on African indigenous vegetables I have trained over 200 researchers and extension workers from all over Africa between 2002 and 2008 undertaking a six month diploma training course on vegetable crops production and research at AVRDC-The World Vegetable Center- RCA, Arusha, Tanzania on the following two topics: Topic 1: Classification and Distribution of African Traditional Vegetables Topic 2: Cultivation and seed production of African Traditional Vegetables Community based organizations and Farmers To successfully reposition AIVs farmers are very important as they are the producers, so apart from creating awareness, capacity building and training them is vital. In this endeavour, I have trained 77 contact farmers in western Kenya and 23 farmers in Central on seed production of indigenous vegetables and it is envisaged that these farmers can act as catalysts to the promotion and repositioning of indigenous vegetables at the grassroots. (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2009b) Policy makers Policy makers are vital in promoting a commodity, in this context under the indigenoveg project, I nominated four policy makers to attend the policy dialogue workshop in January 23rd to 26th 2008 at Rhodes University, the topic of discussion was The Promotion of African indigenous Vegetables in urban and peri-urban Agriculture in African Cities:A policy Dialogue Workshop. These policy makers were drawn from Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of

44 44 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA agriculture, National Council Science and Technology and Nairobi Municipality council. This was funded by the EU with name IndigenoVeg project involving 7 African countries and 5 European institutions of which I was the Kenyan country project leader 4.4. Development of Dissemination Materials Diversity of effective dissemination materials would enhance the repositioning of AIVs with regard to farmers and consumers. In this endevour I have developed simplified technical leaflets on the production of African nightshade, spiderplant, vegetable amaranths, jute mallow, slenderleaf, pumpkin leaves and African kale and used to train and disseminate technical information on African indigenous vegetables (Plate 6) Plate 6: A sample of dissemination materials developed 4.5. Sustainable Quality Seed supply systems The first step in promoting any crop is the provision of quality seed, and therefore selections made from the accessions collected have been multiplied, evaluated, bulked, packaged (Plate 7) and distributed to farmers as a temporary stop gap as further breeding work to develop cultivars is planned. In that context seed supply systems for indigenous vegetables were set up at Maseno University Botanic Garden and JKUAT and an intermediate measure for farmers to access quality seed. Seed distribution for the period between 2001 and 2007 is shown in Table 9 Plate 7: Packaged seed of spiderplant, seed bulking at Maseno University and JKUAT

45 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 45 Table 9: Seed distribution technical advice and outreach on AIVs (2001 to 2007) Contact Farmers and/or Farmer Groups Western Kenya Central Kenya District Number District Number Kisumu 16 Nyeri 5 Siaya 11 Thika 5 Bondo 3 Nairobi 6 Vihiga 24 Kiambu 5 Butere-Mumias 5 Kajiado 2 Kisii 11 Nyamira 5 Homabay 2 Total Source: Abukutsa-Onyango 2007b 4.6 Conservation of African Indigenous Vegetables. In-situ and ex-situ conservation of AIVs was implemented from Maseno University Botanic Garden was established in 2001 and is a home to 200 plant species, of which 10% are AIVs. This project was funded by Federal Government of Germany, BIOTA PROJECT and the purpose of the garden was combined research, teaching, conservation and recreational use. I was a collaborating researcher and contributed to the collection of indigenous vegetables currently conserved at the botanic garden. 4.7 Markets for Indigenous vegetables Markets surveys have indicated that the demand for indigenous vegetables is not fully met in Kenyan urban and peri-urban markets. Identified potential markets in Kisumu, Nairobi, East African and Sub-Saharan Africa. Linking farmers to markets has been expeditiously undertaken by some of our strategic partners Farm concern International. Promoting a commodity with an assured market is vital for its success. There are potential urban, national, regional and international markets. People in the diaspora in United Kingdom and USA have expressed a desire to get AIVs supplied to them. This would require preserving and some processing, this calls for research in this area.

46 46 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 4.8. Recipes, Processing technologies and Product prototypes Many consumers had expressed concern that traditional methods of preparation were time consuming and tedious, this was especially so for the younger generation. In this connection traditional recipes were collected and standardized. New recipes were also developed and evaluated. Development of product prototypes have been done and being evaluated, some of the recipes and prototypes developed are shown in Plate Acceptability of Indigenous vegetables for consumption To enhance consumption of African indigenous vegetables participatory selection and ranking of AIVs recipes was done. Organoleptic tests and acceptability of the recipes in Western Kenya and Eastern Africa were done for recipes and products developed (Plate 8). Ranking was done based on taste and appearance. Recipes prepared with traditional salt, lye were significantly accepted by all testers in terms of appearance and taste. Participatory selection of the priority AIVs will also enhance acceptability. a) Traditional recipe b) Exchange students from Hannover, prepare AIVs dishes and Products Habwe et al., 2008 Plate 8: Recipes and Product Prototypes from AIVs

47 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector Significance of research on AIVS to development and its impact 5.1. Increased number of Students researching on AIVs The proportion of BSc Horticulture students who undertook projects in AIVs in Maseno University increased from 20% in 2001 to 70% in 2006 and then dropped to 50% in 2008; in JKUAT there was an decrease from 31% in 2004 to 20% in 2007, but this doubled to 40% in 2008 as shown in Table 10 (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2009a). There is an increased number of research theses in all public universities on African indigenous vegetables. Table 10 Proportion of BSc Horticulture students who conducted Research on African Indigenous Vegetable in their final year of study at Maseno University and JKUAT-KENYA YEAR Number of students researching on AIVs in their final year of study Maseno University JKUAT No. in Class AIV projects (%) No. in Class AIV projects (%) Source: Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. 2009a. 5.2 Availability of Quality seed: Quality seed of selected African indigenous vegetables available at Maseno University, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Some of the trained contact farmers in Central and Western Kenya are producing quality seed. Tatro, a community based organization in western Kenya is currently very successful as a result of my efforts at establishing a community based seed supply system and training.they have subsequently collaborated with AVRDC and are

48 48 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA contracted to produce seeds for some private companies and are actually in the final stages of being registered by KEPHIS as AIVs seed producers. 5.3 Increased Yields and Production of AIVs Increased Production in farmers fields in many parts of Kenya including Central Kenya,un-traditional growers of AIVs, and they supply Uchumi, Nakumatt Holdings and Tuskys super markets and Githurai, Kangemi and Gikomba open air markets. There is also increased yield of AIVs as a result of availability of technical packages from 2-3 tons per hectare to tons per hectare. A farmer in Githunguri, in peri-urban Nairobi shifted from growing coffee to growing AIVs to supply Uchumi super market in 2006 Development of high nutrient prototypes for possible commercialization has been done. The increased demand and ready market is an incentive for farmers to produce more. 5.4 Increased Popularity, Availability and Consumption of African indigenous vegetables There is an increased availability, popularity and Consumption of Indigenous vegetables as indicated by the rate at which they are sold out at the super markets and as reported in the daily papers in the last three years like the standard, Taifa leo, Metro and the star. Consumption could have been enhanced also by availability of recipes for palatable and acceptable dishes as shown in Plate Availability of dissemination materials Information production of AIVs and recipes has been repackaged and simplified into leaflets and this could be availed at department of Horticulture, JKUAT. 5.6 Increased research and reference materials on indigenous vegetables There is an increased number of researchers working on African indigenous vegetables at Universities, national and international research institutions. Funding on agricultural biodiversity has also increased. Funding agencies have realized the importance of these vegetables through pioneering research like the one reported in this inaugural lecture

49 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector Consequently a Contribution has been made to: Sustainable Production and Utilization of AIVs Improved Food Security, Nutrition and Health Increased Incomes and Improved Livelihoods Sustainable Development

50 50 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 6.0 Conclusions Recommendations 6.1 Conclusions This overview gives overwhelming evidence as to why AIVs should be repositioned in the Horticulture sector, it also gives strategies that can be capitalized on to achieve this. Horticulturalist, farmers and other stakeholders need paradigm shift to embrace African indigenous vegetables as a vital commodity in the sector, and appreciate all the players in the value chain and think outside the box to tap into the potential of AIVs. It is strongly recommended that Universities, Research Institutions, the government and other stakeholders should make deliberate efforts to promote African indigenous vegetables in order to exploit their potential for food security, nutrition and wealth creation for sustainable development. African indigenous vegetables should form part of the curricula for students taking Horticultural programmes in Agricultural Faculties and Colleges. Universities and other research institutions must engage policy makers, the private sector and the grass roots in order to attain sustainable development in this pursuit. Strategic repositioning of African indigenous vegetables in the Horticulture sector in Kenya will also greatly contribute to the achievement of vision Research Directions and Perspectives commercial production, value addition, processing and product development for domestic and export markets validate processing methods used by farmers research into breeding, commercial seed production and efficient seed delivery system for AIVs bioavailability studies on iron and calcium to be conducted exploit the Nutraceutical development Potentials of AIVs systematic and detailed studies to be undertaken on the top ten AIVs with nutrition and economic potential development of good agricultural practices (GAP) for all priority species economic Analysis of the promising species of African indigenous vegetables physiological studies to identify the species that can tolerate biotic and abiotic stresses and seed physiology

51 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 51 Strengthen conservation efforts on AIVs explore other areas of potential Indigenous fruits(guava) and flowers (mobdik) Form strong linkages between the Researchers, Policy makers, extension agents, educators and the community African indigenous vegetables be fully engaged as a horticultural commodity in the discipline and sector. 6.3 Suggested ways to engage Industry, the Private Sector and other Partners Seed production, processing, packaging and distribution by seed distribution agents and community based organizations Product prototypes could be developed into business ventures Recipes can be used in restaurants, hospitals, institutions, Airlines Curricula on African indigenous vegetables at Agricultural Universities Strong collaboration with KARI, Ministry of Agriculture, National Council of Science and Technology and other agriculture sector ministries the private sector and communities 6.4 Parting Shot African Indigenous Vegetables are no Longer Weeds, but High Profile commodities With Nutritional and Unrivalled health benefits, besides, they have a role to play in food security, nutrition, income and sustainable development in Kenya and beyond, they are a gold mine to be harvested, ALL are invited to cash in and be Healthy. Thank You All

52 52 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 7.0 Acknowledgement I wish to acknowledge, thank and appreciate the following without whom this Professorial Inaugural Lecture would not have been realized To GOD be the Glory & honour! Vice Chancellor, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Prof Mabel Imbuga, who was instrumental, supportive and a mentor in this pursuit IPGRI- Bioversity International Lake Victoria Research Initiative(VicRes), of SIDA-SAREC funding through IUCEA International Foundation of Science (IFS) European Commission (EC) Biota-East Africa Project E12 Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA) Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) AVRDC-World Vegetable Center, Regional Africa office, Arusha Commission for Higher Education (CHE) National Council of Science and Technology (NCST) Vice Chancellor, Maseno University, Prof Frederick N. Onyango The invaluable support and encouragement from the Faculty of Agriculture, JKUAT and Faculty of Science, Maseno University and my graduate students is highly appreciated Special thanks to the late Patrick Omulubi, Peter Olewe of Maseno University and Patrick Kavagi and Francis Wetende of JKUAT for working tirelessly and closely with me in my research endevours I wish to extent my sincere appreciation to Prof Ratemo Michieka, Dr Anselimo Makokha, Dr Gideon N. Mwai, Dr Elijah Ateka and Dr Peter Masinde for taking time off their busy schedule to review my inaugural lecture.

53 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 53 To my father, the late Enos Abukutsa Masele and mother, Rosebella Abukutsa, for giving me a strong foundation that led me into the right direction. To Lydia Ayako Mareri, thank you for praying with me and giving me a shoulder to lean on when I was physically, spiritually, emotionally and psychologically challenged in my adult and professional life Last but not least my deep appreciation to Douglas and Tony for the opportunity to experience the beauty of being a mother and gratitude to Prof J.C. Onyango for pushing me towards Jesus which enhanced my personal relationship with GOD.

54 54 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 8.0 References Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. 2009a. Development and promotion of Technologies for sustainable production and utilization of indigenous vegetables for nutrition security and wealth creation in Kenya In: K. Urama, M.Momanyi, S. Ochugboju, M.Ominde and G. Manners eds. Agricultural innovations for sustainable development. Contribution from the finalists of the African women on science competition. Vol 2: issue 1 CTA/Alliance/FARA/NEPAD/RUFORUM. Pages: Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. 2009b. The role of Universities in Promoting Underutilized Crops: A case of African Indigenous vegetables at Maseno University. Acta Horticulturae 806: ISSN Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. 2009c Promoting leafy greens in Kenya. Geneflow Bioversity international. Geneflow_2009.pdf Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O d. The role of Universities in Promoting Underutilized Crops: A case of African Indigenous vegetables at Maseno University. Acta Horticulturae 806: ISSN org/symposium2008/.../t1.24-abukutsa-onyango.pdf Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. 2009e African Nightshade Recipe In Sol-Newsletter March 2009 js.docstoc.com/docs/ /sol-newsletter-march09 Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. 2007a. The diversity of cultivated African leafy vegetables in three communities in western Kenya. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development (AJFAND) 7 (3) online journal net. Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. 2007b. Seed production and support systems for African leafy Vegetables in three communities in western Kenya. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development (AJFAND) 7 (3) online journal www. ajfand.net. Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. 2007c. Response of Slenderleaf (Crotalaria brevidens Benth) To Inorganic Nitrogen Application. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.(AJFAND) online journal 7:3 ISSN Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. & J. Karimi Effects of Nitrogen Levels on Growth and yield of Broad Leafed African nightshade (Solanum scabrum) Acta Horticulturae 745:

55 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 55 Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O. & J.C. Onyango Conservation and Seed Production Of African Leafy Vegetables At Maseno University Botanic Garden, Kenya. In: African Crop Science Conference Proceedings vol 7(3): Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O, A.N. Muriithi, V.E. Anjichi, K. Ngamau, S.G. Agong, A.Fricke, B.Hau and H.Stützel, Proceedings of the third Horticulture Workshop on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics,26th -29th November Maseno University MSU,Maseno,Kenya. ISBN: pgs. Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O Basella alba.in:plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables Book (Eds Grubben, G.J.H.and Denton, O.A.) PROTA Foundation,, Wageningen, Netherlands/Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands/ CTA Pg Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O Crotalaria brevidens. In:Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. 2. Vegetables Book (Eds Grubben, G.J.H.and Denton, O.A.) (Eds Grubben, G.J.H.and Denton, O.A.) PROTA Foundation,, Wageningen, Netherlands/Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands/CTAPg Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O Unexploited potential of Indigenous African Vegetables in Western Kenya. Maseno Journal of Education Arts and Science 4(1): ISSN: X Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O Market Survey on African Indigenous Vegetables in Western Kenya In: Proceedings of the Second Horticulture Seminar on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the tropics, October6th -9th August Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology,JKUAT, Juja, Kenya. Eds:Wesonga, J.M. T. Losenge, G.K. Ndung u, K. Ngamau, J.B.M. Njoroge, F.K. Ombwara and S.G. Agong, A. Fricke, B.Hau and H.Stützel.pp ISBN:: Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O, J.C. Onyango, J. Bashir, A. Niang and H.M. Obiero, Response of some African traditional vegetables organic and inorganic fertilizer application. In: Proceedings of the African Women in Science and Engineering (AWSE) Workshop in Nairobi-Kenya. November 29th to 3rd December, 1999.pp. ISBN: Aduol, F.W.O From Rope-Stretchers to E-Mapping:The Story of the Discipline of Surveying. 26th May, University of Nairobi Andika, D.O., Abukutsa, M.O.O, Onyango,J.C. and Stutzel, H Roots Spatial Distribution and Growth Bambara and NERICA rice intercrop system. Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences (JABS).

56 56 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Chweya, J.A. and P.B. Eyzaguire eds, The biodiversity of traditional leafy vegetables. IPGRI Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Development Cooperation Ekesa, B., M.K. Walingo and MO Abukutsa-Onyango Accessibility to consumption of indigenous vegetables and fruits by rural households in Matungu Division, Western Kenya. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. 9(8): Ekesa, B.N., M.K. Walingo & M.O.Abukutsa-Onyango Role of Agricultural biodiversity Intake and Nutrition status of preschool children in Matungu Division, Western Kenya. African Journal of Food Science 2: Ekesa, B.N., M.K.. Walingo and MO Abukutsa-Onyango, Influence of Agricultural Biodiversity on Dietary Diversity of pre-school children in Matungu Division, Western Kenya. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.(AJFAND) online journal 8:4 pages : ISSN FAO, FAO, Agricultural Outlook, , Highlights, Food and Agriculture Organization. 46 pages, Rome ItalyGoK, 1999, National Development Plan Guarino L.editor 1997, Traditional African vegetables. Promoting the conservation and use of Underutilized and neglected crops. 16. Proceedings of the IPGRI International Workshop On Genetic Resources of Traditional Vegetables in Africa. Conservation and use, August 1995, ICRAF-HQ, Nairobi, Kenya. Institute of Plant Genetic and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. Italy Habwe, F.O.,K.M. Walingo and MOA Onyango 2009a. Food Processing and Preparation Technologies for Sustanainable Utilization of African Indigenous Vegetables for Nutrition Security and Wealth Creation in Kenya. Chapter 13. In: Using Food Science and Technology to improve Nutrition and Promote National Development Eds Robertson, G.L. and Lupien, J.R. International Union of food Science & Technology, HabweetalChapter13.pdf Habwe, F.O.,M.K. Walingo, M.O. Abukutsa-Onyango 2009b. Iron content of formulated East African indigenous vegetable recipes. African Journal of Food Science. 3(12): et%20al.htm

57 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 57 HCDA, Horticulture Data Validation Report. Horticultural Crops Development authority, April pages Herbst, M Maseno University Botanical Garden and Activities on AIVs and conservation of Endangered Tropical plants. Student internship report University of Hannover,Germany.24 pages Kaimenyi, J.T Achieving Oral Health for all in Kenya: A reality or a Myth? Inaugural Lecture, 18th May University of Nairobi Kokwaro, J.O Medicinal Plants of East Africa, Second Edition, Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi Magoha, G.A.Urological footprints in Kenya That Water May Flow: A story about Male Genital Cancer and Dysfunction. Inaugural Lecture. University of Nairobi. Makokha, A.O. and F. Ombwara, Potential for increased use of indigenous Kenyan Vegetables as functional foods. In: In: Proceedings of the third Horticulture Workshop on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics,26th -29th November Maseno University MSU,Maseno,Kenya. ISBN: pp Maundu, P.M,, G.W. Ngugi and C.H.S. Kabuye, 1999.Traditional Food Plants of Kenya. KENRIK National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya. 270 pages Michieka, R.W Environmental degradation and Pollution:Let us reverse the trends. Inaugural Lecture, 9th September, University of Nairobi. Musotsi, A.A., A.J. Sigot and MOA Onyango The role of home gardening in household food security in Butere Division of Western Kenya. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.(AJFAND) online journal www. ajfand.net 8:4 pages : ISSN Musotsi, A.A., Sigot, A. and M.O.A. Onyango African Indigenous Vegetables Recipe Documentation and their role in food security. In: Proceedings of the third Horticulture Workshop on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics,26th -29th November Maseno University MSU,Maseno,Kenya. ISBN: pp Mwai, G.N., M.O.A. Onyango, J.C. Onyango, M.L. Chadha and M.O. Oluoch Effect of N-Fertilization on Yield components.of Nightshade Acta Horticulturae 806: : ISSN

58 58 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Mwai, G.N., J.C. Onyango and Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O Taxonomic Identification and characterization of African nightshade (Solanum L. Section solanum). African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.(AJFAND) online journal 7:4 ISSN Mwai, G..N., J.C. Onyango, M.O.A. Onyango 2004, Effect of Salinity on Growth and Leaf Yield of spiderplant (Cleome gynandra L.). African Journal of Food, Aagriculture, Nutrition and Development (AJFAND).Online journal. net 4:2. ISSN Mwai, G.N., J.C. Onyango and Abukutsa-Onyango, M.O Taxonomic Identification and characterization of African nightshade (Solanum L. Section solanum). African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development.(AJFAND) online journal 7:4 ISSN Mnzava, N.A Vegetable crop diversification and the place of traditional species. In: Guarino L.editor 1997, Traditional African vegetables. Promoting the conservation and use of Underutilized and neglected crops. 16. Proceedings of the IPGRI International Workshop On Genetic Resources of Traditional Vegetables in Africa. Conservation and use, August 1995, ICRAF-HQ, Nairobi, Kenya. Institute of Plant Genetic and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. Italy.pages 1-15 Olembo, N.K., S.S.Fedha and E.S. Ngaira, Medicinal and Agricultural plants of Ikolomani, Kakamega District. Oluoch, M.O.,G.N. Pichop, D. Silue, M.O. Abukutsa-Onyango, M.Diouf & C.M. Shackleton 2009.Production and Harvesting Systems for African indigenous vegetables chapter five.in : African indigenous vegetables tn Urban Agriculture. Earthscan. London. Sterling, VA.Pages author/mary_abukutsa_onyango/ / Onyango, J.C Rice, a crop for wealth creation: Productivity and Prospects in Kenya s Food Security. Inaugural Lecture Series Nr 2. Maseno University Onyango J.C., R.W. Bushmann and M.O.Abukutsa-Onyango The university botanic garden, maseno: a teaching centre for biodiversity management and germplasm conservation. In: Proceedings of African Botanic Gardens Congress: Partnerships and linkages Durban Botanic Gardens, South Africa. 24th to 29th November 2002.(Ed) Willis, C.K. Southern African Botanical Diversity Network Report No 22. SABONET, Pretoria. Pp ISBN:

59 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 59 Onyango, J.C. and M.O. Abukutsa-Onyango African Leafy Vegetables: Conservation for efficient utilization. In: Proceedings of the third Horticulture Workshop on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics,26th -29th November Maseno University MSU,Maseno, Kenya.ISBN: pp Onyango, J.C. and M.O.Abukutsa-Onyango The Role of Botanic Gardens in Horticultural Crops Germplasm Production and Conservation In western Kenya. In: Proceedings of the fifth Workshop on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics, 23rd -26th November Agricultural Resource Center, Egerton University, Kenya. ISBN: pp Oseko and M.O.Abukutsa-Onyango and J.C. Onyango Performance of African kale (Brassica carinata) to intercropping with other indigenous vegetables. In: Proceedings of the fifth Workshop on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics, 23rd -26th November Agricultural Resource Center, Egerton University, Kenya. ISBN: pp Pasquini, M.W., F.Assogba-Komlan, I.Vorster, C.M. Shackleton & M.O.Abukutsa- Onyango The production of African indigenous vegetables in urban and peri-urban Agriculture: A comparative Analysis of case studies from Benin, Kenya and South Africa, chapter six. In: African indigenous vegetables in Urban Agriculture. Earthscan London. Sterling, VA. Pages unclaimed_author/mary_abukutsa_onyango/ / Schippers, R.R African Indigenous Vegetables: an overview of the Cultivated Species Chatham, UK:Natural Resources Institute/ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation. 214 pages Schippers, R.R and L.Budd, 1997.African indigenous vegetables. Workshop Proceedings January , Limbe, Cameroon. NRI-Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime. United Kingdom. 154 pages Shackleton, C.M., M.W. Pasquini and A.W. Drescher African indigenous vegetables in Urban Agriculture. Earthscan London. Sterling, VA. 298 Pages www. filedby.com/unclaimed_author/mary_abukutsa_onyango/ / Uppal, S.M.,2009.Mathematics: Is it for war or peace? First Inaugural Lecture 2009.JKUAT

60 60 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA 9.0 Annexes Annex 1 Honours and Awards 9.1.1a KARI Certificate of Excellence 9.1.1b The CGIAR Science Award Showcase, AIVs research on 5th August 2009 to US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton Recognition of AIVs research by the AU in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 24th April 2009

61 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 61 Annex 2: Achievements and Research Impact AIVs Research In the Field With Students and at the Grassroots Quality seed and technical leaflets led to increased yields and increased availability AIVs become popular, leading to increased Consumption Development of AIVs Recipes Product Proto-types

62 62 AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN KENYA Some healthy Kenyans that have thrived on AIVs for two decades and over Conservation of AIVs and other useful plants at the Botanic garden, Maseno University The story of African Indigenous Vegetables being told to the Policy Makers

63 Strategic Repositioning in the Horticultural Sector 63 Annex 3: MY APPEAL VOTE YES, FOR STRATEGIC REPOSITIONING OF AFRICAN INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES IN THE HORTICULTURE SECTOR