Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia

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1 Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia South West Woina Dega Wheat Livelihood Zone (SWW) August Zone Description The South West Woina Dega Wheat livelihood zone is located in Wemberma woreda in West Gojam and in Awabel, Baso Liben, Debre Elias, Guzamn, and Senan woredas in East Gojam. It borders the Blue Nile gorge along the Debre Markos-Injabara highway. Most of the zone is around Debre Markos. Scattered bisana and eucalyptus trees populate the open plains that dominate this region. Annual rainfall is one of the highest amongst the Amhara livelihood zones at 1266 mm per annum the long term mean. The main rivers are Chemoga, Kulch, Fetam and Yeda which provide water for both human and animal consumption. To some extent humans (and animals) get water from hand-dug wells and springs. The red soils are moderately fertile. Temperatures between 15 and 25 o C provide a hospitable environment for the moderately dense population that ranges from people per km 2. This is a mixed farming economy mainly based on crop production activities, regularly producing a surplus of grain and good incomes for the wealthier households by rural Amhara standards. There is no Safety Net programme here. Agriculture is dependent on the kremt rains. Wheat is the most important crop, serving as both the main food and cash crop. Other crops grown include maize and pulses, especially horse beans. Crop sales make the largest contribution to household income. Oxen are used to provide traction power for the arduous land preparation activities. Land preparation, harvesting and weeding are carried out predominantly by men, with herbicides also being used for weeding. Better-off households regularly hire labour (mostly for cash rather than direct food payment) to assist especially with harvesting. Extensive use of fertiliser, reliable rainfall and relatively large land holdings all contribute the food surplus. The main hazards to crop production are rust, the wollo bush cricket (degeza), and stalk borer. A combination of pesticides and traditional pest methods are used to control infections and pest attacks. Pesticides are obtained either free or for cash from the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD), and the market. Fertilizers, seeds and herbicides are available from the cooperatives or from the market for cash. Eucalyptus trees are sold locally for house construction usually from April to June in the slack season for agriculture, and for firewood. Cattle, sheep and chickens are the most reared livestock. Cattle and sheep free-graze and are given crop residues and/or grasses whilst chicken feed partly on grain. Livestock are a significant source of income, mostly obtained from the sale of sheep. Cattle are sold more rarely, at 2-3 years of age. The peak sheep trading period is during the religious festivals in April (Fasika/Easter), September (Enkutatash/New Year), and January (Genna/Christmas and Timket/Epiphany). Typically sold livestock products are eggs and skins. Meat is consumed only on special occasions and celebrations. The ownership of livestock is an integral part of households strategy for coping with shock to livelihoods. A growing herd provides an asset base that will support the household to withstand the impact of a shock on food and income sources. Small stock are sold more readily in normal times to earn income for regular household expenses. Most sheep sales occur between the ages of 9 and 12 months. Productive females can be replaced from the market, but within-herd replacements are more reliable, particularly for breeding cows. The unusual sale of fertile female animals is a strong indicator of household economic distress. Boys and girls tend sheep whilst only boys tend cattle. The main hazards to livestock production are black leg, anthrax, sheep pox, trypanosomiasis (gendi), and pasteurellosis. Vaccinations and treatment are available from the BoARD and from the market for cash. 1 Field work for the current profile was undertaken in May The information presented refers to October 2005-September 2006 (EC Tikimt 1998 to Meskerem 1999), a relatively good year by local standards (i.e. a year of above average production and rural food security, when judged in the context of recent years). Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2011). The reference year exchange rate: 1USD=8.82ETB.

2 Markets The main crops sold are wheat, maize and teff. The peak trading period for these crops is from January to June. Wheat is the major commodity, and it is exported to Bahir Dar, Mekelle, and Addis Ababa. Maize is exported to the adjacent central highland barley and potato livelihood zone which usually faces food shortages. Teff is produced for local sale and consumption. From June to November, when local food stocks have been depleted, the better-off supply the local market with their maize and wheat stocks; poorer people are forced by pressing cash needs to sell immediately after they harvest. The main livestock sold are sheep and cattle. Sheep are sold to Debre Markos throughout the year, though demand peaks during festival seasons. Demand for oxen peaks from March to June during land preparation. A modest cattle trade, however, occurs throughout the year. Market access in the zone is good due to good roads. The Debre Markos-Injabara main road links the zone to major urban centres to facilitate a strong inflow of various products. In addition the cooperatives in every peasant association (kebele village area) enhance marketing activities in the zone. Daily paid work is vital for the very poor, and of this employment is found in local agriculture and the remaining in the local towns. There is little or no work migration outside the zone. Seasonal Calendar There are four main seasons in the zone, namely tibi from September to November (early dry season), meher harvest from December to February, bega summer from March to May, and kremt rains from June to August. Land preparation for the short cycle wheat and teff crop begins in February, in preparation for sowing in June and July. Maize is the long cycle crop and it is planted in May. The consumption year begins in November and ends in October The main harvest is from November to December. Livestock births start during the rainy season in July when pasture has been replenished. The lactation period stretches from July to October. Milk production begins to subside in November at the end of the rains and peters out by February. The peak crop sales period follows immediately after harvest in January and February. Better-off households with surplus produce stock their grain and sell between May and August during the peak food purchase season when demand and prices are higher. During the peak food purchase season, the middle and better off earn income from crop sales. Poor households rely on availability of paid work to get income for food purchases. Agriculture labour opportunities are mainly between June and July for sowing and weeding, and from November to December for harvesting. Surrounding towns provide opportunities for casual employment between February and March, and from June to August. Malaria is a recurrent threat to human health, associated with the onset and offset of rains in the zone.

3 Wealth Breakdown HH size Land area cultivated Wealth Groups Characteristics Crops cultivated Livestock Holding Other Assets Very Poor timad Wheat, maize 0-1 oxen, 0-1 sheep, 0-1 donkeys, 3-5 hens 0-50 eucalyptus trees Poor timad Wheat, maize 1-2 oxen, 2-3 cattle, eucalyptus trees, sheep, 0-1 donkeys, gesho hens Middle timad Betteroff 2 % of households timad Wheat, barley, maize, horse bean, teff Wheat, barley, maize, horse bean, teff, 3-4 oxen, 5-6 cattle, 5-8 sheep, 1 donkey, 4-5 hens 4-5 oxen, 6-10 cattle, 6-10 sheep, 1-3 donkeys, 4-6 hens 1 ha= 4 timads eucalyptus trees, 0-1 beehives, 0-30 gesho eucalytpus trees, 0-1 beehives, 0-40 gesho Wealth is primarily determined by cultivable land size and livestock ownership (plough oxen, cattle and sheep). Land is evidently the primary production asset, providing access to food and income. In addition to wheat and maize some among the middle and better off grow teff and substantial amounts of pulses, because they have sufficient land, labour, plough oxen and enough capacity to purchase inputs. The main constraints to crop production among the poor are smaller land holdings, the high price of agricultural inputs (fertilizers and seeds), lack of plough oxen and lack of labour (particularly among old or female headed households). To overcome these constraints the poorer farmers rent out some of their land on different kinds of crop share arrangements. The main constraints on the better-off are a shortage of improved seed supply, increases in the price of agricultural inputs and a shortage of land in relation to their production capacity. The wealthier increase the amount of crops they sell to cope with input price increases and rent-in land from poorer neighbours. Livestock ownership is a key characteristic of wealth and the preferred means of storing wealth in the zone. Cattle are esteemed assets owned mainly by middle and better-off households. Mature female cows are highly valued for breeding more than for their contribution of milk/butter. The rare sale of a single cow provides household with a significant amount of income. Small stock sales are important contributors of income for the poor, middle and better-off. Very poorer households with very few livestock have little to fall back on in response to an economic shock. Problems of livestock production for both the poor and better-off include a high prevalence of diseases (particularly trypanasomiasis and internal parasites), shortage of pasture, and a low calving-rate as a result of the previous two. The wealthier stock owners are able to tackle these problems through vaccination and treatment, using crop residues as extra feed, and restocking from the market. The very poor have very limited primary production assets and depend heavily on paid work, and so the number of able-bodied household members is critical. Other income generating activities include selling eucalyptus trees and local beer or spirit brewing; but beyond that there is hardly any further diversity of income sources: there is little entrepreneurial skill and for most a shortage of money for serious capital investment. Sources of Food A good year ( ) By far the main source of food in the zone is own crop production, with even the very poor on their half-hectare able to provide themselves with some 55% of their staple needs. The middle and better-off cultivate wheat, maize (partly for brewing), teff and pulses. Poorer households with their smaller land holdings are restricted to maize and wheat production. The middle and better-off are solidly food self-sufficient but purchase extra pulses as well as oil and sugar. Poor households produce upwards of threequarters of their food -a significant achievement. The very poor purchase between one-third and half of their annual food requirements, and thus depend crucially on the cash from paid work V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off gifts food aid purchase payment in kind livestock prod. crops In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.

4 Sources of Cash a good year ( ) The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source. Annual income (ETB) V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off other petty trade self-employment employment livestock sales l/stock prod. sales crop sales The largest source of income except for the very poor is the sale of wheat, supplemented by maize and teff (but teff is not sold by the poor). The middle and better-off also sell modest quantities of pulses. Crop sales contribute some 8 of the middle and better-off income, between and 75% to the poor, and one-third for the very poor. The middle and better-off can afford to hold on to their crop to sell in May when they can sell at higher prices during the hunger season. Livestock sales are an important income strategy; income increases sharply with wealth In absolute cash terms. Eggs, skin, sheep and chickens are sold by all wealth groups; the better-off also sell cattle and honey. The middle and better-off usually sell older and better-fed small stock that fetch higher prices. Employment is by far the single biggest source of cash for the very poor and significant poor. In terms of self-employment the very poor are engaged in beer brewing and sales whilst the middle and better-off sell eucalyptus trees. Expenditure Patterns a good year ( ) High crop production in the zone is partly attributable to the high expenditure on agricultural inputs such as Urea and DAP fertilizer, improved seeds, livestock restocking (not for the very poor) and hiring labour (by the middle and better-off). The proportion of this expenditure in the budget of the poorer households is quite remarkable and exceptional in Amhara. Staple food expenditure, which is relatively low in the zone, although the poorer must buy some maize and wheat. Household items, such as kerosene, utensils, milling costs, dried chillies and soap take up between 1 and 2 of expenditure across the wealth groups V.Poor Poor Middle Betteroff tax other clothes social serv. inputs w ater HH items non-staple food staple food The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of expenditure. Social services (health and education), and clothes also take an equal proportion of the expenditure of all wealth groups, averaging less than one-tenth but of course differing sharply in absolute cash terms given the wide differences in household income. Other expenditure comprises transport, community and social obligations, and festivals expenditure.

5 Hazards Crops: Main endemic pests and diseases are rust on wheat, Wollo bush cricket on teff, and stalk borer on maize. The increase in the cost of fertiliser and low supply of improved seed also threatens to undermine productivity in the zone, and may be regarded as a hazard in that sense. Livestock: The worst hazard in the zone is the cattle disease trypanosomiasis (gendi). There are also black leg, anthrax, sheep pox, trypanosomiasis (gendi), and pasteurellosis. Trypanosomiasis and black leg mainly affect cattle, and pasteurellosis affects both cattle and sheep. Poor distribution of rainfall within the season occurs once every three years, but by comparison with rain failures in many parts of the Region this is a mild hazard. Response Strategies The primary response for poor households during difficult production years or in the face of other misfortune is to intensify the search for work opportunities in the nearby towns. More household members become involved in the search for wages. Switching non-essential expenditure to food and essential items is a strategy to maintain minimum household food consumption levels, but sales of productive assets are avoided as far as possible. Another response is to borrow food and cash from middle and better off kin and neighbours. The better-off households have food stocks that they can consume in the event of a poor harvest. The sale of additional livestock also serves to maintain their standard of living. But even better-off households also minimize non-essential expenditure in favour of essentials in difficult moments. Summary Extensive use of fertiliser, reliable rainfall and generous land holdings combine to make this woina dega zone a food surplus area. Residents have not experienced food shortages in recent years. This is a zone where even the poor households produce three-quarters of their food. During the hunger season, the middle and better-off, who produce more food than their annual food requirements, supply the market with enough food for local demand as well as significant export from the zone onto the wider national market stretching as far as Tigray and Addis Ababa.. There is however a wide disparity in production and income between poorer and wealthier households, based especially on land holdings and ownership of oxen and other animals. The gulf between the poorer and wealthier households is further widened by productivity gains arising from extensive use of fertiliser by the latter. But overall this is a very productive zone in which even the very poor earn most of their income from crop sales. There is no migration outside the zone in search of work.

Livelihood Profile Oromiya Region, Ethiopia

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