Dr. Leo W.Y. Yeung (University of Toronto) & Prof. Paul K.S. Lam (City University of Hong Kong)

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1 Dr. Leo W.Y. Yeung (University of Toronto) & Prof. Paul K.S. Lam (City University of Hong Kong) This article is final in a special series looking at water quality issues in River Ganga (also known as Ganges). The or articles in this series can be accessed here. Water quality testing on Ganga. Source: Neil Palmer/IWMI Perfl uoro octa ne sulfo nate (PFO S) and perfl uoro octa noat e (PFO A) are two mos t well stud ied Global Water Forum 1

2 fluor oche mica ls, whic h are anth ropo geni c che mica ls that hav e bee n man ufac ture d for mor e than 50 year s and are Global Water Forum 2

3 wide ly used in a num ber of indu stria l and com mer cial appl icati ons, inclu ding use as surf acta nts, surf aceprot ecti ng age nts, Global Water Forum 3

4 and proc essi ng aids for prod ucti on of poly mer s. 1 Several studies have detected se chemicals in tissues of humans and wildlife (such as fish, birds, and marine mammals) globally, 2 including River Ganga in India. Current research indicates that PFOS and related compounds are persistent and bioaccumulative in various food chains. 3-5 Epidemiological findings suggest that six health outcomes (diagnosed high cholesterol, ulcerative colitis, thyroid disease, testicular cancer, kidney cancer, and pregnancy-induced hypertension) are associated with high PFOA levels. 6 Environmental concerns Due to growing concerns about increasing environmental levels and health risks associated with se compounds, 3M Company one of major fluorochemical manufacturing companies voluntarily phased out PFOS-based chemicals in North America and Europe in In 2006, eight major fluoropolymer and fluorotelomer manufacturers participated in a global PFOA stewardship programme, agreeing to phase-out emissions of PFOA and chemicals that can degrade to PFOA by In May 2009, PFOS and chemicals Global Water Forum 4

5 that can degrade to PFOS were listed in Stockholm Convention as Persistent Organic Pollutants, and parties to Convention must seek to eliminate production and use of PFOS. 9 PFASs in India Investigations of PFOS concentrations in human blood samples published in 2004 and 2006 showed lowest PFOS concentrations in residents of India and highest in residents of China, among ten countries studied. 10,11 In 2008, a pilot survey on PFOS/PFOA and related chemicals in surface water from River Ganga was conducted in India. 12 In that investigation, water samples were collected from 13 locations along a 2200-km stretch of River Ganga. PFOS was not detected in samples collected at river s source at Rishikesh, where water originates from glaciers and groundwater recharge in Himalayas (Figure 1). The levels gradually increased downstream, remaining relatively low until River Ganga s confluence with Yamuna River in Allahabad. Furr downstream, concentrations gradually decreased due to dilution effects (with discharge from Varanasi, Patna, and Rajmahal). After Rajmahal, River Ganga branches into several tributaries which ultimately discharge to ocean. Although PFOS/PFOA concentrations in River Ganga were low, river system contributed significant PFOS/PFOA fluxes to oceans, comparable to rivers with much higher concentrations of se pollutants. Global Water Forum 5

6 The Yam una Rive r is one of larg est tribu tarie s of Gan ges Rive r, 13 and is one of mos t poll uted river s in worl Figure 1. Profile of PFOS concentrations (ng/l) along Ganges River. Source: Figure modified from Yeung et al. (2009) Global Water Forum 6

7 d, espe ciall y in its stret ch arou nd New Delh i. Ther e are appr oxi mat ely 45 maj or indu strie s, inclu ding coalbase d r Global Water Forum 7

8 mal pow er plan ts, fertil izer, food proc essi ng, texti les, inse ctici de man ufac turin g, and elec tropl atin g fact orie s loca ted alon Global Water Forum 8

9 g river ; it also rece ives appr oxi mat ely 57% of New Delh i s wast ewa ter disc harg es. 14 The observed low levels of PFOS/PFOA were likely due to lack of fluoropolymer-related manufacturing plants in India at that time. However, several market and research reports indicated that India would post a faster growing market for fluorochemicals globally through and a projected growth for fluoropolymers at a compound annual growth rate of 9.5% till In developed countries such as USA, Canada, European countries, and Japan, re are several regulations managing production, import and export and uses of se chemicals. Therefore, environmental concentrations in se countries are expected to Global Water Forum 9

10 decrease. In contrast, re are currently no regulations related to se chemicals in India. As India is likely to develop its fluorochemical industry in a significant way, it is important that it develops a comprehensive policy to assess, manage and reduce potential risks associated with industry. The policy should cover areas, including but not restricted to, production, storage, transport, use, and disposal of fluorochemical products as well as ir precursors and or chemicals used in manufacturing processes. As well, country should develop its capability to measure and monitor environmental fate of se chemicals throughout country so as to be able to handle various spill and clean-up scenarios. The results of previous investigation serve as a base to understand impact of establishment of new fluorochemical manufacturing plants or expansion of existing facilities affecting environmental levels of PFOS/PFOA. To best of our knowledge, re are no follow-up investigations looking at levels of PFOS/PFOA in River Ganga. A monitoring network should be set up along River Ganga, focusing not only PFOS/PFOA, but also on replacement fluorochemicals. 17 Some or newly identified and commercially available PFASs should also be included. 3,18 Special attention should be given to waste (production waste and contaminated sludge) generated from se manufacturing plants. Without proper waste management, wider environmental contamination and human risks may occur. 19,20 For example, PFOS and or related compounds deposited at landfills might be mobilized in different pathways such as leachates, ground water pollution/migration, and atmospheric release. 19 Wastewater treatment plants using a conventional activated sludge system cannot remove PFOS and or related chemicals from influent, and that would become source of se chemicals to river. 20 References: 1. Kissa, E. Fluorinated surfactants and repellents, 2nd ed., rev. and expanded.; Surfactant science series; Marcel Dekker: New York, Global Water Forum 10

11 2. Giesy, J. P.; Kannan, K. Global distribution of perfluorooctane sulfonate in wildlife. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35 (7), Loi, E. I. H.; Yeung, L. W. Y.; Mabury, S. A.; Lam, P. K. S. Detections of commercial fluorosurfactants in Hong Kong marine environment and human blood: a pilot study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (9), Martin, J. W.; Mabury, S. A.; Solomon, K. R.; Muir, D. C. G. Bioconcentration and tissue distribution of perfluorinated acids in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. SETAC 2003, 22 (1), Sinclair, E.; Mayack, D. T.; Roblee, K.; Yamashita, N.; Kannan, K. Occurrence of perfluoroalkyl surfactants in water, fish, and birds from New York State. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2006, 50 (3), Khalil, N.; Lee, M.; Steenland, K. Epidemiological Findings. In Toxicological Effects of Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances; DeWitt, J. C., Ed.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, 2015; pp M Phase-Out Plan for POSF-Based Products. USEPA Docket ID OPPT US EPA 2010/2015 PFOA Stewardship Program POPs PFOS, its salts and PFOSF were listed in Annex B in Conference of Parties 4 of Stockholm Convention (COP-4) ( es/en-us/default.aspx). 10. Yeung, L. W. Y.; So, M. K.; Jiang, G.; Taniyasu, S.; Yamashita, N.; Song, M.; Wu, Y.; Li, J.; Giesy, J. P.; Guruge, K. S.; et al. Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in human blood samples from China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40 (3), Kannan, K.; Corsolini, S.; Falandysz, J.; Fillmann, G.; Kumar, K. S.; Loganathan, B. G.; Mohd, M. A.; Olivero, J.; Van Wouwe, N.; Yang, J. H.; et al. Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in human blood from several countries. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38 (17), Yeung, L. W. Y.; Yamashita, N.; Taniyasu, S.; Lam, P. K. S.; Sinha, R. K.; Borole, D. V.; Kannan, K. A survey of perfluorinated compounds in surface water and biota including dolphins from Ganges River and in or waterbodies in India. Chemosphere 2009, 76 (1), Global Water Forum 11

12 Dalai, T. K.; Krishnaswami, S.; Sarin, M. M. Major ion chemistry in headwaters of Yamuna river system: Chemical wearing, its temperature dependence and CO2 consumption in Himalaya. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2002, 66, Karn, S. K.; Harada, H. Surface water pollution in three urban territories of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh. Environ. Manage. 2001, 28 (4), India Fluoropolymer Market Forecast and Opportunities, November 2014 Ritter, S. K. FLUOROCHEMICALS GO SHORT: Shorter perfluoroalkyl chain lengths improve ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE of versatile stain-, grease-, and water-repelling chemicals. Chem. Eng. News 2010, 88 (5), D eon, J. C.; Mabury, S. A. Exploring Indirect Sources of Human Exposure to Perfluoroalkyl Carboxylates (PFCAs): Evaluating Uptake, Elimination, and Biotransformation of Polyfluoroalkyl Phosphate Esters (PAPs) in Rat. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 119 (3), Weber, R.; Watson, A.; Forter, M.; Oliaei, F. Review Article: Persistent organic pollutants and landfills a review of past experiences and challenges. Waste Manag. Res. J. Int. Solid Wastes Public Clean. Assoc. ISWA 2011, 29 (1), Sinclair, E.; Kannan, K. Mass loading and fate of perfluoroalkyl surfactants in wastewater treatment plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40 (5), Leo.W.Y.YEUNG is a senior research associate at Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto. His research interests are environmental chemistry with emphasis on trace analysis of emerging pollutants (e.g. perfluorinated compounds). His PhD at City University of Hong Kong examines environmental concentrations, toxicology, and development of new methods for extraction and mass balance analysis of perfluorinated compounds in environmental samples. Paul K.S. Lam is Chair Professor of Biology at City University of Hong Kong, and is currently serving as Chief-of-Staff (Vice-President). He is also Director of State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution. Prof. Lam is interested in responses of organisms to toxic chemicals and algal toxins, as well as risk assessment of se compounds. He is a Global Water Forum 12

13 member of Editorial Advisory Board of Environmental Science and Technology. He is Chairman of Advisory Council on Environment of Hong Kong SAR Government. This article is based following publication: Yeung, L. W. Y.; Yamashita, N.; Taniyasu, S.; Lam, P. K. S.; Sinha, R. K.; Borole, D. V.; Kannan, K. A survey of perfluorinated compounds in surface water and biota including dolphins from Ganges River and in or waterbodies in India. Chemosphere 2009, 76 (1), The views expressed in this article belong to individual authors and do not represent views of Global Water Forum, UNESCO Chair in Water Economics and Transboundary Water Governance, UNESCO, Australian National University, or any of institutions to which authors are associated. Please see Global Water Forum terms and conditions here. Global Water Forum 13