Fiberglass and Glass Technology

Transcription

1 Frederick T. Wallenberger Paul A. Bingham Editors Fiberglass and Glass Technology Energy-Friendly Compositions and Applications Springer

2 Contents Part I Continuous Glass Fibers 1 Commercial and Experimental Glass Fibers 3 Frederick T. Wallenberger 1.1 Overview: Glass Melt and Fiber Formation Principles of Glass Melt Formation Principles of Glass Fiber Formation Structure of Melts and Fibers Summary and Conclusions Silica Fibers, Sliver, and Fabrics (95-100% Si0 2 ) Ultrapure Silica Fibers ( % Si0 2 ) Pure Silica Sliver and Fabrics ( % Si0 2 ) Summary and Conclusions Silicate Glass Fibers (50-70% Si0 2, 1-25% AI2O3) Forming Glass Fibers from Strong Viscous Melts General-Purpose Silicate Glass Fibers Special-Purpose Silicate Glass Fibers Non-round, Bicomponent and Hollow Silicate Fibers Summary and Conclusions Aluminate Glass Fibers (<81% AI2O3, <50% Si0 2 ) Glass Fibers from Fragile Melts (25-50% A , 10-4% Si0 2 ) Glass Fibers from Inviscid Melts (55-81% AI2O3,4-0% Si0 2 ) Appendix: Single-Crystal Alumina Fibers Single-Crystal Fibers from Inviscid Melts The Future of Alumina and Aluminate Fibers 82 References 84 2 Design of Energy-Friendly Glass Fibers 91 Frederick T. Wallenberger 2.1 Principles of Designing New Compositions Compositional, Energy, and Environmental Issues.. 91 ix

3 x Contents Trend Line Design of New Fiberglass Compositions Energy-Friendly Aluminosilicate Glass Fibers New Energy-Friendly E-Glass Variants with <2%B New Energy-Friendly E-Glass Variants with 2-10% B Ill New Energy- and Environmentally Friendly ECR-Glass Variants Energy-Friendly Soda-Lime-Silica Glass Fibers New Energy-Friendly A-and C-Glass Compositions Summary, Conclusions, and Path Forward 119 References Composite Design and Engineering 125 J.H.A. van der Woude and E.L. Lawton 3.1 Introduction Continuous Fibers for Reinforcement E-Glass Fibers Fiberglass Manufacturing Fiberglass Size Composite Mechanical Properties Products Thermoset Composite Material Liquid Resin Processing Techniques Thermosetting Matrix Resins Fillers Release Agents Reinforced Thermoplastic Materials Introduction Semifinished Materials Based on Thermoplastics Composites for Wind Turbines Introduction Raw Materials Blade-Manufacturing Techniques Blade Design Methodologies 170 References Glass Fibers for Printed Circuit Boards 175 Anthony V. Longobardo 4.1 Introduction Printed Circuit Board Requirements and Their Implications for Fiberglass Fiberglass'Role in PCB Construction Electrical Aspects Structural Aspects 181

4 Contents xi 4.2 Glass Compositional Families Improvements Initially Based on E-Glass D-Glass and Its Compositional Improvements Future Needs of the PCB Market The Electronics Manufacturer's Roadmap What This Means for the Board and Yarn Makers References High-Strength Glass Fibers and Markets 197 Robert L. Hausrath and Anthony V. Longobardo 5.1 Attributes of High-Strength Glass Strength Elastic Modulus Thermal Stability Glass Compositional Families S-Glass R-Glass Other High-Strength Glasses High-Strength Glass Fibers in Perspective The Competitive Material Landscape Inherent Advantages of Continuous Glass Fibers Markets and Applications Defense - Hard Composite Armor Aerospace - Rotors and Interiors Automotive - Belts, Hoses, and Mufflers Industrial Reinforcements - Pressure Vessels Concluding Remarks 222 References 223 Part II Soda-Lime-Silica Glasses 6 Compositions of Industrial Glasses 229 Antonin Smrcek 6.1 Guidelines for Industrial Glass Composition Selection Economics Demands on the Glass Melt Meltability Workability Choice of Raw Materials Cullet Effect - Glass Melt Production Heat Glass Refining Industrial Glass Compositions Historical Development Flat Glass Container Glass Lead-Free Utility Glass 250

5 xii Contents Technical Glass Lead Crystal Colored Glasses Example Glass Compositions Perspectives Practical Examples of Container Glass Batch Charge. 262 References Design of New Energy-Friendly Compositions 267 Paul A. Bingham 7.1 Introduction Design Requirements Commercial Glass Compositions Environmental Issues Specific Energy Consumption Atmospheric Emission Limits Pollution Prevention and Control Fundamental Glass Properties Viscosity-Temperature Relationship Devitrification and Crystal Growth Conductivity and Heat Transfer Interfaces, Surfaces, and Gases Chemical Durability Density and Thermo-mechanical Properties Design of New SLS Glasses Batch Processing, Preheating, and Melting Cullet Silica, Si Soda,Na Calcia,CaO Magnesia, MgO Alumina, A Potassia, K Lithia,Li Boric Oxide, B Sulfate, SO Water, H Chlorides and Fluorides Baria, BaO Zinc Oxide, ZnO Strontia, SrO Multivalent Constituents Other Compounds Recycled Filter Dust Nitrates 329

6 Contents xiii Part III 7.6 Glass Reformulation Methodologies Worked Examples and Implementation Reformulation Benefits and Pitfalls Research Requirements and Closing Remarks References 345 Glass Melting Technology 8 Basics of Melting and Glass Formation 355 Hans-Jiirgen Hoffmann 8.1 Motivation Former Melting Criteria Analysis of the Enthalpy Functions of One-Component Systems Theoretical Preliminaries Pre-melting Range and the Contribution to the Molar Specific Heat Capacity by Electrons Melting and the Glass Transformation Effects Occurring in the Glass Transformation Range What Makes Solids and Melts Expand? Modulus of Compression of the Chemical Elements Necessary Criteria for Glass Formation Possible Extension to Multi-Component Systems Discussion 381 References Thermodynamics of Glass Melting 385 Reinhard Conradt 9.1 Approach to the Thermodynamics of Glasses and Glass Melts Description Frame for the Thermodynamic Properties of Industrial Glass-Forming Systems Heat Content of Glass Melts Chemical Potentials and Vapor Pressures of Individual Oxides Entropy and Viscosity The Role of Individual Raw Materials Sand Boron Carriers Dolomite and Limestone The Batch-to-Melt Conversion Stages of Batch Melting Heat Demand of the Batch-to-Melt Conversion Modeling of the Batch-to-Melt Conversion Reaction Path 407 References 409

7 xiv Contents 10 Glass Melt Stability 413 Helmut A. Schaeffer and Hayo Müller-Simon 10.1 Introduction Target Properties of Glass Melt and Glass Product Batch-Related Fluctuations Combustion-Related Fluctuations Process-Related Fluctuations In Situ Sensors Sensors for Monitoring Glass Melt Properties Sensors for Monitoring Species in the Combustion Space Examples of Glass Melt Stability Control Redox Control of Glass Melting with High Portions of Recycled Glass Redox Control of Amber Glass Melting Conclusions and Outlook 427 References Plasma Melting Technology and Applications 431 J. Ronald Gonterman and M.A. Weinstein 11.1 Concepts of Modular and Skull Melting The Technology of High-Intensity DC-Arc Plasmas Conductive Radiant Joule Heating Brief History of Plasma Melting of Glass Johns-Manville British Glass Institute Plasmelt Glass Technologies, LLC Japanese Consortium Project DOE Research Project Acknowledgments Experimental Setup of the Plasmelt Melting System Technical Challenges of Plasma Glass Melting Glasses Melted: Results and Broad Implications Synthetic Minerals Processing Implications Energy Efficiency vs. Throughput Future Applications for Plasma Melting Summary and Conclusions 451 References 451 Index 453