Project Management Context Outline Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle Product Life Cycles Project Stakeholders Understanding Organizational Influences Suggested Skills for a Project Manager 1
Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle Because each project is a unique undertaking, it involves a degree of uncertainty. Organizations performing projects usually divides each project into several phases. Collectively, the project phases are known as the project life cycle. All projects follow a typical project life cycle composed of four phases: concept, development, implementation, and close-out. The first two phases focus on planning and often referred to as project feasibility. The last two phases focus on delivering the actual product and is often referred to as project acquisition. Each project phase is marked by completion of one or more deliverables. A delivery is tangible, verifiable work product such as a feasibility study, a detail design, or a working prototype. A project must successfully pass through each of the project phases in order to continue to the next. The conclusion of a project phase is generally marked by review of both key deliverables and project performance to determine whether the project should be continued, redirected, or terminated. These phase-end reviews are often called phase exits or kill points Concept Phase: In the concept phase of a project, managers usually briefly describe the project by developing a very high-level or summary plan for the project. It describes the need of the project and basic underlying concepts. 2
A preliminary or rough cost estimate is developed, and an overview of the work involved is created. This work is usually defined in a work breakdown structure (WBS) an outcome of this phase. At the end of the concept phase, the project team would be able to deliver a report and make a presentation on the findings. Development Phase: In this phase, the project team creates a more detailed project plan, a more accurate cost estimate, and a more through WBS. Implementation Phase: In this phase, the project team delivers the required work and creates a definite or very accurate cost estimate. Close-Out Phase: In this phase, all of the work is completed, and there should be some sort of customer acceptance of the entire project. The project team should document their experiences on the project is a lesson-learned report. In-Class Assignment: Define a small project and develop a WBS of a simple project as group. Product Life Cycle Just as a project has a life cycle, so does a product. It is important not to confuse the project life cycle with the product life cycle. The project life cycle applies to all projects, regardless of the products being produced. On the other hand, the product life cycle models vary considerably based on the nature of the product. The methodology for the development of a building, a pharmaceutical product, and a software product are different. Systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a methodology that describes the phases and activities that are performed to develop an information system. The phases are typically named as planning analysis design implementation and support. 3
Some popular models of a systems development life cycle are: Waterfall model: It has a well-defined, linear stages of systems development and support. Spiral Model: It is developed based on the experience with various refinements of the waterfall model recognizing the fact that most software is developed using an iterative approach rather than a linear approach. Incremental Release Model: This model provides an opportunity for progressive development of an operational software, with each release or version providing added capabilities. Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model: Uses tools such as JAD (Joint Application Design) and CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering) tools to expedite the development time in various phases of the software development life cycle. 4
Prototyping Model: It is used to obtain and clarify user requirements through the development of a prototype or model of a software. Note: Refer to a text on Systems Development Life Cycle or instructor s course lectures. Project Stakeholders Project stakeholders are individuals and organizations that are actively involved in the project, or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected as a result of project execution or project completion; they may also exert influence over the project and its results. Stakeholders can be internal to the organization, external to the organization, directly involved in the project, or just affected by the project. The project management team must identify the stakeholders, determine their requirements, and then manage and influence those requirements to ensure a successful project. Key stakeholders in every project include: Project Manager: The individual responsible for managing the project. Customer: The individual or organization that will use the project s product. Performing Organization: The enterprise whose employees are most directly involved in doing the work of the project. Employees can be directly or indirectly effected by the success or failure of the project. Project Team Members: The group that is performing the work of the project. Sponsor: The individual or group within or external to the performing organization that provides the financial resources for the project. 5
In addition, there are many different stakeholders internal or external, owners and funders, sellers and contractors, team members and their families, government agencies and media outlets, individual citizens, and society at large. Managing stakeholders expectations may be difficult because stakeholders often have very different objectives that may come into conflict. Organizational Influences Projects are part of an organization larger than the project-- corporations, government agencies, health-care institutions, and others. The maturity of the organization with respect to its project management systems, culture, style, organizational structure, and project management office can also influence the project. Organizational issues are often the most difficult part of working on and managing projects. The project management team should be acutely aware of how the organization s systems affect the project. Many people believe that most projects fail for political reasons. Project managers often do not spend enough time identifying all the stakeholders involved in projects, especially the people opposed to the projects. Similarly, they often do not consider the political context of a project in the organization. It is important for project managers to develop a better understanding of people as well as organizations. Paper: Organizational influence on the success and failure of IT projects. Organizational Structure Organizational structures fall into three categories: functional, project, and matrix. Functional: A functional organization is organized hierarchically according to the functional areas of business engineering, manufacturing, sales, marketing, accounting, finance, human resources, purchasing, receiving, information technology, and so on. 6
Project: Project-based organizations are those whose operations primarily consist of projects. These organization derive their revenue from performing projects for others architectural firms, engineering firms, consultants, contractors, software development firms, and so on. Matrix: A matrix organization represents the structure that falls in the middle of the functional and project-based organization. Project managers have staff from various functional areas working on their projects. Matrix structures can be strong, weak, or balanced, depending on the amount of control exerted by the project managers. Project managers have the most authority in a pure project-based organization and the least in a pure functional organization. Project Management Skills Project management requires many different skills. Achieving high performance on information technology projects requires strong management skills such as organizational, technological, teamwork, communication, leadership, and political skills. Leading and managing: Leading and managing go hand to hand. Managing is primarily concerned with consistently producing key results expected by stakeholders. Managing involves: Establishing direction developing both a vision of the future and strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve that vision. Aligning people communicating the vision by words and deeds to all those whose cooperation may be needed to achieve the vision. Motivating and inspiring helping people energize themselves to overcome political, bureaucratic, and resource barriers to change. Leadership must be demonstrated in all levels (project leadership, technical leadership, and team leadership) Paper: Qualities of a leader in an organization. 7
Communicating: Communication involves exchange of information. It has many dimensions such as: Written and oral, listening and speaking Internal (within the project) and external (to the customer, the media, the public) Formal (reports, briefing) and informal (memos, ad hoc conversation, etc.) Vertical (up and down the organization) and horizontal (with peers and partner organizations) Thus a project manager should be concerned with communication skills such as: Choice of media when to communicate in writing, when to communicate orally, when to write an informal memo, when to write a report, etc. Writing style active versus passive voice, sentence structure, word choice, etc. Presentation technique body language, design of visual aids, etc. Meeting management techniques preparing an agenda, dealing with conflict, etc. Negotiating: Negotiating involves conferring with others to come to terms with them or reach an agreement. Negotiation occurs around many issues, at many times, and at many levels of the project. During the course of the project, the project manager is likely to negotiate for: Scope, cost, and schedule Changes to scope, cost, or schedule Contract terms and conditions Assignments Resources. Problem Solving: Problem solving involves a combination of problem definition and decision-making. Problem definition requires distinguishing between causes and symptoms. Problems may be internal or external; or it can be technical, managerial, or interpersonal. Decision-making includes analyzing the problem to identify viable solutions, and then making a choice from among them. Decision also has the time 8
element to them the right decision may not be the best decision if it is made too early or too late. Influence the Organization: Influence means the ability to get things done. It requires an understanding of both the formal and informal structures of all the organizations involved the performing organization, customer, partners, contractors, and others. Influencing the organization also requires an understanding of the mechanics or power and politics. Paper: What it takes to be a good project manager? 9