CONTENTS Preface to the 3rd Edition Acknowledgments vii ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Definition of materials degradation 1 1.2 Definition and significance of surface engineering 4 1.3 Classification of materials degradation by physical 5 mechanism 1.4 Economic and technical significance of materials degradation 7 1.5 Summary 9 PART 1: MECHANISMS OF MATERIALS 11 CHAPTER 2 MECHANICAL CAUSES OF MATERIALS 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Wear 13 2.2.1 Adhesive wear 16 2.2.2 Abrasive and erosive wear 22 2.2.3 Wear induced by mechanical fatigue of the worn 31 surface 2.2.4 Melting wear, fretting wear and diffusive wear 33 2.2.5 Analytical models of wear 42 2.2.6 Wear resistant materials 44 2.3 Fatigue, fracture and creep 47 2.3.1 Mechanisms of fatigue and creep 48 2.3.2 Fatigue and creep resistant materials 63 2.4 Summary 64 xi
xii Materials Degradation and Its Control by Surface Engineering CHAPTER 3 CHEMICAL CAUSES OF MATERIALS 67 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 Corrosion of metals in aqueous media 68 3.2.1 Electrochemistry and aqueous corrosion 69 3.2.2 Electrochemical corrosion of machinery and structures 89 3.2.3 Corrosion inhibitors 102 3.2.4 Materials factors in aqueous corrosion 111 3.3 Oxidative reactions of metals with oxygen, sulphur 116 and other halogens 3.3.1 Durability of corrosion product film and failure 125 of passivation 3.4 Softening and embrittlement of wood and polymers 134 in water and other media 3.5 Damage to cement and concrete, glass and engineering 138 ceramics 3.6 Dissolution of metals and ceramics in liquid metals, 148 alkalis and salts 3.7 Biochemical and biological modes of materials degradation 151 3.8 Corrosion resistant materials 158 3.9 Summary 160 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALS INDUCED BY 165 HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY 4.1 Introduction 165 4.2 Thermal degradation of materials 165 4.2.1 Materials degradation at very low temperatures 169 4.3 Photochemical degradation of polymers 170 4.4 High energy radiation damage of materials 171 4.5 Summary 174 CHAPTER 5 DUPLEX CAUSES OF MATERIALS 175 5.1 Introduction 175 5.2 Wear in a corrosive or chemically active environment 175 5.2.1 Corrosive and corrosive-abrasive wear 176 5.2.2 Oxidative and corrosive effects on fretting 183 5.2.3 Abrasive wear in liquid metals 183
Contents xiii 5.3 Corrosion fatigue and corrosion embrittlement (SCC) 186 5.4 Summary 189 PART 2: SURFACE ENGINEERING 191 CHAPTER 6 DISCRETE COATINGS 193 6.1 Introduction 193 6.2 Coatings of organic compounds 193 6.2.1 Utility of available organic coatings for different 197 conditions 6.2.2 Methods of depositing organic coatings 199 6.2.3 Corrosion problems of organic coatings 200 6.3 Electrochemical coatings 201 6.3.1 Electroplating of metals 201 6.3.2 Anodizing, electroless coatings, chromating 204 and phosphating 6.4 Plasma and thermal spraying, plasma-transferred arc, 207 the D gun 6.4.1 Plasma and thermal spraying 207 6.4.2 Plasma transferred arc and the D-gun 213 6.5 Vacuum-based coating methods 216 6.5.1 Vacuum deposition 217 6.5.2 Sputtering 217 6.5.3 Ion plating and ion-beam assisted deposition 222 6.5.4 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and plasma 226 enhanced CVD 6.5.5 Arc evaporation 229 6.6 Friction surfacing, weld overlays and explosive bonding 231 6.7 Advanced coating techniques 235 6.7.1 Diamond-like carbon 235 6.7.2 Electron beam assisted physical vapor deposition 237 6.7.3 Electrostatically assisted combustion chemical vapor 237 deposition 6.8 Summary 238 CHAPTER 7 INTEGRAL COATINGS AND MODIFIED 241 SURFACE LAYERS 7.1 Introduction 241 7.2 Thermally or mechanically modified surface layers 242
xiv Materials Degradation and Its Control by Surface Engineering 7.2.1 Induction hardening 244 7.2.2 Laser and electron beam surface hardening 249 7.2.3 Shot-peening 252 7.3 Thermochemical methods of coating 255 7.3.1 Galvanization and hot-dipping 256 7.3.2 Carburizing, carbonitriding, nitriding, 258 nitrocarburizing & boronizing 7.4 Advanced surface modification technologies (ASMT) 277 7.4.1 Plasma nitriding and plasma carburization 277 7.4.2 Surface alloying by laser and electron beam 281 7.4.3 Ion implantation 282 7.5 Summary 285 CHAPTER 8 CHARACTERIZATION OF SURFACE 287 COATINGS 8.1 Introduction 287 8.2 Measurement of surface roughness and coating thickness 288 8.2.1 Surface roughness 289 8.2.2 Coating thickness 294 8.3 Hardness and microhardness analysis 296 8.4 Adhesivity testing 301 8.5 Microstructural evaluation 305 8.6 Chemical analysis 310 8.6.1 Comparison of surface analysis techniques 317 8.7 Residual stress analysis 318 8.8 Special techniques for dynamic testing conditions 324 8.9 Analysis of service characteristics 326 8.9.1 Corrosion testing 327 8.9.2 Wear resistance tests 329 8.9.3 Fracture testing of coatings 331 8.10 Summary 331 PART 3: APPLICATION OF CONTROL TECHNIQUES 335 CHAPTER 9 CONTROL OF MATERIALS 337 9.1 Introduction 337 9.2 Methodology of analysing materials degradation 337 9.3 Selection of optimal surface engineering technology 339 9.4 Control of wear by surface engineering 340
Contents xv 9.4.1 Principles of coating selection for wear resistance 340 9.4.2 Selection of specific surface engineering techniques 343 for specific wear mechanisms 9.5 Control of corrosion by surface engineering 345 9.6 Control of fatigue and fracture by surface engineering 347 9.6.1 Discrete surface coatings 349 9.6.2 Integral coatings and surface modified layers 351 9.7 Summary 352 CHAPTER 10 FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL ASPECTS 355 OF MATERIALS AND ITS CONTROL 10.1 Introduction 355 10.2 Financial analysis of materials degradation control 355 10.2.1 Options analysis of financial gain 356 10.2.2 Modeling financial benefit in terms of reduced 361 depreciation 10.2.3 Implications of behavioral finance 362 10.2.4 Accounting accuracy and difficulties in reliable 363 measurement of savings in operating costs 10.3 Practical aspects of implementing new forms of surface 363 engineering 10.4 Evaluation of control of materials degradation in terms 364 of value to the company or institution 10.5 Summary 365 APPENDIX 1 367 APPENDIX 2 379 APPENDIX 3 383 INDEX 401