Assessment of existing and potential feed resources for livestock production in the Northern Ghana

Transcription

1 Assessment of existing and potential feed resources for livestock production in the Northern Ghana Tunde A. Amole, Augustine A. Ayantunde and Alan J. Duncan June

2 Summary...3 Introduction...4 Materials and methods...5 Description of study site...5 Methodologies...5 Implementation of the survey...6 Data analysis...6 Results and discussion...6 Overview of the farming system...6 Household characteristics, land holding and land use pattern...10 Major sources of household income...11 Livestock assets, roles and management...13 Major livestock feed resources and seasonal availability...15 Constraints to livestock production and proposed solutions...21 Conclusion and recommendations...24 References

3 Summary A study on evaluation of existing and potential feed resources was conducted in Northern and Upper East region of Ghana. The assessment was carried using Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) which comprises of a focus group discussions and individual interviews. Two villages, Duko in Savelugu district of the Northern region and Zanlerigu in Nabdam district of the Upper East region were selected for the study. The study sites were characterized by mixed crop-livestock production systems. The major crops grown in both areas were maize, rice, millet, sorghum, groundnut, soybean yam and cowpea which are mainly grown during the raining season. 80% of the farmers practice mixed cropping where cereals and legumes are planted in the same field while others do mono-cropping on small plots. Four major livelihood activities contribute to household s income generation in the sites: crop farming, livestock rearing and businesses, labour and remittances. The main contributor to household income is crop farming and labour work in Duko and Zanlerigu respectively. The results indicated that sheep are the dominant livestock species in the Duko, while draught cattle are dominant in Zanlerigu. Grazing which include the natural pasture and crop residues left on the field, contributed the largest proportion to livestock diets in terms of dry matter (DM), metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) in the Duko while collected crop residues contributed most to the livestock diets in Zanlerigu. Disease was described by the farmers as the first constrain in Duko and shortage of water according to the farmers was identified as a major problem facing livestock in Zanlerigu. In both sites problem of livestock housing ranked second in order in importance. To mitigate these constraints farmers suggested an integrated approach to improve livestock production through: Training on collection roof rain water for dry periods using small concrete reservoirs around homestead could provide water to household use and reduce pressure on the wells thereby making more water available for livestock. Irrigated fodder production using high yielding forages and planting of fodder shrubs (Cajanus cajan) as edge rows in irrigated crop land. Intervention must also include proper animal healthcare. 3

4 1 Introduction Livestock production is an important feature of Ghanaian agriculture and constitutes a major national resource. Livestock contribute 7-9% of the national agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) and provides 30% of domestic meat supply. It is an important source of food, draft power, manure for soil nutrients and income generation (Ansah and Nagbila 2011). Livestock, such as cattle, goats and chickens are commonly integrated into Ghana s farming systems a practice known as mixed crop-livestock production. Ghana s livestock production is predominantly found in the northern regions where it s also serve as the household s savings bank or insurance in difficult times (Oppong-Anane 2006). However, the development of the livestock industry to optimal level in Ghana continues to face several setbacks particularly in the northern areas. Among these impediments are irregular availability of feed and water and occasional shortage of basic but important drugs and inadequate extension and veterinary personnel. Of these, animal nutrition (feed) particularly during the dry season and animal health (medication) has been identified as major factors that cripple the traditional and modern livestock production in Ghana (Koney 1992). Oppong-Anane (2013) reported feed shortages in terms of quantity and quality during the dry season as a major challenge. The rainfall pattern in Northern Ghana is unimodal. These areas are characterized by a dry season of about 4-5 months duration every year when there is a drastic decline in both quality and quantity of grasses (Otchere et al 2002). Live weight gain is usually higher during the rainy season because during the dry season, animals only have straw from grass, which are poor in quality and may result in mineral deficiency and severe debilitation (Ansah and Nagbila 2011). Consequently, livestock productivity in this region remains marginally low. In developing of good and sustainable technological interventions to address the problem of feed shortage, it is necessary to assess the existing and potential feed resources, use, costs and gaps with respect to ruminant production to meet the requirements of livestock. These evaluations will guide the development of effective strategies to improve nutrition and livestock productivity based on locally available feed resources. 4

5 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Description of study site The study was conducted in Northern and Upper East Regions of Ghana. Northern Ghana consisting of the Guinea and Sudan savannas is made up of three administrative regions (Northern, Upper East, and Upper West). In general, northern Ghana experiences two distinct seasons, wet and dry. The rains begin in May and end in October. The rest of the period, November/December through to March, is characterized by very dry and hot weather. The vegetation consists of short, deciduous, widely spaced, fire-resistant trees, which do not form any close canopy and the general ground floral cover is solely grass of varying heights. More often, the soil surfaces are bare in the dry season after bush fire. In northern Ghana, farming, which is mainly rainfed, is the prime occupation of the population. Crops mainly cultivated include maize, yam, cassava, rice, sorghum, millet, cowpea, groundnut, soybean, and tomatoes. Most farmers regard food crop cultivation as their major occupation for subsistence. Livestock is kept as a minor occupation for diverse purposes. Animals are raised under the extensive, semi-intensive and/or intensive system. In the Northern regions of Ghana, livestock serve as buffer against food shortages, provide cash security and play an important role in their socio-cultural activities (Awuni 2003). Northern Ghana is said to carry about 75% and 45% of the national herds of cattle and small ruminants respectively (Koney 1992). The specific communities where the study was conducted were two, namely Duko in Savelugu district in Northern region and Zanlerigu in Nabdam district in Upper East region. Duko lies within N and W and 162 meters above sea level (masl) and about 10 km to Tamale. Zanlerigu is located at N and W and 206 masl, about 15 km to Bolgatanga. 2.2 Methodologies Evaluation of existing and potential feed resources was conducted using Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) developed by ILRI (Duncan et al., 2012). FEAST is a systematic method to assess local feed resource availability and use. It helps in the design of intervention strategies aiming to optimize feed utilization and animal production. It comprises Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 5

6 using semi-structured questionnaire in a focus group discussion and individual interviews to collect both qualitative and quantity data. 2.3 Implementation of the survey Twenty six farmers which comprised 17 men and 8 women in Duko and 56 farmers (14 men and 42 women) in Zanlerigu were selected as representatives of the community to participate in group discussions using the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approach to provide an overview of the farming systems and to identify constraints and opportunities for improving livestock production in the 2 study communities. For the individual interview, twelve farmers were then selected representing 3 wealth categories within the community namely average, above average and below average in terms of land area owned and number of livestock possessed by the household. Four farmers from each wealth category were individually interviewed to collect quantitative and qualitative data on feed resources in the community. Samples of available feed resources offered to animal were collected and analyzed for nitrogen and ash content, fibre components (NDF, ADF and ADL) and in vitro organic matter digestibility. 2.4 Data analysis The quantitative data collected from individual key informant farmers were entered into the FEAST excel template ( and analyzed. Results are presented in tables and figures in the report. 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Overview of the farming system From the results of the survey, mixed crop-livestock farming systems is commonly practice among the small holder farmers in both communities where farmers grow crops and rear livestock which is dominated by crop farming. The major crops grown in both areas were maize, rice, millet, sorghum, groundnut, soybean yam and cowpea which were mainly grown during the raining season (Table 1). According to the farmers, there is one cropping season in both Duko and Zanlerigu with 6

7 major farming operations starting from June and end in October. Other crops such as tomatoes, onions, okra and other vegetables are planted in during off season both for consumption and income. Table1. Names of the cropping seasons that occur in Duko and Zanlerigu Name of season Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Long Rain Off-season Crop production in Duko and Zanlerigu are rain-fed. Crops grown in the area are cereals (maize, millet sorghum and rice), legumes (groundnut, cowpea, soy bean pigeon pea, Bambara groundnut) and tubers (yam and cassava). In Duko, maize the dominant crop followed by rice, however, Sorghum was more dominant in Zanlerigu than maize (Figure 1 and 2). Wood (2013) reported that maize and rice production are common in most part of Ghana while sorghum and millet are grown primarily in the transition and northern savannah zones. 80% of the farmers practice mixed cropping where cereals and legumes are planted in the same field while others do mono-cropping on small plots. 60% of the farmers in Duko collect, store and feed the residue of legumes crop to the animals. In Zanlerigu, all residues from cereals and other legumes are widely collected and stored as feed for livestock. 7

8 Average area (ha) per hh of dominant arable crops Average area per household (hectares Maize (Zea mays) Rice (Oryza sativa) Soybean (Glycine max) Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) Figure1: Average area (ha) per household of dominant arable crops in Duko Average area (ha) per hh of dominant arable crops 0.80 Average area per household (hectares Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum) Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Maize (Zea mays) Soybean (Glycine max) Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) Figure 2: Average area (ha) per household of dominant arable crops in Zanlerigu Both household and hired labours for agricultural activities are available all year round in Duko and Zanlerigu. Household members serve as labour force for certain farm activity such as cultivation and fertilizer application. Hired labour is required during planting, weeding and 8

9 sometimes harvesting in both communities. According to farmers, labour is mostly required above other operation during weeding. The cost of labour varies according to either size of the farmland or nature of work. However, GHC 5:00 is paid per day for hired labour with provision of food after the operation. Based on acres, particularly for weeding operation, labour wage ranges between GHC 30:00 to GHC 40:00 depending on the bargaining level of both parties. Availability of irrigation facility is a great constraint to crop production in the study sites from farmers response. Only 20% of the farmers in Duko practice irrigation due to erratic rainfall pattern and reduction in the level of the water tables in the lowlands in the last 2 years as a result of low rainfall. The farmers reported that the since the old dam is not functioning, irrigation farming is gradually eroded in the community. In Zanlerigu, 30% of the farmers engaged in irrigation farming as a result of increasing population and reducing water level. At both sites, available irrigation is done by using bucket and rope to draw water from the shallow wells. Access to credit was described by the farmers as another constraint to agricultural production in the study areas. Although there are credit facilities in Duko provided both by the government and private organizations, the bottleneck which include delay in disbursement and high interest rate limit the farmers from accessing the facilities. According to the respondents, there is no credit facility available for the farmers in Zanlerigu for both crop and animal production. Most farmers sell their farm produce or animals to start another cropping or breeding stock of animals in the absence of the credit. Inputs such as improved seeds and tractor services are not readily available according to the respondents. Other farm inputs like fertilizer do not come at the time it is most needed resulting into delay in timely application and consequently poor production. Distance to the point of access to these inputs was mentioned as a major problem facing farmer in Zanlerigu. According to the farmers interviewed, an average of 60% of the people in every household migrated from Duko to the cities and towns. 40% of these are young and middle aged population in pursuit of education while others are out for better job opportunities. 30% of the population migrates in Zanlerigu, which are mostly student. In general, each sites experience season migration of people in search for income particular during off-season 9

10 3.2 Household characteristics, land holding and land use pattern Duko is made up households with an average of 11 individuals in each household. The average land holding in the study sites was between 5 to 7 acres with land sizes differ according to wealth categories (Figure 3). The results indicated that the majority of the farming households are considered as medium scale farmers with land sizes ranging from 5 to 14 acres. Percentage of small and large scale farmers are 30% each with no landless farmers. In Zanlerigu, an average of 13 people lives in one household. 50% and 30% of the farmers are categorized as small and medium scale farmer respectively (Figure 4). 20% of the farmers cultivate above the 10 acres average farm size in both sites. In Zanlerigu, land fragmentation as a result of increasing population has led to the decrease in farm land and consequently continuous cropping and no fallowing period. In result indicated that the area of land cultivated in Zanlerigu is larger than that of Duko. Karbo and Agyare (2002) also reported that farm land within the smallholder farmer are relative larger in Upper East. Duko is 10 km to Tamale, a major administrative city in Northern Ghana. Reduction in available land for cropping activities in Duko could be as a result of population growth and industrialization in Tamale. Ogungbile et al., (1998) reported that land available for farming in villages near major cities are reducing, resulting in the low average farm size. % of households that fall into the category Group Information Landless Small farmer Medium farmer Large farmer 0 Up to 5 5 to 14 More than 15 Range of land size in hectar Figure3. Average land area per household in Duko 10

11 Group Information % of households that fall into the category Landless Large farmer Small farmer Medium farmer 0 More than 10 Up to 5 5 to 10 Range of land size in hectar Figure4. Average land area per household in Zanlerigu 3.3 Major sources of household income As presented in Figure 5, four major livelihood activities that contribute to household s income generation in Duko are crop farming, livestock rearing and businesses, labour and remittances. The main contributor to household income is crop farming, followed by businesses. From the results, major source of household income in Zanlerigu is from labour work. It was noted that livestock production is not a major source of income to the household at both study sites. They are rather kept as security against crop failure and instance source of income for emergencies. Farmer remarked that inadequate feed especially during the dry season does not encourage livestock production. The farmers responses showed that non-farm businesses were also important sources of income in both Duko and Zanlerigu. The report of IFAD (2002) stated that the direct agricultural income of the poor is not enough to sustain their livelihoods, either because of landlessness or because the land they own or lease is insufficient. Furthermore, wage employment in agriculture is highly seasonal, therefore the poor farmer value non-farm sources as means of earning additional income. 11

12 Contribution of livelihood activities to household income (as a percentage) Contribution of livelihood activities to household income (as a percentage) Agriculture Business Remmitance Livestock Labour Business Agriculture 18 Labour Livestock Figure 5: Contribution of livelihood activities to household income in Duko and Zanlerigu 12

13 3.4 Livestock assets, roles and management Livestock species in the area included cattle (dairy and draught), sheep, goat, pig, poultry and donkey. There were no improved breed of cattle or other animals in both Duko and Zanlerigu. In terms of total livestock unit (TLU), the results of our study indicated that sheep are the dominant livestock species in the Duko (Figure 6). Every households owned sheep with the average number of seven per household. They are mostly used as source of cash, manure and meat. An average of five goats is reared in every household. From farmers response, approximately 10% of the households keep draught cattle with an average number of two per household in Duko. Generally, cattle are kept for the purpose of draught, manure and cash income. According to farmers, draught cattle are the most important animals because of their use for cultivating cropland cultivation, and manure purpose but due to seasonal feed scarcity, only few farmers could keep limited numbers. In Zanlerigu, 30% of the household rear dairy cattle. Not purposely for milking but as assert and for draught power. From the survey, every household in Zanlerigu reared at least 5 and 8 sheep and goats respectively, primarily for income, manure, for consumption during festivals and funerals. Sheep and goats are a frequent source of cash income for farm families, although the average number of flock is small about 10 heads of sheep and goats (Asafu-Adjei and Dantankwa, 2003). The smaller size of small ruminants also makes them more suitable for home consumption among poor household, thereby helping to improve the nutrition and animal protein requirement and food security situation of rural household (Oluwatayo and Oluwatayo 2012). Local chickens are reared in every household while 50% of the household in Zanlerigu reared at least 3 donkeys in for transportation of goods, crop harvests, people and fetching of water. 13

14 1.20 Average livestock holdings per household - dominant species (TLU) Sheep Goats Poultry - village conditions Figure 6: Average livestock holdings per household dominant species (TLU) in Duko 2.50 Average livestock holdings per household - dominant species (TLU) Local Dairy Cattle Donkeys Sheep Goats Pigs Figure 7: Average livestock holdings per household dominant species (TLU) in Zanlerigu From the respondents, livestock management in terms of housing and feeding defers in both study sites. In Duko, mud houses with straw roofing are provided for all classes of animal throughout the year where animals sleep at night. During the dry season, only draught animals are provided with feed (legume crop residues) in the morning before releasing them for grazing while others are fed with salted-cassava peel when available before grazing. In Zanlerigu, animal are tethered during the cropping season on free grazing areas where no cropping activities take place. There are no 14

15 specific housing built for livestock in Zanlerigu. The tethered points are changed regularly as the biomass depleted. During the dry season, animals are release to graze around with no supplements. The primary feeding practice in the study areas was open grazing. Veterinary services were available to the farmers in both sites. The veterinary services are provided by both government and private organization. Treatment cost depends on animal species and ailment. Cost ranges from GHC 1.00 to GHC 3.00for deworming sheep and goat. Treatment of particular ailment in cattle could cost GHC Farmers however, remarked that after the treatments, they still recorded 20% mortality. Artificial Insemination (AI) services were not available in the study sites. The practice is not common in the area according to the respondents. Uncontrolled mating with existing local bulls is the common practice in both study communities. Farmers noted that they have heard about AI being practiced in government or research institutes farms are willing to adopt AI if they can be trained and have access to it. 3.5 Major livestock feed resources and seasonal availability The annual feed availability correlates positively with rainfall in all places in northern Ghana and increases from June to October (Figures 8 and 9). Feed availability continues till December and then decline as the der season prolong. This indicates that the rainfall is a major determinant of plants biomass production and the type of feed resource that will be available. Naturally occurring forages and greens are mostly available during the raining season. During this time, animals are restricted to free grazing areas where cropping activities are not taking place to prevent them from destroying the crops. However, its availability reduces from November to June which is the period of dry season. From September to December, both crop residues and few naturally occurring greens become more accessible to ruminant after crops are harvested and animals allowed to graze freely without restrictions. Legume crop residues are very important feed resource throughout the year in Duko (Figure 8). They are collected before the cereals are harvest during cropping season when animals are mostly under confinement. According to farmers, greater percentages of the cereal residues were left on the field. These are also grazed along with naturally occurring forages harvest. 15

16 According to Singh and Tarawali (1997), the crop residues of cereals may be left in the field as grazing material for livestock and/or as mulch, or transported to the homestead for stall feeding or for use as fencing, building, or roofing materials or as fuel. The legumes, on the other hand, are harvested and conserved either for dry-season feeding to the farmers, animals or for sale to other farmers during the critical period of feed scarcity in the mid-to-late dry season At both study sites, there are no fattening animals; this may contribute to the less use of commercially formulated ration throughout the year Available Feed Resources 6 5 Availablity Concentrates Crop residues Grazing Green forage Legume residues Others Rainfall Pattern Figure 8: Available feed resources in Duko 16

17 Availablity Available Feed Resources Concentrates Crop residues Grazing Green forage Legume residues Others Rainfall Pattern Figure 9: Available feed resources in Zanlerigu The type, quantity and prices of purchased feed resources at the time of the study as described by the farmers were presented in Table 2. 60% farmers interviewed in Duko purchased supplementary feeds in the last 12 month. The available purchased feeds as reported by the farmers were maize bran, cassava peels and pigeon pea haulms. 50 % of the farmers purchased cassava peels which may be due to the lower price compared with others feed resources. Out of all the respondents in Duko, 8 % provide supplementary feed; rice bran, while the rest depend solely on the crop residues from the own farm land or as gifts from other farmers which have more residues and lesser number of livestock. The purchase of feed for supplementary feeding was not a common practice in the study areas. This may be due to the number of animals they reared since livestock production is not a major source of income. 17

18 Table 2: Quantity, prices and frequency of purchased feed in Duko and Zanlerigu over the past 12 months Purchased feed Number of farmers Prices * (GHC/kg) Quantity purchased (kg) Number of farmers Prices * (FCFA/kg) Quantity purchased (kg) Duko Zanlerigu Cassava peel Pigeon pea haulms Maize - bran Rice bran Total (kg) * Prices as at the time of the survey. The contributions of feed resources to total livestock diet based on their quality are presented in the figures 10 and 11 below. Grazing which includes the natural pasture and crop residues left on the field contributed the largest proportion to livestock diets in terms of dry matter (DM), metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) in the Duko followed by the purchased feed (Figure 10). From the interview, farmers confirmed that only legume crop residues are collected while large quantity of cereal residues are left on the farm for animals to graze. The feeding values of leguminous crop are very high owing to higher protein content (Carangal and Calub 1987), but legumes are not largely cultivated in the area. Moreover, its quality become very low especially during the dry periods due to poor storage practices as residues are stockpiled on rafters outside where they are subjected to unfavorable weather and consequently, the quality diminishes. In other to minimize the reduction in nutritive value, especially of the scarce good quality residues conditions, improving residue collection and conservation techniques will be the first approach (Savadogo et al. 1999). On the contrary, contribution of collected crop residues to the diets was higher in Zanlerigu (Figure 11). Crop residue contributed 39% DM, 38% ME and 39% CP to the total livestock diet. 18

19 The significant contribution of grazing to the total diet in the study sites is an indication of the feeding system practice in both sites. Animals are release to graze for major part of the year from November to May. 19

20 Crop residues 1% DM content of total diet ME content of total diet CP content of total diet Purchased 29% Naturally occurring and collected 27% Grazing 43% Purchased 38% Naturally occurring and collected 25% Grazing 37% Purchased 58% Grazing 23% Naturally occurring and collected 19% Figure 10: Contribution of various feedstuffs to the DM, ME and CP contents of total diet Duko Naturally occurring and collected 14% DM content of total diet Crop residues 39% Naturally occurring and collected 15% ME content of total diet Crop residues 38% CP content of total diet Naturally occurring and collected 17% Crop residues 38% Grazing 47% Grazing 47% Grazing 45% Figure 11: Contribution of various feedstuffs to the DM, ME and CP contents of total diet Zanlerigu 20

21 3.7 Constraints to livestock production and proposed solutions The livestock production constraints were identified in order of importance and farmers suggested solutions (Table 3). Disease was described by the farmers as the first constrain in Duko. Inadequate quantity and quality feed throughout the year ranked third, next to shortage of housing. Table 3: Major identified problems for livestock production in Doku Problems in order of importance Problems identified Proposed solution by the farmers 1 Disease Farmers requested for proper training on management of animal health which includes early warning signs of diseases. They also requested for government aids for subsidy on the cost of veterinary service and provision of basic veterinary drugs. 2 Poor housing provision Provision of concrete and ventilated and protective housing for the animals particularly goats which record high mortality during the wet season. This will also facilitate the collection and utilization of animal dungs as manure 3 Shortage of feed in quantity and quality Improve conservation and utilization of crop residues. Dual-purpose crop will increase the quantity of crop residues and early harvesting and proper storage will reduce loss of quality. 4 Poor performance of their local breeds Introduction of improved breed for cross breeding programme that can improve the genetic capacity of the local breed. 5 Market Standardization of prices based on live-weight of the animal through a bye-law or farmers organization to checkmate the problems of middleman 21

22 The livestock production constraints in Zanlerigu were identified in order of importance and farmers suggested solutions. Shortage of water according to the farmers was identified as a major problem facing livestock. Similar to the ranking in Duko, poor housing facilities was ranked second (Table 4). Table 4: Major identified problems for livestock production in Zanlerigu importance Problems in order of Problems identified Proposed solution by the farmers 1 Shortage of water in grazing areas and in the dry season for animals Farmers depend on the available shallow wells for off-season farming. More shallow wells are required to reduce competition for water both for livestock and irrigation. 2 Poor housing provision Provision of a model well-ventilated house with good concrete floors housing by the government or NGOs. Training on better and cheaper materials for livestock housing construction. 3 Disease 4 Shortage of feed in quantity and quality Timely livestock vaccination. Improve treatment of all sick animals. They also requested for government aids for subsidy on the cost of veterinary service and provision of basic veterinary drugs. Intensify the collection and storage of crops residue for example groundnut tops for dry season feeding and Planting of more browse trees. Irrigated fodder will be a better option if it is profitable According to the report of Asafu-Adjei and Dantankwa (2003), access to water is an acute problem, especially in the dry season and in the northern parts of Ghana. Extensive trekking of animals in search of water affects their weight. Although around dams and dugouts have been constructed in Northern Ghana for use by both humans and animals, most of them are either silted or overgrown with weeds, partly due to lack of maintenance and partly due to neglect. 22

23 The followings are potential interventions for both Duko and Zanlerigu derived from farmers proposed solutions and existing opportunities 1. Extraction of ground water with the assistance of government and non-governmental organizations will provide more water resources in the study sites. Training on better management of the existing water resources particularly irrigation water could reduce wastage. Collection roof rain water for dry periods using small concrete reservoirs around homestead could provide water to household use and reduce pressure on the wells thereby making more water available for livestock. 2. In Zanlerigu, farmers depend largely on the crop residues generated from their personal farms which are limited in quantity to feed the number of animals. Dual purpose variety of sorghum could be introduced to the farmers to increase the quantity of crop residues without limiting the yield. Farmers in Duko collect few crop residues and used as animal feeds throughout the season with poor storage strategies and facilities. Farmers need to be trained on how to conserve crop residues in a rain proof, well-ventilated barn to retain the quality of the crop residues throughout the period of storage. 3. Training on ration formulation based on the locally available feed resources, fodder production, feed conservation and processing would be instrumental to enhance knowledge base and attitude/behaviour change of the farmers and livestock extension workers. 4. Irrigated fodder production using high yielding forages and planting of fodder shrubs (Cajanus cajan) as edge rows in irrigated crop land will be a better option. 5. General health management and diseases prevention are the most important factors that affect ruminant production in the tropical environments. Losses because of ill health and diseases have not been quantified in the economic terms. Therefore, intervention must include proper animal healthcare. 23

24 Conclusion and recommendations The farming system in both Duko and Zanlerigu is characterised by mixed crop-livestock production system with cropping as major activity and contributes significantly to household s income generation Majority of the farmers are smallholder farmer cultivating between 5 to 10 acres. Maize was the dominant crop in Doku which is in a wetter zone than Zanlerigu where sorghum was dominant. Sheep are the most important livestock in Duko and are predominantly local breed. Cattle was more dominant than sheep and goat in Zanlerigu located up north of Duko. Livestock production in these areas depends mostly on grazing of natural pastures. Crop residues, though available, had less contribution to the livestock diet in terms of DM, ME and CP, because most of which are left on the field to be grazed by animals and as a result of poor storage facilities. Although inadequate quantity and quality feed throughout the year was a problem facing livestock production in both Duko and Zanlerigu, farmers viewed mortality as a result of disease and shortage of water in the dry season for animals is the main constraint to livestock production in the areas. It is important to address the improvement of utilization of crop residues in both study sites by encourage harvesting of crop residues and training on its best methods of conservation and utilization. Irrigated fodder production should be demonstrated to access its profitability in terms of economic value and animal productivity. Intervention must also include proper animal healthcare 24

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