Climate Change and Forestry

Transcription

1 Climate Change and Forestry Report to the Standing Forestry Committee by the Standing Forestry Committee Ad Hoc Working Group III on Climate Change and Forestry November 2010

2 STANDING FORESTRY COMMITTEE AD HOC WORKING GROUP ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND FORESTRY Final report Table of content Executive summary 1 1. Introduction 7 2. Scope of work 9 3. Adaptation measures in forestry 4. The role of forests in helping society adapt to climate change 5. Measures suitable for climate change mitigation 5.1 Technical forestry measures Harvested wood products National and regional policies and measures for mitigation and of existing adaptation strategies in the Member States 7. Monitoring and assessment of carbon sequestration in forests Identification of needs for further research Recommendations 43 Annex A - Abbreviations - Working Group members and meetings list - Working Group terms of reference Annex B - Rapporteurs texts - Climate change adaption measures in forestry (Zuzana Jankovska, CZ) - Mitigation measures in forestry (Joachim Krug, DE) - The role of harvested wood products (Filip de Jaeger, CEIBOIS) - Policies and measures for climate change mitigation and adaptation in the forestry sector (Pat Snowdon, UK) - Monitoring and assessment of carbon stocks in forests (Enrique Valero, Copa-Cogeca) - Identification of research needs (Gert-Jan Nabuurs, EFI)

3 Executive summary Forest ecosystems play an important role in the global biochemical cycles. Forests act both as sources and sinks of greenhouse gases (GHG), through which they have significant influence on the climate on earth. In Europe the management and utilisation of forest ecosystems have impact on the GHG budget through changes in the carbon stocks of forests and soils, as well as through the delivery of biomass for substitution to fossil fuels and raw materials, and high energy consumption industrial products. Forests have also many other environmental contributions: water from rainfall is absorbed by forests, slowly filtered and regularly released. Forests protect biodiversity, prevent from landslides, protect landscape values, soil fertility and downstream agricultural land. Air is being moisturized, filtered and pollutants removed within forests. Local forest micro climates produce shade, coolness, shelter and moisture. Erosion caused by wind, water and desertification can be prevented by forests and other wooded land (such as hedges). Sustainable forest management guarantees forest multi-functionality. This approach contributes perfectly to the objectives of the Europe 2020 strategy, which is to generate more growth using fewer resources and to reach a low carbon economy in the future by sustainable management of natural resources. Helping society to mitigate and adapt to climate change sustainable forest management contributes to smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. Nonetheless, climate change will affect the forest and the sustainable forest management in Europe. The climate induced impacts on environmental and socio-economic functions of forests (2 million jobs in the forest sector, 8 % of the total added value from manufacturing in Europe) can be large. The estimated 16 million forest owners in Europe have to deal with this development. Framework conditions have to enable forest owners to manage the adaptation of their forests. Forests and their management are particularly sensitive to climate change because the long lifespan of trees does not allow a rapid adaptation to environmental changes. Effective adaptation requires a better understanding of regional and local climate change impacts. It needs to be recognised that the situation of forests is very heterogeneous within Europe and different from many other parts of the world regarding the growing forest area, sustainable timber harvest at EU-level and the multi-functionality of forests. Maintaining the management of forests in Europe in a sustainable way, while adapting to and mitigating climate change is a big challenge. Crisis management in forestry will gain in importance in the near future. In February 2009, the Standing Forest Committee adopted a mandate for an Ad Hoc Working Group on Climate Change and Forestry. This group was aimed at identifying technical forestry measures in adaptation and mitigation for Europe, as well as making recommendations on how to achieve a better uptake of such practices by appropriate policies in Europe. Six main topics were addressed by this group: Impact of climate change on forests and adaptation of forests to climate change; Climate change mitigation: How can forests contribute to mitigation, in particular via substitution of materials and energy and via enhancing the sink potential of forests; Review of existing national and regional policies and measures for mitigation and of existing adaptation strategies in Member States; Monitoring and assessment of carbon stocks in forests; The role of forests in helping society adapt to climate change; Review of ongoing research projects and identification of needs form further research. 1

4 The working group selected volunteer rapporteurs to elaborate discussion texts on each of these topics, which were discussed, modified by the working group over six meetings (from March 2009 to September 2010). For the review of existing national and regional policies, a questionnaire was elaborated and distributed to Member States' competent authorities via the Standing Forestry Committee. The working group report summarizes the key findings. More detailed information on individual topics can be found in the full rapporteurs' texts provided in the annex. Main results and recommendations Climate change impact on forests and adaptation European forests are exposed to high risks resulting from climate change induced dangers (changes in temperature and precipitation, changes in risk, probability and vulnerability to pest occurrence, fires, storms, etc.). Adaptation measures are required in the medium to long term in order to maintain ecologically and economically viable forests. Suitable adaptation measures for Europe's forests already exist. Due to the heterogeneous situation of forests within Europe particular adaption measures need to be considered according to the specific regional and local conditions. Here it is important to distinguish the different regional and in future varying developments of vulnerability (e.g. the enhancement of growth due to warming and atmospheric CO 2 -increase influences dormancy with higher vulnerability to frost damages, wetter winters change soil conditions and stand stability). Nevertheless, some general adaptation measures can be defined as a toolbox from which appropriate means can be selected for each region. Adaptation measures target the following sectors: forest regeneration, tending and thinning of stands, harvesting, forest management planning, sylviculture and forest protection, infrastructure and transport, nurseries and tree breeding, risk management and forest policy. The main barriers for the uptake of recommendations on adaptation measures are: - Uncertainty of climate change scenarios especially on regional and local level - Lack of a proactive adaption policy in most EU countries - Gaps in scientific knowledge. Especially vulnerability studies and studies on local impact are missing. - Shortage of financial resources and experienced staff - Insufficient level of awareness EU-member States have to do more to raise the awareness of problems induced by climate change but also have to point out the chances forests and forestry bear in this context. The reaction of stakeholders and practitioners including forest owners will depend on dynamic information, education, professional training and capacity building policies. A variety of forest adaptation measures listed in this report (regarding forest regeneration, tending and thinning, harvesting, forest management planning, infrastructure and transport, nurseries and tree breeding) is applicable, which need to be adapted to the heterogeneous forestry conditions at local level. It is urgent to implement them in national and regional policies which require a more proactive approach of relevant decision makers in the EU-Member states. Forestry measures to mitigate and adapt to climate change have to be assessed in coherence with other environmental policy objectives relating to forests in Europe. This requires an integrated approach in which measures with the highest potential to 2

5 contribute to all environmental objectives have to be favoured. Widespread implementation of the measures will require additional financial support (e.g. through rural development). The Mediterranean area is assessed to be especially vulnerable regarding negative climate change impacts. Mediterranean forests will have to maintain environmental, social and carbon-storage functions while facing heavy fire and stand decay risks, often without the economic contribution of wood sales due to missing markets. These aspects need a special attention in discussion about economic models and funding. The uncertainty of climate scenarios has to be taken into account, thus not a sole solution regarding adaption measures exists and it is better to leave several options coexist. Also, better forecasts of local impacts of climate change are necessary to reduce the uncertainty Forests helping society adapt to climate change Forests help the society adapt to climate change. While climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of natural hazards, forests offer protection against their impacts. They prevent landslide, mudflow, rockslide and avalanches, reduce the risk of flooding and have positive effects on water regimes and on water supply. Forests preserve biodiversity, landscape and soil fertility (erosion, corrosion), not only within forests but also to the benefit of downstream agriculture. The local micro-climate is positively influenced (especially temperatures in urban areas). The maintenance and the adaptation of forests will help preserve genetic variety and improve the resilience of habitats. Forests offer employment with "green jobs", incomes, raw materials for industry and renewable energy, supporting a "low carbon economy". Many forest functions and services are public goods, which are not reflected in markets and market prices. Societies can make use of forests to reduce impacts of natural hazards, erosions and changes in microclimate by land use planning. Forestry measures have to be adjusted to the specific local situation and different forest functions and have to take into account the regionally varying impact of climate change. Forests offer an option to meet low carbon economy targets needed for adaptation. Climate change mitigation: Forests and forestry Forests and forestry contribute to climate change mitigation by preserving and expanding carbon stocks in the forests (including above- and below-ground biomass, deadwood, litter, and soil), by producing renewable materials in order to substitute fossil fuel and materials for which production cost much fossil energy, and by storing carbon in harvested wood products. Carbon stocks in EU forests and forest surface have increased over past decades and continue to increase. Currently, Europe's forest cover is increasing by app ha per year, and only 64 % of the annual growth is harvested. Around 3 % of European forests are protected for biodiversity conservation, 25 % of EU forests are excluded from wood harvesting (e.g. 22 Mio. cbm of annual wood volumes cannot be felled due to forest protection in Germany compared to a total increment of 95 Mio. cbm and 48 Mio. annually harvested wood 1 ). Forest certification schemes and sustainable forest management are increasingly common. Mitigation strategies through sustainable forest management include an increased production (up to the yearly wood increment) of useable biomass for substitution purposes as well as an 1 European Forest Institute (2008): Forest protection and wood energy 3

6 increase of the carbon storage function. Overall, the carbon storage capacity of forests varies strongly between regions in Europe. Regarding mitigation effects the timeline is very important. While young forests have initially high carbon sequestration rates, these decline in ageing forests. Mature forests eventually reach equilibrium in which no or little further sequestration takes place. Therefore, the mitigation potential from extensification of forest uses is limited in time and carbon storage capacity. A major extension of the forest carbon reservoir is possible by afforestation of non-forest land. In general, a forest stand acts as a carbon source for some years after final harvest, thinning or selection cutting. Harvesting at small scales, leaving a canopy cover and/or early reforestation can limit the associated carbon losses. Close-to-nature forestry with longer rotation periods maintains relatively higher carbon stocks in soil. Whole-tree harvesting increases the amount of harvested biomass by up to 40 %, but can lead to losses of nutrients, carbon losses in soil in particular after stump extraction and acidification unless compensated for e.g. through ash recycling 2. Appropriate choice of species or species mixtures can increase the overall production of forests. Nevertheless, an important objective must be to stabilize the stands against biotic and abiotic disturbances, avoiding and reducing for instance large emissions from the soil (e.g. through draining activities) and from wild fires. Furthermore, forest fertilisation and liming, phenotypical selection of stands, use of improved material from seed orchards, and afforestation can be local or regional solutions to reach mitigation goals in forests. Developing optimal regional strategies for climate change mitigation (possibly in combination with adaptation) involving forests will require complex analyses of the trade-offs and synergies between different mitigation strategies and measures, especially regarding possible conflicts of enhancing the timber harvest for substitution or increasing the carbon stocks in forest stands. This trade-off applies to many European forests, but not to all (e.g. many forests threatened by wild fires, storm-felling, insect damage, etc). Furthermore, the multi-functional role of forests needs to be taken into account, considering trade-offs and synergies with other, environmental, economic and social, forest functions. An overview of linkages between mitigation activities in forestry and biodiversity (benefits, risks) can be found in the report of the CBD- Second Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Biodiversity and Climate Change. 3 There are cost efficient mitigation measures available in forestry, which should be increasingly integrated into national and regional climate change policies. This includes e.g. avoiding deforestation, increasing forest productivity, prevention of drainage of peat lands, reforestation of forests damaged by storms, droughts and fire, afforestation and substitution of wood based products to energy and energy intensive materials. Trade-offs between carbon storage in forests and wood products and the substitution of non-wood materials are to be considered, as well as the impact of mitigation strategies on other environmental, economic and social forest functions. Rural development should continue to provide funds for forestry-related mitigation actions. Climate change mitigation: Harvested wood products Wood produced from sustainable managed forests in the EU has a low carbon footprint. Wood contains an equivalent of about 0.9 t of CO 2 per cubic meter. This carbon is stored in harvested wood products throughout their lifetime. At the end of their life cycle, wood products can in most cases be recycled, thus extending the carbon storage effect and/or used 2 Ash recycling is practised in full scale in S Sweden. 3 Report of the Second Ad HocTechnical Expert Group on Biodiversity and Climate Change, "Connecting biodiversity and climate change mitigation and adaptation", CBD Technical series No. 41,

7 to substitute fossil fuels. A meta-analysis on displacement factors of wood product substitution 4 shows for each carbon ton in wood products substituted in place of non-wood products an average GHG emission reduction of approximately 2.1 tons of carbon, because less energy is needed to produce, transport and use wood products. Increasing the sustainable use of wood for substitution can contribute to climate change mitigation. Compared to many other materials, wood products have a low carbon footprint due to high carbon efficiency in their production and processing. Wood is a renewable material that can be recycled several times and be used as a bio-energy source at the end of the product life cycle. Member States are encouraged to review policies to promote the use of wood and to remove barriers which could hinder the use of wood (e.g. in construction). National action plans may support such attempts. National policies and measures on climate change and forestry Part of the work programme was to gain an understanding of existing policies and measures on climate change mitigation and adaptation across the EU and of proposals for future undertakings. A questionnaire was drafted in order to gather information on this subject from Member States. Responses were received from 16 Member States and four regions. Survey results indicate that many responding Member States have some form of forestry and/or climate change plan within their national policies, with many creating synergistic links between the two. For examples, beside measures for renewable energy and biomass, several Member States have policies and instruments to actively encourage and increase the use of forest products or high energy or carbon taxation which indirectly make forest products more competitive. A broad range of policy measures (e.g. incentives for afforestation and reforestation, taxation, public procurement rules to promote the use of wood, national and regional legislation to enhance the use of timber in the construction sector, proper technical and biological forest education) can influence sustainable forest management, including aspects of adaptation and mitigation. Further on the range of measures includes activities to enhance sustainable wood mobilisation like e.g. through investments in infrastructure up to inheritance regulations to reduce further forest ownership fragmentation. In future it may also include the introduction of a coordinated European forest genetic resources conservation policy, in connection with on-going adaptation strategies. Rural Development plays a key role in providing a framework and support for sustainable land use. Potentials and advantages, including cost-effectiveness, of forestry measures for climate change mitigation (in particular when substituting fossil fuels) have to be better acknowledged in national policies. The main factors limiting the uptake of such forestry measures are a lack of funds and a reduced profitability of the forest-based industries. Therefore available funding sources, e.g. rural development for forestry measures, need to be strengthened and new sources to be developed. Forest information and monitoring systems Forest information and monitoring systems of Member States have a different history and tradition being established in order to meet specific national information needs (e.g. timber stocks, increment, age class distribution, erosion, etc.). Over time, information needs have changed and the concepts of the existing monitoring programmes were adapted or 4 Roger Sathre, Jennifer O'Connor: 'Meta-analysis of greenhouse gas displacement factors of wood product substitution', Environmental Science and Policy 13 (2010)

8 complemented by new monitoring programmes. There is a large divergence among relevant elements (such as definitions, sampling designs, plot configurations, and estimation methods), among National Forest Inventories, which are the main source of forest information. These differences compromise the comparability and consolidation of wood and carbon stock estimates, yearly annual increments and in-deep knowledge of European forests. Comprehensive data are not only essential to set up forest adaptation strategies but also for e.g. coordinated forest genetic resources conservation policies. In order to allow transnational use of the data collected at regional or national level, consistency and comparability of monitoring is required. There is no commonly agreed framework to monitor the forest-wood supply chain in the Member States. Flows along the various product chains are usually based on predetermined ratios, not on observed values. Comparability and consistency of the National Forest Inventories and Forest Resource information needs to be improved. Some attempts in this direction have been taken (e.g. the FutMon-Project under Life+ or the COST Action E43 with the aim to harmonize National Forest Inventories), which should be continued and strengthened. There is a need to increase the use of remote sensing techniques. Better information on forest carbon and sequestration of carbon in harvested wood products is essential to support forests and forestry to further effectively contribute to climate change mitigation. Research needs Only limited broad scale knowledge is available regarding the prediction of impacts of climate change on European forests. The knowledge base needs to be broadened through monitoring, experiments and modelling, including for high temperature increase scenarios. Knowledge and predictions need to be regionally specific, and need to address the relation with forest management, and other local factors (including predominant type of forest production, disturbances, pests, genetic resources etc.), and address other values of the forest (e.g. water and biodiversity, social and economic). The knowledge needs to be made available locally, and especially connected to outreach activities. The role of European forests in the carbon cycle is reasonably understood. However, to what degree management can influence the carbon cycle, under climate change, and how it affects other goods and services e.g. biodiversity remains an important field of research. On adaptation of the ecosystem to climate change, and required responses from forest management, specific research is limited so far, partly because the local impacts of climate change remain uncertain. Adaptation measures need to be designed, tested, and experimented. Resilience of the ecosystem needs to be researched, concerning sustained economic production as well as sustained biodiversity and social values and, including aspects of genetics. Local aspects of the state of the ecosystem, forest production and economics, etc. must be taken into account. Adaptation options under increased disturbances must be researched. Research is particularly required on the identification of vulnerable areas and sites regarding changes of conditions in the future. This includes the occurrence of pests and diseases, development of genetic resources, the concrete climate impact of forest management measures while balancing other values of forests (environmental, economic and social). Research needs are considerable and span multiple and interconnecting disciplines. The findings need to be disseminated to the practitioner as well as to the political level and converted into actions. 6

9 1. Introduction Forests are an essential link in the global carbon cycle because of their capacity to remove CO 2 from the atmosphere and to store it in biomass and soil. Health and resilience of forestecosystems are crucial for the continuation of this storage capacity and function. Forest growth counteracts rising GHG concentrations in the atmosphere by providing an important carbon sink. On the other hand forest degradation and/or conversion to other land use can cause substantial GHG emissions due to fires, biomass decay and/or mineralisation of soil organic matter, leading to forests becoming a source of CO 2 emissions. Furthermore, this can lead to a reduced resilience of forest to the dangers of climate change. Strong mitigation action must be taken in all strategic sectors including the forestry sector to limit temperature rise well below 2 C in order to avoid dangerous climate change. An increasing number of hotspots for forest biodiversity will be disrupted as temperatures increase from 2 C to 3 C. Finally at 3 C, or 2.5 C for forests, the sink service of the terrestrial biosphere will begin to convert to a source, and together with increased fire frequency this will result in forest decline worldwide. 5 Forest management activities influence carbon pools, fluxes, and productivity on-site, both positively and negatively, either directly by, e.g. maintaining forest carbon stocks through forest conservation, transferring carbon from live growing stock to the product pools (e.g. thinning, final harvesting), or indirectly by altering growth conditions of trees (e.g. liming, fertilizing). The effects can be instantaneous (e.g. thinning) or slowly evolving (e.g. fertilisation). Activities may affect the current stand (e.g. thinning regime) or future stands (e.g. regeneration), or they are transient (e.g. minimizing site preparation, planting). Currently, the annual wood increment in EU forests is higher than the annual fellings. On this basis, EU forests accumulate carbon and therefore forest land currently acts as a net carbon sink removing ca. 0,5 Gt of CO 2 /yr, compared to EU-27 industrial GHG emissions of 5 Gt CO 2 equivalent/yr. However, the combined effects of climate change, prevalence of older stands and potential increases in timber harvesting without proper regeneration may have an impact on this sink capacity. According to projections up to 2020, the strength of the sink in EU forests will decline due to the composition of age classes. Due to aging stands, forests in some Member States may turn into net sources by 2020 and beyond. Forests also provide renewable materials and energy, which can be used as a substitute for more carbon intensive products and energy sources. This adds to the climate change mitigation effect of storing carbon in forest pools (above- and below-ground biomass, deadwood, litter, soil) and harvested wood products. In the long term, a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or increasing forest carbon stocks while producing an annual sustained yield of timber, fibre or energy is expected to generate the largest sustained mitigation benefit. At the same time, forests are exposed to changes in climatic conditions due to global warming. Adaptation is required in order to ensure the maintenance of carbon stocks in forests, as well as of other ecosystem and economic functions of forests. Considering the long lifetime of trees, adaptation measures have to be implemented at an early stage. Some adaptation measures will need to be realized by Member States to help the society adapt to and mitigate climate change. 5 Fischlin, A., M. Ayres, D. Karnosky, S. Kellomaki, B. Loumann, C. Ong, G-K. Plattner, H. Santuso, and I. Thompson Future environmental impacts and vulnerabilities. Pges in R. Seppala, A. Buck, and P. Katila (eds.), Adaptation of forest and people to climate change: a global assessment report. IUFRO World Series Vol

10 Forests under the international and EU climate change regimes Emissions and removals of GHG from forests are included in the Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) chapter under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol. Under the current rules of the Kyoto Protocol GHG fluxes from LULUCF have to be accounted for by Parties if they relate to activities under Article 3.3 of the Kyoto Protocol (including afforestation and deforestation). Parties may elect to account for GHG fluxes from activities under Article 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol, which includes forest management (carbon stock changes in existing forests). The accounting rules for the different activities differ, with Article 3.3 activities being accounted on a gross-net basis since the reference year of Thus, all carbon stock changes that occur due to afforestation or deforestation since 1990 are accountable. For forest management, the gross carbon fluxes can only be accounted up to a nationally defined cap. These accounting rules apply for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, which ends in International negotiations are on-going for the period beyond 2012, which will most likely modify the current accounting rules for LULUCF. The EU-Commission and the Council have expressed their preference 6 for future accounting for forest management to be based on a comparison of actual emissions and removals with a reference level. This reference level is to be defined either on the basis of historical emissions or on robust projections for future stock developments, taking into consideration national circumstances, such as the age class distribution of forests. Alternatively, the EU-Commission and the Council is willing to consider the continuation of gross-net accounting, but the current constant cap should then be replaced with a discount factor (e.g to be multiplied with total emissions or removals). The EU-Commission and the Council also favour accounting for the carbon storage in harvested wood products taking into account the average life time of the products. Furthermore, the EU-Commission and the council also expect accounting rules to deal with emissions and removals associated with extreme events (force majeure) to reduce the risk that Parties cannot comply with their mitigation objectives because of such events. Provided that the accounting rules include flexibilities as outlined, the EU-commission and the Council favour mandatory accounting for forest management for all Parties. Both options for future accounting rules for forest management currently considered by the EU are expected to create greater incentives for carbon storage in forests as compared to the current rules. In this sense these rules, if internationally agreed, may create disincentives for wood mobilisation as compared to the status quo. An own CO2 reduction target for the forest sector would promote sequestration and would therefore be an obstacle for the promotion of an increased use of wood products to e.g. substitute fossil energy products Under the current rules, in most Member States forest management constitutes a sink that is far greater than the accountable amount up to the cap currently in place. For that reason, increasing the sink function of the forest by enhancing standing stocks is not further incentivised by the current system. Under possible future gross-net accounting rules with a discount factor, countries can increase accountable credits by increasing standing carbon stocks in forests. However, these credits are only a fraction of the actual carbon removed from the atmosphere (e.g. only 15%), and the incentive for enhancing carbon stocks is rather limited. Under accounting rules based on a reference level, countries only obtain credits from forest management if removals exceed the reference level. Nevertheless, the incentive for expanding carbon stocks is much greater than under the current rules or under rules based on 6 Conclusions of the Environment Council of 21 October

11 a discount factor. Under a business as usual scenario, where harvesting rates remain constant, and if age class effects are taken into account in a projected reference level, a country would obtain zero credits and zero debits. Depending on the time scale different results are possible. However, incentives to increase stocks will also be disincentives to meet higher demand through increased harvesting level, because that will reduce stock growth in the short term perspective. Increased harvest will deliver more biomass for energy production and material for substitution of energy-intensive materials. In the longer perspective, increased income from wood biomass may also increase stocks and forest areas because forest owners are then more likely to care about forest protection and production. Moreover, it should be noted that afforestation is already credited under Kyoto Protocol article 3.3, and substitution of other materials with wood are already accountable as these imply a reduction of fossil fuel use. The accounting rules in relation to substitution will likely remain unchanged in the future climate change regime. The positive effect for forestry comes through increased demand for forest products when carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion successively get more expensive. It should be noted that credits obtained from substitution of other materials with wood are already accountable as these imply a reduction of fossil fuel use. The accounting rules in relation to substitution will remain unchanged in the future climate change regime. Therefore substitution has no positive accounting effect for forests. LULUCF discussions have not been conclusive at COP15 in Copenhagen (December 2009) and will be continued at COP16 in Cancun (November-December 2010). At present, LULUCF does not count towards the EU internal mitigation target as defined by the energy and climate package put in place in By mid 2011, the Commission will issue a report assessing modalities for the possible inclusion of emissions and removals from activities related LULUCF in the EU reduction commitment. As appropriate, the Commission will make a legislative proposal thereafter. Depending on the possible alternatives as mentioned above different economic influences may occur on wood mobilisation. 2. Scope of work In February 2009, the Standing Forestry Committee provided a mandate to establish an Ad Hoc Working Group on Climate Change and Forestry. The overall aim is to identify technical forestry measures that are relevant in a climate change context, as well as to make recommendations on how to achieve a better uptake of practical measures by appropriate policies. The following topics were addressed in the sixth meetings of the working group between 6 March 2009 and 24 September 2010: Impact of climate change on forestry and adaptation to climate change Climate change mitigation: How can forests contribute to mitigation, in particular via substitution of materials (e.g. for construction) and energy and via enhancing the sink potential of forests? Review of existing national and regional policies and measures for mitigation and of existing adaptation strategies in Member States Monitoring and assessment of carbon stocks in European forests The role of forests in helping society adapt to climate change Review of ongoing research projects and identification of needs form further research 9

12 The Ad Hoc Working Group should contribute to the implementation of key action 6 of the Forest Action Plan (FAP), to facilitate EU compliance with the obligations of climate change mitigation of the UNFCC and its Kyoto Protocol and encourage adaptation to the effects of climate change. The working group collected information on the above mentioned topics through rapporteurs' presentations ( Member States' representatives, stakeholder group representatives) and Commission service staff as well as invited external experts (list of presentations can be found in annex A). Questionnaires were sent to the Member States through the Standing Forestry Committee and the responses provided an insight on mitigation and adaptation measures on national levels, the different programmes and the opinions on current obstacles which hinder an implementation of measures and further research needs. The full rapporteurs texts elaborated by the group on specific subjects as well as further working documents can be found in annex B. 3. Adaptation measures in forestry To develop adaptation strategies it is necessary to understand the main factors that arise from the changing climatic conditions, which affect the forests. Synergies between some of the impact factors can increase their effect. Such impact factors are atmospheric CO 2 increase, changes in temperature, changes in precipitation, flooding, drought duration and frequency, abiotic disturbances (changes in fire occurrence, changes in wind storm frequency and intensity) and biotic disturbances (frequency and consequences of pest and disease outbreaks). Adaptation actions are practicable at different levels. At stand level forest regeneration, tending and thinning of stands and harvesting are to be considered. Furthermore, on regional level the planning of forest management and forest protection plays an important role. At policy level infrastructure and transport, nurseries, forest tree breeding and further adaptation integration in risk management and policy can be addressed. To reach acceptance of adaptation measures communication efforts to forest owners play an important role. Primarily, adaptation measures should be based on best sylvicultural practices (the choice of tree species and provenances, regeneration techniques and tending of forest stands) as through sylviculture the adaptation policy can have an immediate impact. Management that is closer to natural forest dynamics is likely to increase adaptive capacity. Maintaining or restoring species and genotypic diversity in these forests would increase their adaptive capacity when some species or genotypes will no longer be suited to the altered environment and against spreading pests. In addition, maintaining structural diversity (presence of various successional stages instead of even-aged stands) would increase their resilience and resistance in the face of extreme events (wind-throw, ice/snow damage). At broader scales adaptation can include the maintenance of different forest types across environmental gradients and the reduction of fragmentation. A list of suitable adaptation measures is provided in a study of the European Forest Institute (EFI) for the European Commission 7. This list was considered and amended by the working group. Particular measures are to be adapted to the natural conditions of the stand also taking into account cost-effectiveness and environmental side impacts. The following list should not be seen as a guideline for all the forests in Europe. The aim is to provide an overview of adaption measures in forestry with a link to possible climate change impacts. The measures have to be selected according to the specific local

13 conditions 8. In this sense, this list could be used as a toolbox. Because of the very heterogeneous situation of forest sites in Europe even contradictory measures are listed, for example to shorten the rotation period to avoid susceptibility and on the other side to increase the length of a rotation period in order to maintain the canopy cover and to promote natural regeneration. Forest regeneration Forest regeneration offers a direct and immediate opportunity to adapt tree species or provenances to the changing climatic conditions. A broad range of measures including both, natural al regeneration and planting and a combination of both is appropriate to stabilize future stands. Selection of more site appropriate tree species or provenance Selection of quality plant material, weed control Increase genetic diversity in regeneration suitability and diversity at genetic level at the regeneration stage Establishment and early growth of young stands soil preparation Use natural regeneration (evolutionary processes are less disturbed) Maintaining population size (sufficient number of parental genitors) Maintaining reproductive potential and fecundity (flowering and fruiting could be affected by environmental change) Using cultivation the seedlings from different seed stands can be mixed at the nursery stage to maintain high level of genetic diversity Enrichment planting in naturally regenerated stands (introducing new material = complementing not replacing the local material!) Establishment of pioneer populations species outside their current area, future changes in conditions are expected to be favourable for them Prevent the artificial regeneration from drought suffering o shift planting to the autumn o planting saplings with pots o favouring good sprouting potential trees Introducing better adapted reproductive material o material of high genetic diversity and productivity to maintain or increase genetic adaptability and high wood supply o material which is adapted to the projected climatic conditions (could lead to stands adapted in a suboptimal way to current conditions) 8 an example for the current work on regional specific guidelines is the INTERREG IVc-Project "Futureforest" in which 7 partners from different parts of Europe develop their tailored measures 11

14 Tending and thinning of stands Tending is defined as all activities in forest stands after planting up to the moment of the first (commercial) thinning. Thinning is an active reduction in stem number during the rotation of a stand. The aims of thinning include concentrating the growth to fewer trees to reach more demanded tree dimensions, obtaining early income from wood production, influencing the tree species composition and forest structure, and selecting for stem quality. Thinning can roughly be characterized by type (systematic or selective), direction of approach (from below or from above), recurrence interval, and intensity. Proposed changes in the frequency and intensity of tending and thinning are mostly aiming at improving stand structure to reduce susceptibility of stands to disturbances. Modifications of tending and thinning practices, regarding the frequency and intensity of operations o to reduce drought effects o improving stand structure and structural diversity (to reduce susceptibility of stands to disturbances) Tending of young stands intensively (to foster mixed stands) Carrying out thinning systematically (to enhance the adaptive capacity in the long run due to maintaining a high within-stand genetic diversity) The table below explains the objectives of intensified and changed thinning practices, depending on the bioclimatic region. 12

15 Harvesting As a general recommendation, harvesting activities should take place at smaller scales than currently. It is, however, to be recognized that small scale harvesting often increases operation costs, and highly dependent on a suitable infrastructure like the forest road network. Harvesting at smaller scales than currently Harvesting should proceed with regard to principles of natural regeneration Avoid increasing the susceptibility of forest to disturbances by harvesting operations (not to produce open stand edges exposed to prevailing winds and strong direct sunlight) Avoid prolonged lack of harvesting activities (e.g. neglected coppice forests with increased fuel wood accumulation) Avoid soil erosion while harvesting Increase the length of rotation period in coppices (to maintain a continuous forest cover) Forest management planning 13

16 Forest management planning has new complex strategic and operational challenges. New instruments like forest decision support systems are tools for supporting adaptive forest management under conditions of climate change. Co-operation of scientists, decision makers and stakeholders will lead to more comprehensive understanding of the complex problems. Using risk management strategies to plan adaptation Forest management should include climate considerations in strategic and operational planning Shortening rotation period to accelerate growth and to avoid susceptibility Conversion of vulnerable (mostly secondary, e.g. spruce) stands Silvicultural flexibility (e.g. increase spatial structure, focus on natural regeneration) Flexible adaptive planning needed new planning and decision tools Using process-based forest ecosystem models and multi-criteria analysis methods to support adaptive planning Using forest decision support systems (DSS) Practicing effective control in forest management Each forest need a different practice in accordance with its main objective Silviculture and forest protection Silvicultural strategies to cope with the effects of biotic agents due to climate change are targeted on changes in species composition. The sensitivity of a stand to abiotic damages is determined by tree, stand and site characteristics. Silviculture Changes in the tree species composition o replace drought sensitive species o reforestation with species and provenances better adapted to future warm conditions Prefer naturally grown seedlings to artificially reforested plants Conversion to stands of tree species native to the forest sites Silvicultural adaptations aiming at the ecosystems with highly diverse tree composition, age, structure and ground vegetation Biotic and abiotic damages 14

17 Using knowledge-based expert models identifying parameters responsible for increased forest susceptibility to biotic and abiotic agents Monitoring of forest health, pests and diseases is important Identify vulnerable areas of forest stands and sites regarding various pests Implement management options in order to reduce susceptibility to those pests Adjusting rotation period for better adaption and mitigation Maintenance or introduction of mixed stands Maintenance of low denseness that facilitate mycorrhisation and water supplies More frequent controls of incipient outbreaks through prescribe burnings and cuttings Forest fires Implementing appropriate fire-management policies o modification of forest structure (e.g. tree spacing and density, regulation of age class structure) o removing standing dead trees and coarse woody debris from the forest floor, changing species composition, screening o creating a mosaic of forest types including species with reduced flammability, o fuel management through thinning and biomass removals, grazing or the use of prescribed burning (also to give the woody debris an energetic use in order to reduce forests risk) o changing the species composition Change forest fire management (prescribed burning in areas of high economic value) Using new technologies (surveillance and warning systems, shortening of detection and response time; fuel maps etc.) Consider fire risk in regional/local planning Wind Modify thinning and harvesting - proper intensity, intervals and placement of cuttings Shorter rotation length Avoiding open clear cuts areas (maintain continuous forest cover to increase the stand stability) To reduce the windstorms and wind throws related damage on forests by avoiding to plant the forest in the areas where such disturbances occurred periodically in the past (e.g. the case of High Tatras Mts.) Maintenance of mixed and uneven-aged stands On even-aged stands try to keep a relatively high denseness, with moderate weight 15

18 Snow Identify specific parts of forest areas subject to particular levels of damage risk Avoiding heavy thinning in high risk areas Examples of management options in order to reduce forest susceptibility to biotic pests (Ips typographus and Pristiphora abietina) Infrastructure and transport Development of an appropriate road network and targeted road maintenance can help to improve infrastructure and transport under climate change. Shortened frost periods and wet soils require development of innovative harvest and transport technology. Measures include: Restoration of the ground water regime Deactivation of drainage system (in the drought prone stands) Augmentation of storage lakes and irrigation channels (to reduce drought stress) Preparation of storage facilities for wet or foil storage for fast disturbance mitigation Development of an appropriate road network (especially in mountains, ensuring small scale management) Reconstruction of roads to minimize sediment runoff due to increase of precipitation and permafrost melting Proper road maintenance Using innovative machine technology to enable harvest operations without soil damage 16

19 Improve the forest machinery and harvesting techniques to access forests with poor bearing capacity Nurseries and tree breeding At the nursery stage seedlings mixture increases diversity of reproductive material. Increase diversity of reproductive material used in artificial regeneration (mix seedlings from different seed stands of the same provenance regions at the nursery stage) Threat of a shortage of suitable plant material after disturbances. Regulations asking for the use of site adapted plant material could be relaxed avoid the use of maladapted provenances in the artificial regeneration Increase the storage of seeds for species with seeds that sustain longer storage without loss of viability Be prepared for unpredictable increases in plant demand to plant material beyond the average market demand (subsidies) Maintain diversity within the varieties produced by seed orchards at higher levels than for standard utilisation Overall a variety of measures is applicable which could be implemented in connection with already well established sustainable forest management practices. However, additional investments are necessary which may deserve financial support to be carried out appropriately. Further adaptation options in risk management and policy Development and evaluation of adaptation strategies should be a participative process involving decision-makers, stakeholders, experts and analysts. 17

20 Implementation of risk management in forestry Change current guidelines (which are designed for a stable climate regime) Development and evaluation of adaptation strategies Promote vulnerability assessment methods Undertake adaptation in a planned, proactive manner Flexible planning framework for practitioners and forest managers is missing Adaptation to occur autonomously, in a natural and unmanaged way Develop new insurance concepts to distribute risks Establish forest reserves for investigation and monitoring of climate change impacts Modify and improve nature conservation principles and guidelines Reduce forest fragmentation (through afforestation) in some areas and establish connecting corridors Strengthen diversification of tree species mixtures Apply both conservative and more rapid adaptation strategies simultaneously in different forest stands Pay attention to development of invasive species 4. The role of forests in helping society adapt to climate change Forests serve diverse social, environmental and economic functions (multi-functionality), often at the same time and place. In addition to the objective to provide raw materials and bioenergy, forests contribute to protect the soil from dehydration and erosion, regulate water balance, improve climate, air and water quality and offer a place for people to relax and remain healthy. Forests provide vital ecosystem services which underpin all societies and economies, and are home to most of the worlds terrestrial biodiversity and genetic resources. In addition to that the forestry sector creates an income for app.3 million people mainly in rural areas. These multifunctional roles of forests are important for our society and the environment. Safeguarding such multi-functionality requires sustainable forest management. Forests have several roles in helping society to adapt to climate change: Climate change will increase the frequency and the intensity of natural hazards. Forests offer protection of the impacts of natural hazards especially in mountainous areas. They prevent landslide, mudflow, rockslide and avalanches from affecting infrastructure, cultivated area and settlement. Protective forests have to be specifically managed to provide a stable and continuous vegetation cover. Forests, and especially riparian woodlands, can prevent or reduce the risk of flooding and its associated economic and environmental damage, which is likely to be increased by climate change. Forests reduce the number of floods and have an effect on flood peaks, but they do not significantly alter the hydrologic impacts of extreme rainfall. Forest soils buffer large quantities of water and can also have positive effects on underground water regimes as well as the water supply. Forests regulate freshwater supplies (drinking water) and play an important role in the storage, purification and release of water. 18

21 Forest and other wooded land (e.g. agro-forest-systems) can preserve landscape and soil fertility. Erosion caused by wind or water and desertification can be prevented by forests and other wooded land (such as hedges). Trees can reduce the wind speed and can limit run offs. These functions are particularly supported by afforestation and reforestation. Also natural regeneration and growing shares of mixed forests contribute to soil fertility, productivity and carbon sequestration. Forests have positive effects for the air quality by removal of pollutants and for the local micro climate by producing shade, coolness, shelter and moisture. They especially influence the temperature in local urban areas (urban heat island effect). Forests are a key component of European nature and preserve biodiversity. They are home for a large number of vertebrates and invertebrates as well as numerous plants. Several important tree species like the European beech are restricted to Europe and constitute an ecologically and economically important forest type. The maintenance and the adaptation of the forests help the society to preserve the genetic variety and to improve the resilience of the habitats. Forests are a crucial part of our landscape in Europe and are important as cultural assets and indispensable for rural tourism. Forests are also an important place for recreation especially in urban vicinity. Recreation in forests contributes to fitness and health of citizens by e.g. walking, hiking, horseback riding, mountain biking and other outdoor sports. One important role in helping society to adapt to climate change is the carbon sequestration in forests and wood products as well as the substitution effect by replacing material from fossil sources (for more information: chapter mitigation). Forests offer employment, income and raw materials for industry and for renewable energy. The growth and job potential of forestry and the forest based industries contribute to the development of less developed, rural and peripheral regions of the EU, providing "green jobs" and supporting a "low carbon economy". The sector, thus, makes an important contribution to rural development and to avoid land being abandoned that can lead to land deterioration and, in some cases, increased emissions. Forestry and the forest based industries provide job opportunities mainly in rural areas. If people in rural areas have the possibility to work close to their residence daily travel distances and associated emission will be reduced, too. Entrepreneurships as well as forests owners and especially their associations can offer (new) services in the field forestry and agriculture in the connection of climate change by advising the owners and the society how to adapt and mitigate to climate change or by implementing certain adaptation and mitigation measures for example. A couple of the described functions and roles (e.g. water protection) are public goods, where the provision is not reflected in markets and market prices. However, to further ensure fulfilling the needs, possible additional efforts by forest owners may need appropriate support. All functions have to be taken into account when implementing and further developing sustainable forest management practices. The maintenance and where appropriate enlargement of forest cover, and the adaptation of forests to withstand climate induced stresses are essential for fulfilling these functions. Measures have to be adjusted to the specific local situation and have to take in account the regionally varying impact of climate change on the European forests. 5 Measures suitable for climate change mitigation Development of forest area and timber production in Europe 19

22 According to EUROSTST, Europe s forest cover has increased by ha every year between 2000 and Currently only 60-70% of annual growth is harvested. The amount of wood available in Europe is growing continuously, as a result of not using the full increment of the forests on the one hand, and the increase in forest cover on the other. In Europe (even without Russia), the standing volume of forest is growing by 760 million m³ every year. This means that very little needs to be imported into Europe, with over 97% of softwood, and around 90 % of all wood used in Europe being sourced from European forests. According to the UNECE/Forest Product Statistics, EU27 apparent consumption in 2009 (production+ imports -exports) was 412 million m³ (under bark), import 574 million m 3, giving 10, 8 % of the total roundwood (industrial and energy wood, excluding net import of wood residues) coming from third countries. 5.1 Technical forestry measures Forests and forestry can contribute to climate change mitigation via: The protection and expansion of carbon stocks in forests, the substitution of fossil energy sources or other energy intensive materials with wood based materials, the storage of carbon in harvested wood products. The overall mitigation effect of the corresponding measures needs to be assessed in an integrated way. In short term, there is a trade-off between substitution and carbon storage in the forest as both functions cannot be increased simultaneously. In long term, however, options to increase both carbon storage in the forests and mitigate climate change through material substitution exist. A sustainable forest management strategy, aimed at maintaining or increasing forest stocks while producing an annual sustained yield of wood and biomass for energy is expected to generate the largest sustained climate mitigation benefit (IPCC Assessment on Forestry). When trying to optimize the forests role for climate change mitigation there is furthermore the need to maintain other forest functions, such as environmental (e.g. biodiversity, water), social (e.g. amenity, recreation) or other (e.g. protection forests). A range of measures can maintain or increase forest carbon pools that can be performed without compromising the potential to deliver biomass for substitution. An overview of possible climate change mitigation measures in European Forests through forest management has been worked out e.g. by NABUURS (2008). In this report a great extent of that research results have been used literally and have been added with other research works. Potential mitigation measures Forest management activities influence carbon pool fluxes, and productivity on-site, either directly by e.g. maintaining forest carbon stocks through forest conservation, or transferring carbon from live growing stock to the product pools (e.g. thinning, final harvesting), or indirectly by altering growth conditions of trees (e.g. liming, fertilizing, thinning). These effects can be instantaneous (e.g. thinning) or slowly evolving (e.g. fertilizing). Measures may affect the current stands (e.g. thinning regime) or future stands (e.g. regeneration) or they are transient (minimizing site preparation, planting). The timescale is important to evaluate different mitigation measures. Measures, which prevent carbon stocks as well as those which substitute fossil fuel intensive products, have immediate effects. The storage effect of carbon in harvested wood products depends on the lifecycle of the products. Reducing the substitution effect by reducing the wood supply could increase the carbon stock up to a maximum of the natural storage capacity but is estimated to have a lower 20

23 benefit for the total greenhouse gas emission reduction in longer terms. 9 Considering the properties of carbon stocks in forest ecosystems and forest sector various strategies are available to reduce the emission of CO 2 in the atmosphere or to increase the sequestration of CO 2 from atmosphere. Conservation, which means in this context preventing emissions from existing carbon pools. This measure has an immediate carbon saving effect, although in long term due to a lowered contribution to substitution benefits for climate are reduced. The potential of conservation equals the current existing carbon stock in forest ecosystems (biomass and soil carbon stocks) that could potentially be released. The IPCC in 2000 stated that carbon stocks in soils are higher than over-ground (i.e. vegetation). Therefore, conservation is especially important in regions with high carbon stocks per area, like boreal forests, potentially exposed to depletion by human-induced or natural processes (e.g. natural disturbances). The knowledge of soil carbon is of importance, when evaluating the harvest of slush and stumps as biomass for example. In sustainably managed forests, conservation can refer to needs related to management practices for securing the carbon storage and sequestration capacity 10, including those focuses on adaptation to climate change. The IPCC report expressed the need to limit global greenhouse gas emissions so they peak by Conservation measures besides others are important to reach this goal. Sequestration, which means increment of stocks in existing pools. The effect of sequestration can be characterized by a slow build up (tree growth) of living biomass and following accumulation of carbon in deadwood, litter (forest-floor carbon) and soil carbon. The potential of activities aiming at this effect is the carbon gain of the biosphere assuming a complete restoration up to its natural carrying capacity. In European forests, sustainable harvesting activities cause a depletion by the removal (harvest) of forest products. Management measures should minimize these losses especially, as above mentioned, of soils by keeping for example a canopy cover, ensuring a fast regeneration and avoiding whole tree harvesting. Sustainable continuous harvesting together with the regeneration of the forest leads in long term to higher sequestration rates regarding the same site cause of the ongoing increase of wood increment. Afforestation and reforestation: while reforestation refers per IPCC definition to sites that have been stocked by forest plants within the last 50 years, afforestation describes forest planting activities on sites that have not been forested within the last 50 years. As reforestation is understood (in principle) as a preconditional process following harvesting activities, thus replacing formally existing carbon stock within the time 9 The discussions of the working group, whether conservation of carbon stocks in forests should be given a higher priority than promoting the use of wood to enhance the sequestration and to substitute fossil fuels were controversial. A common position could not be reached due to different interpretations by different stakeholder groups. It is the demanding task of forest owners and forest managers in Europe to achieve multifunctionality through their sustainable forest management in a site adapted and balanced way. Policies at European and Member state- level should provide an adequate framework for this management including all the different targets in a coherent way. 10 In this light conservation implies structural changes and not the original meaning of conservation as strict protection. 21

24 span of more than 80 to 180 years, it is not regarded as sequestration potential because it is integral part of sustainable forest management. Afforestation, on the other hand, is describing the area-wise extension of forest carbon stocks and bears highest potentials in terms of additionality. Adaptation measures do not automatically increase sequestration rates. They serve at first instance for the maintenance of the forest ecosystem and its productivity, including its sequestration capacity, and are a precondition of any mitigation. An improved organisation and management of smallholder forest estates and management of areas prone to natural regeneration (e.g. regrowth on former grazing areas in the Alps, unutilised sites in the Mediterranean region) or the regeneration of degraded forest stands and degraded sites could also bear improved production rates, substitution and increased carbon stocks. Substitution-optimised management may bear conflicts with further management goals, i.e. in regard of nature conservation and biodiversity aspects and social values unless this is counteracted through conscious regulations and high ambitions to reach sustainability from all aspects from the forest owners and the operators. The effects of reduced utilisation or strict protection of forests on sequestration depend on the time scale. Reduced utilisation leads at a short term with an immediate effect to an increased carbon storage, which is limited by the natural carrying capacity. It is important for forest owners to find a balance between the target of high sequestration in forests and the risk of instability of and by calamities (e.g. insects, fire, wind throw). A reduced utilisation of wood could lead to further conflicts in regards of resource supply (leakage of emissions) and could reduce the substitution effect, which is regarded as comprising large mitigation potential. A significant effect on the sequestration rate and the accumulation of carbon storage can also be expected by a shift to a rather ecologically-orientated management strategy. There are limitations to an increase of the mitigation potential by changing the management strategy because in many European countries (except Sweden and Finland), so far the dominant impact of the demand-based market for forest resources does not easily allow forest management without securing operational costs unless it is subsidised. Adapted management strategies will rely on structural changes, changed products and production goals, requiring respective adaptation on the demand side. Such changed management strategies will require support for a (at least partial) decoupling of demanddependencies. Arising goal-conflicts with further requirements to forests must be judged by case-specific evaluations rather than principle proceedings. Harvesting impact on different pools In general, a forest stand acts as a carbon source for some years after final harvest or selection cutting. In this period, the rate of decomposition of slash on the ground is higher than accumulation of carbon in the vegetation and soil. Furthermore, the soil temperature may go up in the open spaces, and the decomposition of soil organic matter may increase. However, thinning in young stands with moderate thinning grade seems not to give a net flux of CO 2 to the atmosphere. For the rest of the rotation period the stand is usually a carbon sink due to carbon sequestration of the growing vegetation and accumulation of carbon in the soil and addition of coarse woody debris. 22

25 The critical question to consider is the time span until the carbon stock of the living biomass, the forest floor carbon and the soil carbon is replaced. Estimates range from years to years. Early reforestation limits losses to few percent only and causes an early replacement. Carbon pools and fluxes are strongly determined by the applied rotation lengths, the thinning intensity, and the resulting age class distribution of the forests. In determining harvesting effects, one has to consider the time horizon of investigation for assessing the overall neteffect of the investigated measures. Different analyses of national or local forest systems reveal that cessation of forest management in productive forests would yield much lower mitigation effects than those provided by the substitution effect of the currently harvested wood. Rotation length Changes in rotation length affect the long-term average amount of carbon in trees and soil. Generally, the shorter the rotation length the lower the average carbon stock in the biomass. The sequestration rate, on the other hand, can be higher under short rotation periods, thus potentially resulting in higher substitution effects. While a transformation towards short rotation period will result into meaningful mitigation effects, further conflict of goals (e.g. nature conservation) must be considered (compare Figure 4). Figure 1: Natural forest and different managed forests, comparison of biomass, humus and sequestration capacities (changed from WBGU 1998). The biomass stock increment is initially high in young forests, whereas high stocks are accompanied with small increments. Soil responses to altered rotation length are complex. A smaller tree biomass may produce less litter and decomposition of soil carbon (or peat) may 23

26 accelerate in harvested sites. On the other hand, the fast growing young trees and the large quantity of harvest residues from frequent harvests can increase litter input. Furthermore, evidence on increased rate of decomposition on harvested stands is not always observed. Rotation length determines size and quantity of harvested timber, influencing carbon stored in wood products and the amount of harvested biomass that can substitute more GHG emission intensive materials. In many, but not all, studies, biomass and soil reacted in opposite directions with regard to changes in rotation length. Most European studies indicate an increased total carbon accumulation in biomass and soil if rotation lengths are increased. Only for Norway spruce in Finland a decrease was observed presumably because a longer rotation meant smaller inputs of slash to the (mineral) soil. However, at the landscape level, an increased rotation length also means that the total amount of wood to be harvested and with it the substitution effect may be reduced until over-aged forests have to be harvested for preventing natural decline or calamities. Especially here, the risk for damage (e.g. by storms and insects) must be considered. Regeneration regime The regeneration regime describes how a stand is finally harvested and regenerated. Regeneration regimes can be characterized by the degree of canopy cover removed in one cut. This can range from single-tree selection systems (sometimes referred to as nature oriented management) to clear cutting. The higher the share of standing stock that is cut, the higher is the input to forest floor carbon pools from residues. In most cases soil carbon stocks increase shortly after the harvest when slash is accounted as well. This period may be followed by a period of decrease, depending on the growth rate of new trees and the treeless time following harvest. Not fully understood however, is the role of the exact management activity and how it affects the soil carbon balance and the establishment of new trees. Overall it seems that the prevailing trend in Europe towards group and selective felling regimes, leads to maintenance of larger average stocks at the stand level. Whole-tree harvesting As an alternative to conventional harvesting where all needles, branches and nonmerchantable timber remain on site, whole-tree harvesting removes also the major part of branches and tops. While it could increase the amount of harvested biomass by up to 40%, there are losses of nutrients from the forest which may also cause nutrient imbalance in trees. However, some studies fail to observe a significant difference in soil carbon between wholetree and stem-only harvesting in the field. Whole-tree harvesting leads to a decrease in mineralisation, nitrification, nitrogen immobilisation, and nitrogen accumulation. Reported losses in subsequent forest production range from 6% to 32%. Some of the negative effects like nitrogen loss can be mitigated by the proper site-preparation. Also, plant survival has shown to be higher after whole-tree harvesting. In practice these effects seem to compensate for any growth loss caused by reduced nutrient availability. Furthermore, in areas where nitrogen deposition is relatively high due to anthropogenic influence, whole-tree harvesting can decrease nitrogen leaching by reducing the nitrogen load. Whole-tree harvesting has also been found to worsen acidification but this can be counteracted e.g. through ash recycling. In areas where nitrogen deposition is low, nitrogen additions can be used to compensate for losses caused by whole-tree harvesting, but 24

27 then preferably to growing forests and not to clear-cut areas. In any case the choice of intensity of harvesting strictly depends on the specific site conditions. Tending (weed control) Trees and weeds cut in tending operations are not usually removed from the site. The decomposition of their foliage, stems, and roots increases soil carbon content. However, weed control by, e.g. soil scarification could result in the loss of soil carbon due to accelerated decomposition of organic matter and wind and water erosion. Nevertheless scarification could be positive in the long run thanks to quicker establishment of new trees, higher survival rates, increased increment and so increased carbon sequestration. Tending in combination with thinning can have a beneficial effect of up to 10% on carbon sequestration, because the remaining trees will grow better. Thinning The general pattern of thinning is to reach an optimum interrelation of individual trees which is more or less pronounced depending on the tree species, site conditions, and stand age. Depending on the tree species, below a critical level of stand density the remaining trees cannot compensate for the crown cover of the removed trees at the stand level. Light to medium thinning from below can increase overall production as compared to un-thinned stands (e.g. by 3 11% for spruce in central Europe) although this is not confirmed in all studies. Soil carbon may (temporarily) be enhanced due to increased litter input, but changes in microclimate could also lead to increased decomposition. Furthermore, decreased litter input afterwards or removal of thinning residues could lead to a decrease in soil carbon stocks. Species mixture The choice of species and their spatial arrangement can play an important role in the development of carbon stocks and forest production. While generally fast growing species accumulate carbon more rapidly than slow growing species, for long-term carbon storage in the forest, slow growing species have advantages. For evaluating the overall effect, however, in this regard, the substitution effect must be considered, as well as the cost/income profile of respective systems. A positive effect of species mixture on forest production may occur when species make different use of available resources, either in space or in time. Differentiation in time can be achieved by mixing species with different growth patterns. Differentiation in space can be achieved by mixing species with different shade tolerance within a stand, or by mixing groupwise or stand-wise at the landscape level. The effects of mixed stands on growth and the forest production can be different. The research results differ between no effect and productivity increases up to 50 %. In any case, mixed stands are a favourable practice for adaptation. Reducing soil emissions Forest management activities to increase stand-level forest carbon stocks and increment include harvest systems that maintain species and site-adapted partial forest cover, minimize losses of dead organic matter (including slash) or soil carbon by reducing soil erosion, and by 25

28 avoiding slash burning and other high-emission activities (IPCC AR4 Chapter 9). Moderate drainage can lead to increased forest growth. However, drainage of non-mineral forest soils, and specifically of bogs, may lead to substantial carbon loss due to enhanced respiration. Intensive drainage of organic soils (especially peat lands) leads to major soil emissions (CO 2 and N 2 O). Restoring (re-wetting), on the other hand, of drained peat lands and wetlands, reduces CO 2 and N 2 O emissions (coupled to temporary increases of CH 4 emissions). Rates of soil carbon accumulation in the restored sites are not quantified yet. Drainage of forest soils should be limited to maintain stand stability and specifically to secure young stands. Choice of adapted species might help to reduce drainage necessity. Reducing wild fire emissions While fire suppression measures (e.g. removal of slash or deadwood) seem to reduce the mitigation potential at a first glance, the expected prevention of emissions by wild fires could yield a greater mitigation effect. As a result of fire prevention measures carbon stocks in woody vegetation and litter have been observed to increase while effects on soil were not significant. Apart from these more direct effects of fire suppression, the long-term impacts on succession are more significant, but difficult to quantify. Increased forest production Forest fertilisation and liming Fertilisation is the artificial application of nutrients to the forest, aiming to increase biomass production, to compensate for nutrient losses due to the removal of logging residues e.g. for bio-fuel and nutrient leaching, to counteract imbalances caused by deposition, and to improve stress tolerance. Depending on the situation and aim, fertilisation can be done with pure nitrogen (N), mixtures of for example NPK, or in the form of liming or wood ash application. The effect of fertilisation depends on the nutrient state of the forests. Boreal forest ecosystems in Europe are usually N limited and N application can increase biomass production and carbon sequestration (e.g. a single N application of 0.15Mg N/ha was estimated to increase carbon sequestration of t C/ha/year). According to some studies the biomass production potential in Norway spruce forests in Sweden could be increased by %. The increased production of a fertilisation program applied on 10% of the Swedish forest area would correspond to an annual emission reduction of 19-30% of Sweden s GHG emissions in An additional one-time carbon stock increase of million t CO 2 equivalent would also occur. If a forest ecosystem becomes saturated with nitrogen, either before or after harvest, emissions of nitrous oxides (N 2 O) may follow, directly or following leaching to outflow areas. Nitrogen application to land that is already rich in nitrogen relative to other nutrients may therefore increase such emissions. This is well-known from agricultural soils, however more knowledge is needed before risks can be quantified for various forest sites. In parts of Denmark, and Central and southern Europe other elements such as P, K and Mg can increase the growth rate of forests on mineral soils. Overall fertilisation was found to increased soil carbon storage due to increased litter production and reduced soil respiration, but according to other sources an enhanced long-term carbon sequestration through fertilisation is less clear and probably only valid for some cases. The rate of soil carbon sequestration, and the magnitude and quality of soil carbon stocks depend on the complex interaction between climate, soils, tree species, litter quality and 26

29 management. The carbon storage capacity of the stable pool can be enhanced by increasing the productivity of the forest and thereby increasing the carbon input to the soil. However, increased tree growth does not necessarily also increase soil carbon but provides additional substitution potentials. Using fertilisers in forests will cause N 2 O emissions, and GHG emissions from the energyintensive production of the fertiliser. These GHG emissions need to be taken into account and offset the potential benefits of carbon sequestration to some extent. Tree breeding The quality of the genetic material has an impact on the value and production in the forest and thereby also on mitigation. For Sweden, using the best available genetic material in Norway spruce was estimated to increase production by more than 30%. This measure is also economically advantageous. Afforestation and avoidance of deforestation Afforestation of woodless areas plays an important role in climate change mitigation. Suitable sites for afforestation are low productive agricultural areas as well as fallow areas. Possibly, relatively cheap land could be used for cost-efficient afforestation. Afforestation of unproductive agricultural land can yield diverse co-benefits (biodiversity, job creation etc.). In respect of the mitigation potential afforestation efforts should be concentrated on regions, where higher stocks than at present could possibly be reached. Reduced deforestation has an immediate impact on the carbon budget: e.g. in Germany about 1,5 Mt C were emitted annually in the period (average loss of ha/a). Increased afforestation could as well bear a major impact but will show up in the mid to long term (20 years) only: in Germany about 0,6 Mt C were sequestered annually in the period (average gain of ha/a) 11. Analysis of woodland planting scenarios for the UK indicate that forestry could make a significant contribution to meeting the UK s challenging emissions reduction targets. Woodlands planted since 1990, coupled to an enhanced woodland creation programme of ha per year over the next 40 years, could, by the 2050s, be delivering, on an annual basis, emissions abatement equivalent to 10% of total GHG emissions at that time. Such a programme would represent a 4% change in land cover and would bring UK forest area to 16% which would still be well below the European average. 12 Assessment of mitigation measures Carbon sequestration should be only one of the goals that drive forest management decisions. Within each region, local solutions have to be found that strive to integrate goals, thereby aiming at sustainable forest use. Developing the optimal regional strategies for climate change mitigation (possibly in combination with adaptation strategies) involving forests will require complex analyses of the trade-offs (synergies and competition) between forest (carbon storage) conservation, harvesting forests, the trade-offs among utilisation strategies of harvested wood products aimed at maximizing the substitution of non-woody material through production, storage, and recycling of wood products and the (final) consumption for 11 Net value for the period : average annual emissions of 0,9 MtC (total net sequestration rate by FM for Germany in the same period: 4,2 MtC annually). 12 Combating Climate Change a role for UK Forests. The synthesis report 27

30 bio-energy, and of trade-offs between climate mitigation and other values of the forest. Technical mitigation measures in forests were assessed according to their impacts, conflict potential, expense, possible effect and the need for research. According to the assessment measures with low expenses and high effect are the prevention of further drainage of virgin peat lands, avoiding deforestation, increasing forest productivity and wood mobilisation in combination with the promotion of the use of wood and wood products to support the substitution effect (material substitution effect, e.g. long-living wood products). Middle expenses and relatively high effects are expected from measures like forest fire protection and control, short rotation plantations, afforestation and the reconstruction of nonnative and vulnerable forest stands (e.g. stands with high share of spruce in Central Europe) to the favour of better adapted species. This could provide synergies with nature protection and water resources management. The possible effect of a reduction of harvesting volumes in order to enhance standing carbon stocks in the forests was assessed controversially because a gain in carbon stocks goes hand in hand with a loss in substitution potential. Substitution effects already outweigh the sink effects in the medium to long time perspective (3 to 100 years) and much more so in the long run ( years). A reduction of harvesting volume can also affect the stand stability in a negative way. Existing indicators to report on carbon sequestration in standing forest biomass take into account the volume of timber harvested and the fuel use required in harvesting activity, as well as carbon stored in wood products and carbon saved by substituting wood for other building materials. The enhancement of standing carbon stocks has in a middle and long-term perspective no or only a marginal climate effect; even negative effects in the carbon balance are possible, because of reduced storage of carbon in long-lived wood products. Soil protection and liming, the protection of carbon stocks in mountain areas, reforestation (e.g. after storm, fire, insect attacks), an optimized level of growing stocks, the increase of rotation lengths and the preservation and enhancement of deadwood have been assessed by the respondents to be of lower importance for climate change mitigation by forests. 5.2 Harvested wood products Harvested wood products (HWPs) can contribute to climate change mitigation by the storage of carbon in the products themselves and by replacing other, most often more GHG intensive products. This chapter focuses on the storage of carbon in wood and wood products, the mitigation potential, the potential offered by the substitution of other (energy or carbon intensive) materials, the positive role of an increased wood use on the sustainable management of forests (including incentive for forest owners to take care of their forests) and methods for evaluation like Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and carbon footprinting. Under the rules of the Kyoto Protocol in place, forest fellings are counted as immediate emissions of CO 2, despite the fact that the majority of the carbon remains stored in the wood and materials derives of it. In reality, actual emissions only occur at the end of the lifetime of these products. Accounting for the carbon storage in HWPs would create incentives for the 28

31 expansion of this carbon pool and give a more prominent role to wood and wood products. The accounting rules for HWPs are currently being re-negotiated under UNFCCC. Options on the table include the inclusion of HWPs as in additional pool to be considered in forest management (within the LULUCF section). The EU favours a three step approach, in which Parties will be able to choose accounting for HWPs either on the basis of the current rule of instant oxidation or, if data are available, account for the carbon storage in domestically used HWPs. Where data are available, Parties may also account for the carbon storage in exported products. A definition of HWPs In the current debate on the role of HWPs several definitions are being used. In this report, the following definition is used: Harvested wood products are carbon-based products derived from [wood-based material harvested from] sustainably managed forests. This includes timber, wood products, wood-based panels, furniture, packaging material and production by-products like sawdust and chips as well paper and cardboard products. Statements made on the positive effect of HWPs as such are only valid if these comply with the definition and the basic concepts of sustainability. Mitigation potential of harvested wood products According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the manufacturing and transport of wood products requires less fossil fuel than energy-intensive construction materials such as aluminium, steel, and concrete. Recent comparisons show that the production of steel and concrete as building material requires up to two times more energy than wood-based products, with concomitant greater generation of GHG 13. Ideally from a mitigation point of view, a combination of these two substitution effects should be aimed at wood products, which should first be used as building materials, where they store carbon and substitute for more energy intensive material, and then at the end of the wood product lifecycle to generate energy as a substitute for fossil fuel 14. Climate change mitigation can be discussed on two ways, either by cutting CO 2 emissions by substitution, or by storing sequestered carbon in wood products (extending carbon sinks). The carbon pool in HWP may grow either by expanding the usage of HWP or by extending the average life span of the products. An expansion of this pool constitutes an effective mitigation option. The main opportunities to capitalize on these CO 2 savings include using a greater proportion of wood products, using wood products with a longer life, and substituting wood and wood-based products for energy-intensive materials. A cubic meter of wood used to substitute other construction materials (concrete, blocs or bricks) saves on average 0,75-1 t CO 2 emissions 15. If this is added to the 0,9 t of CO 2 stored in wood, each cubic metre (about 0,5 t) of wood saves a total of 2 tons of CO 2. At the end of 13 Taverna, R., Hofer, P., Werner, F., Kaufmann, E., Thürig, E., 2007: The CO2 effects of the Swiss forestry and timber industry. Scenarios of future potential for climate-change mitigation. Environmental studies no Federal Office for the Environment, Bern, 102 pp. 14 UNECE/FAO, MCPFE and Swiss Federal Office for the Environment, 2008.Background Paper to the Workshop on Harvested Wood Products in the Context of Climate Change Policies; 9-10 September 2008, Geneva, Switzerland. 15 International Institute for Environmental Development, 2004: Using wood Products to Mitigate Climate Change. 29

32 service life, the HWPs can in most cases be recycled, thus extending the carbon storage effect, and/or be used as a carbon neutral fuel, substituting for fossil fuel sources. This result is also in accordance with Sathre and O Connor 16 meta-analysis on displacement factors of wood product substitution; where for each ton carbon in wood products substituted for non-wood products, an average GHG emission reduction of two tons can be expected. At the end of service life, the HWPs can in most cases be recycled, thus extending the carbon storage effect, and/or be used as a carbon neutral fuel, substituting for fossil fuel sources. Given that wood comes from sustainably managed forests, mitigation effect of wood in construction outweighs in the long term losses in sequestration. Given that wood is a competitive construction material, supporting wood construction is likely a cost efficient mitigation tool. Several studies have tried to estimate the mitigation potential of complete building projects, but studies of single construction elements or building parts are more frequent (examples are given in the annex). Instead of comparing construction materials by volume or weight, a more practical approach is comparing functionally equivalent construction element in their natural units. This is to say that it is easier for designers, constructors and property buyers to compare environmental impacts of e.g. exterior walls with different construction. Figure 2: Energy consumption of alternative functionally equivalent exterior wall structures (MJ/m²). 17 Different Life Cycle Assessments have demonstrated the advantages of paper and board products compared to substitute products with respect to the GHG effects of these products. Based on the production approach, the carbon removal generated e.g. by pulp and paper products in EU in 2006 have reached 9,4 million tonnes CO 2 based on the production approach and 5,9 million tonnes CO 2 based on the stock change approach. 16 Sathre, R and O Connor J. 2008: A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products & Greenhouse Gas Impacts. Technical Report No. TR-19. FPInnovations, FORINTEK. 17 Technical capacity according the Finish construction regulations

33 Fig. 3 Comparison of Beverage Cartons and Disposable PET bottles (Institute for Energy and environmental research ) Assessment tools There are three broad areas to consider when assessing the relative CO 2 impact of different building materials: the energy used in the production of the material or product, the ability of the product to save energy during the use of the building, and the recycling and final disposal of the materials or products. These tools enable designers to assess the initial CO 2 footprint of a building, as well as its environmental impact during use and disposal, and balance them against building and running costs. Environmentally friendly decisions do not take place just because environment friendliness, but they have to be economically viable solutions to decision makers. However, it should be noted that integrated tools to evaluate simultaneously environmental impacts and the economy of the building are still under development and they are urgently needed to support decision making at building and societal level. One should also note that single tool does not necessary apply to all products and markets but to reach efficient outcomes in demand on wood products, one has to consider multiple tools. Building Materials Carbon Indicator A tool to calculate the CO 2 footprint of elements of a particular building or structure that helps in choosing the best combination of materials and products. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) LCA is a technique which assesses the environmental impacts of a building component right the way through its life. It considers the impact of a material or product s use during the phases of production (extraction, production, transport), in-use (energy use, thermal properties, maintenance) and end-of life (recycling, recovery, disposal). This approach cannot always be used to compare materials or products from different countries, many of which have different climates, energy generation sources, design customs, building codes, infrastructure, political influences and building methods, some of which will have a bearing on LCA and Whole Life Cost information. 18 Institute for Energy and environmental research