Throstur Thorsteinsson 1

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Basics of Biodiversity What is it? The diversity of living organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems in which they exist. Throstur Thorsteinsson ThrosturTh@hi.

Richness, evenness, dominance Genetic diversity (within population and within species) Variation in the genetic material Introduction to Environmental Science Species Diversity Species richness Total

species Endemism Species unique to an area - only found there Isolation affects endemism Shannon Index Computing the index n i The number of individuals in species i.

1 Basics of Biodiversity What is it? The diversity of living organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems in which they exist. Throstur Thorsteinsson Habitat diversity Wetland vs. forest vs. grassland vs. aquatic habitats Species diversity What is a species? What is a population? Richness, evenness, dominance Genetic diversity (within population and within species) Variation in the genetic material Introduction to Environmental Science Species Diversity Species richness Total number of species in an area Increases towards the equator, correlates with NPP N(species)/A (square kilometers) Species evenness Relative number of species Species dominance The most abundant species Endemism Species unique to an area - only found there Isolation affects endemism Shannon Index Computing the index n i The number of individuals in species i. S The number of species (species richness). N The total number of all individuals (of all species). p i The relative abundance of each species i; n i /N The higher the better H S i 1 p i ln( p i ) Changes in Biodiversity Biological Evolution Definition: any change in the genetic composition of a population How? Mutations (change in DNA) Natural selection - survival of the fittest best suited to an environment Adaptation Geographical isolation and migration Genetic drift (the change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling) How many species? Estimates vary Crustaceans (Crustacea) form a very large group of arthropods (invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton) Mollusks compose the large phylum of invertebrate animals known as the phylum Mollusca. Arachnids are a class (Arachnida) of joint-legged invertebrate animals in the subphylum Chelicerata Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 1

000 (maximum: Indonesia) and 0.000 (minimum: Greenland). The NBI includes some adjustment allowing for country size. Countries with land area less than 5,000 km 2 are excluded.

2 NBI NBI = National Biodiversity Index. This index is based on estimates of country richness and endemism in four terrestrial vertebrate classes and vascular plants; vertebrates and plants are ranked equally; index values range between (maximum: Indonesia) and (minimum: Greenland). The NBI includes some adjustment allowing for country size. Countries with land area less than 5,000 km 2 are excluded. Overseas territories and dependencies are excluded from this column. National Biodiversity Index Richness increases towards the equator Correlates with NPP NBI combines eveness and richness NBI Why regional variation? Environmental factors - stability Diversity-stability hypothesis Competition - niche development The principle of competitive exclusion Finches - Galapagos islands Chiclids - Lake Victoria Trout - Thingvallavatn Diverse habitats, level of productivity Why so many species? Interactions each type affects evolution systems perspective necessary Competition Competitive exclusion: Two species that have the exact same requirements, cannot coexist in the same habitat. Invasive species. Niche development - adaptation Symbiosis Predation Parasitism Environmental factors that affect diversity - locally Physically diverse habitat Moderate amount of disturbance Small variation in environmental conditions Diversity at one tropic level Middle stages of succession Evolution Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 2

3 Environmental factors that affect diversity - negatively Environmental stress Extreme environments A severe limitation in the supply of an essential resource Extreme amount of disturbance Introduction of exotic species Geographical isolation (island e.g.) Species in Iceland report to CBD Flora: Total of 483 species of vascular plants Total of 560 Bryophyte species (e.g. mosses) Total of 550 lichens Total of 1200 fungi species Species in Iceland report to CBD Wild terrestrial mammals; 4 species Fox, mink, reindeer, wood mouse 3 species of rodents House mouse, brown rat, roof rat 72 bird species Icelandic mammals Species in Iceland report to CBD Freshwater fish; 5 species Insects 1266 species Reptiles - none Marine life 270 fish species 2 seal species Urrari (Eutrigla gurnardus) 7 tooth whale species, 5 species of baleen whales Abundant invertebrates (BIOICE) How fast is biodiversity being lost? Extinctions are a natural event Overall variety has increased faster than extinctions => richness has increased Extinction events (5 total) now experiencing the 6 th? 250 million years ago (climate change) 90% of all marine species gone 65 million years ago (climate change) most recent 10% terrestrial species, 15% marine species Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 3

% UAU102F Extinction events Extinctions Not all species, only fossilized ones Extinctions Normal rate 250 per century of a total of 10 000 000 (0.

Living Planet Report 2014 Some headlines Biodiversity in the Mediterranean is threatened by alien species Solutions still in reach as world biodiversity suffers major decline Extinctions/Threatened

4 % UAU102F Extinction events Extinctions Not all species, only fossilized ones Extinctions Normal rate 250 per century of a total of ( ) Birds in the last 400 years at 128 times the normal rate Mammals at 176 times the normal rate The Living Planet Index Population sizes of vertebrate species have halved over the last 40 years Living Planet Report 2014 Some headlines Biodiversity in the Mediterranean is threatened by alien species Solutions still in reach as world biodiversity suffers major decline Extinctions/Threatened Species - Red list IUCN Red List: Worldwide list of experts that produces a number of threatened species. Threatened at risk of extinction Broken to: Extinct, Extinct in the wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, near threatened, least concern Evaluated/not evaluated Extinctions: Threatened species Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 4

Threatened Species in Iceland - red list Iceland Red listed % red listed Birds 76 32 42 Plants 455 52 11 Lichens 580 67 25 Mosses 585 74 16 Algae 238 42 18 Mammals 4 0 0 Why are Species Being Lost?

All negative? E.g. Common crab (Töskukrabbi in Iceland) Genetic engineering? What is the main driver in all of those? Why are species being lost in Iceland Why do we care?

5 Threatened Species in Iceland - red list Iceland Red listed % red listed Birds Plants Lichens Mosses Algae Mammals Why are Species Being Lost? Land Conversion/Habitat Loss Over-harvesting - bycatch Pollution - various environmental stress Loss of habitat Climate change - rapid change, species unable to adapt Introduction of exotic species All negative? E.g. Common crab (Töskukrabbi in Iceland) Genetic engineering? What is the main driver in all of those? Why are species being lost in Iceland Why do we care? Land degradation One of the more serious environmental issues in Iceland Over half of vegetation lost since settlement down to 25% vegetative cover Hunting Anthropocentric Perspective Loss in biodiversity affects ecosystem functioning, derived ecosystem services Irreversible event Affects ecosystem functioning Rivets analogy - exponential effect the loss of each species will have on the function of an ecosystem Productivity Resiliency Resistance Loss in genetic material Medicine, more susceptible to change, reduction in genetic libraries Loss in amenity services Affects Ecosystem Functioning (Pimm, Tillman) Correlation between richness and productivity Darwin Various possible functional forms But what is the causal relationship? Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 5

6 Stability and biodiversity Increased diversity stabilizes the functioning of the ecosystem Diversity can destabilize the dynamics of individual species Resistance of (withstand change) Increases with increasing diversity Resilience (rate of recovery) Increases with increasing diversity Importance of genetic diversity (Myers) Improved form of existing crops Gene pools eroding Native species disappearing New foods Medicines and pharmaceuticals Industry Research use Biotechnology Ethics Well-being of the planet depends on the health of all of its parts Humanity is part of nature All life depends on uninterrupted functioning of natural systems Ecological limits are not limits to human endeavor All species have a right to exist Human culture must be based on respect for nature Protection Why is protecting biodiversity so difficult? Publicness Biodiversity is a public good Equity Who should pay for it? International and intergenerational issue Impact on local populations Uncertainty The impact of species loss uncertain Conservation Policy In situ vs. ex situ conservation Maintain minimum viable population is a lower bound on the population of a species, such that it can survive in the wild. Must maintain genetic diversity Prevent in-breeding How do we know what minimum viable population is? How small is too small? Minimum viable population Assessed using population viability analysis using computer models include: 1) Deterministic Factors (usually species characteristics, cannot be changed) per capita growth rate, r Longevity type of survivorship curve 2) Stochastic Change Factors (risks of rarity) a) Demographic Risks Demographic stochasticity (chance variation in births and deaths) Environmental variation (year to year) Catastrophes (episodic extreme events) b) Genetic Risks Inbreeding (expression of harmful alleles) Drift (chance loss of genetic variation) Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 6

7 What to perserve? What to preserve? Usually try to prevent extinctions at all cost Precautionary principle, minimum safe standard However cannot protect everything: Noah s ark problem save some, not all Select areas and species to preserve based on: Willingness to pay Cost-benefit ratio s, probability that a species will recover and uniqueness of the species Benefits charismatic megafauna Flagship species What about insects? What to preserve Protected areas - habitat preservation Why? Protect biodiversity Landscape For eco-tourism? Where? Species richness Endemism Gap analysis - hot spots How big? Minimum viable area Critical habitat Institutions Browse through, Visit their web sites, Know their goals, CBD CITES Institutions Global Convention on biological diversity (CBD) CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Regional Arctic CAFF Convention on Biological Diversity Signed at Rio in 1992 Over 180 ratified (not the USA!) Recognizes: Biodiversity is a common concern States have sovereign rights North - south issues Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 7

CBD Objectives: The conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources

8 CBD Objectives: The conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies and by appropriate funding. Advocates precautionary principle Advocates in-situ preservation Convention on Biological Diversity Instruments - facilitated by COP National biodiversity conservation plans Integrate biodiversity concentration plans into national decision making, encourage in-situ plans. Identify biodiversity important for its conservation and sustainable use and to monitor such. Establish protected areas. Control and prevent the influx of alien species that threaten ecosystems. Introduce appropriate procedures for impact assessment. Contribute financially - GEF Each country has the rights to the genetic resources within a country. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora: CITES Signed 1963, currently with 168 ratified parties Aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls. All import, export, reexport and introduction of covered species has to be authorized through a licensing system. CITES - Instruments Appendix 1: Includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances. Appendix 2: Includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival. Appendix 3: Contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade. CAFF Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Advises the Arctic governments (Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States) on conservation matters and sustainable use issues of international significance and common concern. CAFF Region Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 8

CAFF Region Action Plan onitoring of Arctic biodiversity; Conservation of Arctic species and their habitats; Establishment of protected areas; Conservation of nature outside protected areas;

CAFF Progress Endangered Species Act: USA Forbids Federal Agencies from authorizing, funding or carrying out actions which may jeopardize endangered species.

9 CAFF Region Action Plan onitoring of Arctic biodiversity; Conservation of Arctic species and their habitats; Establishment of protected areas; Conservation of nature outside protected areas; Integration of conservation objectives and measures for economic sectors of the society. CAFF Progress Endangered Species Act: USA Forbids Federal Agencies from authorizing, funding or carrying out actions which may jeopardize endangered species. Forbids any government agency, corporation, or citizen from taking (i.e. harming or killing) endangered animals without a permit. At ecosystem level, the Act requires that endangered species be granted "critical habitats" which encompass all areas necessary for their recovery. Endangered Species Act: USA Three types of species: Threatened Endangered Candidate species Listing results in creation of a recovery plan - has it been successful? Mostly benefits large cuddly or majestic animals Iceland Ministry for the Ministry for the Environment and Natural Resources is responsible for nature conservation in general Various institutions: Nature conservation agency Icelandic Institute of natural history Physical planning agency Food and environmental agency (UST) Wildlife management unit Other ministries as well responsible creates a fragmented approach Important acts Act on protecting Thingvellir 1928 Act on the conservation of lake Myvatn (1974) Act on the conservation, protection and hunting of wild birds and mammals (1994) Act on the conservation of Bay Breidafjordur (1995) Act on nature conservation (1999) Should submit nature conservation strategies every 5 yr Should lead to protection of ecosystems and species Implements the Convention on Biological Diversity Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 9

How Many Species? Known species http://www.plosbiology.

com/ Environment-Facts/Plants- Animals/number-species.php http://www.cbd.

How species co-exist Using the environment differently Finches - Galapagos

(Decapods) Minimum viable area critical habitat Reserve design Based on

10 How Many Species? Known species /journal.pbio Environment-Facts/Plants- Animals/number-species.php Niche Development Competition - niche development Ecological niche How species co-exist Using the environment differently Finches - Galapagos islands Chiclids - Lake Victoria Trout - Thingvallavatn Lichen Crustacean (Decapods) Minimum viable area critical habitat Reserve design Based on conservation biology Should aim at a minimum MVP? Should be the focus of management? Throstur Thorsteinsson (ThrosturTh@hi.is) 10

CHAPTER. 7 Biodiversity and Conservation

CHAPTER. 7 Biodiversity and Conservation CHAPTER 7 Biodiversity and Conservation S aving the S iberian Tiger Siberian tigers are one of five remaining tiger subspecies. In the early 20th century, hunting and habitat loss reduced the wild population