Table of Contents...i. List of Tables...ix. List of Figures...xii. List of Abbreviations... xiv

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2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume I Executive Summary Volume II Main Report (Part 1) Table of Contents...i List of Tables...ix List of Figures...xii List of Abbreviations... xiv Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Study Objectives Study Area Study Approach Data Sourcing And Gaps Stakeholder Consultation Format Of The Report Chapter 2 Guiding Principles and Policies 2.1 Introduction Definition of Highlands, Hills and Mountains Problems with Definitions of Highlands Review Of Existing Definitions Definitions Used in this Study Sustainable Development of the Highlands Policies Relevant To The Highlands Sustainable Tourism in the Highlands Principles Policies Sustainable Agriculture in the Highlands Rationale Policies Forests and Biodiversity Sustainable development rationales Constitutional and legal provisions Sustainable Human Settlements WWF Malaysia i

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 3 The Main Range Environment 3.1 Introduction Physical Environment Topography Geology Soils Climate Temperature Humidity and evaporation Rainfall Sunshine and solar radiation Surface wind Hydrology and Water Resources River systems River water quality Water supply Existing water supply dams Proposed water supply dams Hydropower development Existing hydropower plants Hydro power potential Mineral Resources Metallic minerals Non-metallic minerals Forests And Biodiversity Forests Cover Forest Types in the Main Range Forest Management Forest resource development Logging Harvesting area since Flora Diversity in the Highlands Wildlife Wildlife reserves and protected areas Wildlife habitats of the Main Range Species Socio-Economic Environment Population Pahang Kelantan Perak Negeri Sembilan Selangor Orang Asli Communities Employment Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands WWF Malaysia ii

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Fraser's Hill Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik Belum Economic Activities Cameron Highlands Lojing Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik Fraser's Hill Tourism Kelantan Perak Pahang Selangor Negeri Sembilan Tourist Arrivals Land Use Existing Land use Settlement Pattern Committed Development Agriculture Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik Belum Road system Existing roads Roads under construction Proposed roads Chapter 4 Problems and Opportunities in the Highlands 4.1 Introduction Urban Development Lack of Local Authority Jurisdiction Absence Of Statutory Local Plans Effectiveness of the Structure and Local Plans Lack Of Comprehensive Guidelines And Regulations Pressures Of Urban Encroachment Incongruent Development Kampung Raja as A New Gateway New Urban Development Projects in the Highlands WWF Malaysia iii

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4.3 Agriculture Constraints to Agriculture Development Climatic conditions Terrain and soils Access Market Land Tenure Environmental Problems Problems Pertaining to Specific Crops Tea Vegetables Fruits Inadequate Enforcement Capacity Tourism Problems in the Tourism Sector Marketing Attractions and tourism infrastructure Sustainability and the environment Prospects Caving Camping Recreational fishing wheel drive tours and excursions Socio-Economy Dichotomy Between Urban and Rural Areas Out-Migration of Residents Poor Quality of Health Care Amongst the Orang Asli Inadequate Educational Facilities for the Orang Asli Orang Asli Relocation Problems Gazettment of Orang Asli Land Impacts of Existing and New Proposed Developments Potentials and Prospects Forests and Biodiversity Weaknesses in forest management practices The need for protected areas Impacts of development on flora Wildlife Protection Highlands and large mammals Impacts of development Impacts of logging Habitat fragmentation Problems faced by the highland fauna in survival Illegal logging Forest degradation Law Enforcement Forestry and Tourism : The Need for Direction Loss of revenue to states Hydrology and Water Resources Highlands as Water Supply Source to Lowlands WWF Malaysia iv

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Hydrological Consequences of Land Use Change in the Highlands Streamflow Low flows Flooding Sediment transport Water Shortages In Hill Stations Cloud Forests Roads and Transportation in the Highlands Road Construction Traffic Congestion at Hill Stations Slope Instability Climate Change Waste Management Environmental Education in the Highlands Chapter 5 Strategic Land Use Plan 5.1 Introduction Strategic Land Use Plan for the Main Range Constraints and Opportunities Elevations Water bodies Road network Dams and water catchment areas Tourism sites Areas important for the protection of biodiversity Agriculture Development Existing settlements and development areas Special Management Areas Strategic Land Use Plan Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands SMA Setting Land Use Change Strategic Proposals Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik SMA Setting Land Use Change Strategic Proposals Fraser s Hill SMA Setting Strategic Proposals Chapter 6 Legal and Institutional Framework 6.1 Introduction Review of Legal and Institutional Framework Administration and Functional Responsibilities WWF Malaysia v

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Federal Constitution Ministerial Functions Act Land Use Planning and Development National Land Code Town and Country Planning Act Control and Regulation of Development Activities Land Conservation Act Environmental Quality Act Other regulations Habitat Protection Protection of Wildlife Act National Forestry Act Aboriginal Peoples Act National Parks Act Key Issues To Be Addressed Underlying Principles on the Institutional Framework Improvements to the Institutional Framework Establishing a Permanent Committee on Highlands and Islands Cameron Lojing Kinta Regional Planning Committee Management Responsibilities for Other SMAs Monitoring And Enforcement Improvements to the Legal Framework Chapter 7 Economic Instruments and Funding Mechanisms 7.1 Introduction Types of Economic Instruments Economic Instruments and Funding Mechanisms for the Highlands Incremental Cost Framework Highlands Heritage Fund Purpose of the Fund Sources of Funding Fund Management Tax Deductions for Contributors Legislation Size of the Fund Examples from Other Countries Incentives by the Federal Government Direct Taxes Indirect Taxes Incentives by the State Governments Incentives and Awards MOCAT Award for Sustainable Development in the Highlands Green Globe Award of the World Travel and Tourism Council PATA Green Leaf Award Eco labelling Educational Services Federal Government Contributions to State WWF Malaysia vi

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 8 Study on Gunung Benum 8.1 Introduction Existing Situation Raub District Jerantut Temerloh Land Use Topography And Soils Climate River System Water Quality Forest And Biodiversity Introduction Forest Types & Species Richness Socio-Economy Population Agriculture Tourism Orang Asli Issues And Problems Encroachment By Agriculture Tourism Unrealized Tourism Potential Access To Lata Berembun Biodiversity Conservation Resource Extraction And Poaching Within The Benum Range Isolation And Fragmentation Of The Benum Range Proposed Road From Mempaga To Ulu Cheka Recommendations Agriculture Biodiversity Conservation Tourism Volume III Main Report (Part 2) Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Highlands Management and Conservation Strategy Proposed Guidelines Highlands Management and Conservation Indicators Conclusions WWF Malaysia vii

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume IV Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Appendix 6 Appendix 7 Appendix 8 Appendices Database References Review of Relevant Policies and Plans Review of Existing Guidelines List of Stakeholder Meetings Report on the National Consultative Workshop List of Committed Projects in and around the Main Range List of Water Intakes WWF Malaysia viii

10 LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1 Table 2-2 Table 2-3 Definition of Highland by Different Agencies Percentage of Highland Areas by State Existing Definitions for Highlands and Hills in Terms of Slope Table 3-1 Land Area of Mountain Ranges Table 3-2 Elevation Bands of the Main Range Table 3-3 Proposed Soil Series on the Main Range Complex Table 3-4 Dams Located within the Main Range Table 3-5 List of Completed Dams in Negeri Sembilan Table 3-6 Project Phasing of Sg. Selangor Water Supply Scheme Table 3-7 Proposed Dam Sites in Kelantan Table 3-8 Main Hydroelectric Power Plants Located within the Main Range Table 3-9 Potential Hydro Power Generation in Peninsular Malaysia Table 3-10 Volume and Value of Metallic Mineral Production, 1999 Table 3-11 Volume and Value of Non-Metallic Mineral Production, 1999 Table 3-12 Forest Coverage in Peninsular Malaysia Table 3-13 Forest Reserves and Other Forested Land (1999) Table 3-14 Forest Cover in Relation to Topography Table 3-15 Forest Reserves on the Main Range Table 3-16 Forest Plantation, 1999 Table 3-17 Annual Coupes Under Plan Periods (ha) Table 3-18 Areas Opened for Logging, 1999 Table 3-19 Production of Logs by Forest Type, 1999 Table 3-20 Royalty Collected and Output of Logs, 1999 Table 3-21 Wildlife Reserves on or Adjacent to the Main Range Table 3-22 Montane Birds, Their Habitat Ranges and Need for Montane Habitat Table 3-23 Amphibia Species That Depend Upon Natural Montane Habitats for Survival Table 3-24 Reptile Species That Depend Upon Natural Montane Habitats for Survival Table 3-25 Mammal Species That Depend Upon Natural Montane Habitats for Survival Table 3-26 Endangered/threatened Vertebrate Fauna Peninsular Malaysia Table 3-27 Endemic Vertebrates in Peninsular Malaysia Table 3-28 The Population in the Main Range, 2000 Table 3-29 Distribution of Orang Asli Villages and Population in the Gua Musang District, 2000 Table 3-30 The Orang Asli Population Distribution by Selected Districts Table 3-31 Distribution of Employment by Sector, Cameron Highlands, 1980, 1991 and 2000 Table 3-32 Distribution of Employment by Sector, Fraser's Hill Table 3-33 Number of Employees, Resorts World Berhad, Table 3-34 Distribution of Employment at Bukit Tinggi WWF Malaysia ix

11 LIST OF TABLES Table 3-35 Tourism Resource Profile, Main Range Table 3-36 Tourist Arrivals in Cameron Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Genting Highlands ( ) Table 3-37 Distribution of Tourists to Genting Highlands, Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill by Country of Origin, 2000 Table 3-38 Average Length of Stay at Cameron Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Genting Highlands ( ) Table 3-39 Tourists Purpose of Visit, 1999 Table 3-40 Composition of Tourist Expenditure, 1995 and 2000, (%) Table 3-41 Land Use in the Main Range Table 3-42 Areas Planted with Vegetables in Cameron Highlands Table 3-43 Cost of Production and Price for Selected Vegetables Table 3-44 Areas Planted with Fruits in Cameron Highlands Table 3-45 Agricultural Development in Lojing, 2001 Table 3-46 Sections of the Simpang Pulai Kuala Berang Highway within the Main Range Table 4-1 Table 4-2 Table 4-3 Table 4-4 Table 4-5 Table 4-6 Table 4-7 Table 4-8 Table 4-9 Table 4-10 Terrain Class Areas In Cameron Highlands Areas In Erosion Risk Classes Cameron Highlands Projected Demand For Selected Highland Vegetables Forest Reserves In Selangor Gazetted as Water Catchment Forests Forest Reserves In Negeri Sembilan Gazetted As Water Catchment Forests Revenue From Forests in Peninsular Malaysia Changes in Water Yield Following Forest Removal Impacts of Forest Land Use Change to Sediment Yields Water Quality of Ringlet Reservoir Existing Water Supply In Cameron Highlands Table 5-1 Summary of Development Constraints Table 5-2 Opportunities and Potentials Table 5-3 Traditional Villages in the Main Range Table 5-4 Strategic Land Use Plan for the Main Range Table 5-5 Strategic Land Use Plan for the Main Range Areas by State Table 5-6 Land Area of Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands SMA Table 5-7 Camerons SMA Landuse Change, Table 5-8 Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik SMA Land Use Change Table 6-1 Table 6-2 Table 6-3 Table 6-4 Matters Relevant to the Environment & Natural Resources under the Federal, State and Concurrent Lists Function of Ministries and Departments Existing Cabinet Committee On Highlands And Islands National Physical Planning Council (NPPC) Act A1129 WWF Malaysia x

12 LIST OF TABLES Table 6-5 Table 6-6 Table 6-7 Table 6-8 Table 6-9 Table 7-1 Table 7-2 Table 7-3 Table 8-1 Table 8-2 Table 8-3 Proposed Permanent Cabinet Committee on Highlands and Islands Proposed Camerons Region Regional Planning Committee Enforcement Provisions Related to Sustainable Highland Development and Management Related Legislation and Implementing Agencies Summary of Issues and Recommendation on the Legal and Institutional Framework Incremental Cost Matrix Examples of the Size of Trust Funds Proposed MOCAT Award Scheme Summary of Gazette Notices Concerning the Krau Wildlife Reserve Permanent Reserved Forests Within and Around the Benum Range Estimated Major Floristic Zones in the Gunung Benum Forests WWF Malaysia xi

13 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1 Figure 1-2 Figure 1-3 Figure 1-4 Figure 1-5 Figure 1-6 Figure 1-7 Figure 1-8 Figure 3-1 Figure 3-2 Figure 3-3 Figure 3-4 Figure 3-5 Figure 3-6 Figure 3-7 Figure 3-8 Figure 3-9 Figure 3-10 Figure 3-11 Figure 3-12 Figure 3-13 Figure 3-14 Figure 4-1 Figure 5-1 Figure 5-2 Figure 5-3 Figure 5-4 Figure 5-5 Figure 5-6 Figure 5-7a Figure 5-7b Figure 5-8 Figure 5-9 Figure 5-10 Figure 5-11 Figure 5-12 The Main Range of Peninsular Malaysia The Main Range in Perak The Main Range in Kelantan The Main Range in Pahang The Main Range in Negeri Sembilan The Main Range in Selangor Gunung Benum Approach to the Formulation of Strategies and Guidelines Mountain Ranges in Peninsular Malaysia Topography of Peninsular Malaysia Topography of the Main Range Slope Map of Peninsular Malaysia Geology of the Main Range Approximate Distribution of Soils in Relation to Hill Slopes Proposed Soil Series of the Main Range Climatic Conditions at Cameron Highlands and Ipoh Rainfall in the Main Range Wind Rose at Cameron Highlands Drainage Catchments of the Main Range The Main Range in Relation to Water Catchments Permanent Forest Estates in the Main Range Tourist Destinations in the Main Range Logging Chronosequence Physical and Administrative Aspects Settlement Areas Infrastructure Tourism Sites Conservation Areas Proposed Special Management Areas (SMA) Main Range Strategic Land Use Plan Main Range Strategic Land Use Plan Special Management Area: Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands Land Use Change: Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands Special Management Area: Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik Land Use Change: Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik Special Management Area: Fraser s Hill WWF Malaysia xii

14 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 6-1 Figure 8-1 Figure 8-2 Figure 8-3 Figure 8-4 Figure 8-5 Figure 8-6 Figure 8-7 Figure 8-8 Overall Institutional Framework for Sustainable Highlands Development and Management Location of Benum Range Land Use of the Benum Range Topography of the Benum Range River System and Water Intakes Forest Reserves and Protected Areas at the Benum Range Orang Asli Settlements and Tourism Attractions around the Benum Range Areas in Forest Reserve Encroached by Agriculture Vegetable Farms and Fruit Orchards Within the Kelau Dam Catchment WWF Malaysia xiii

15 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAGR Average Annual Growth Rate AFTA Asean Free Trade Area ALS Average Length of Stay BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CBD Convention on Biological Diversity COD Chemical Oxygen Demand DANCED Danish Cooperatioon for Environment and Development dbh diameter at breast height DID Department of Irrigation and Drainage DMG Department of Minerals and Geoscience DOA Department of Agriculture DOE Department of Environment DOF Department of Forestry DOS Department of Statistics DOOAA Department of Orang Asli Affairs DPR Development Proposal Report (Laporan Cadangan Pembangunan) DWNP Department of Wildlife and National Parks (PERHILITAN) EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EPU Economic Planning Unit EQA Environmental Quality Act 1974 ESA Environmentally Sensitive Area FAMA Federal Agriculture Marketing Authority FELCRA Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority FELDA Federal Land Development Authority FHDC Fraser s Hill Development Corporation FHNEC Fraser s Hill Nature Education Centre FR Forest Reserve / Federal Route FRIM Forest Research Institute of Malaysia GBF Gunung Benum Forest GEF Global Environment Facility GIS Geographic Information System GWh Gigawatt-hour HCVA High Conservation Value Area HDF Hill Dipterocarp Forest HHF Highlands Heritage Fund HPU Highway Planning Unit HRR Hill Resort Road INTAN Institut Tadbiran Awam Negara (National Institue for Public Administration) ISO International Organisation for Standardisation ITTO International Tropical Timber Organisation IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature (The World Conservation Union) JHEOA Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli (see DOOAA) JBA Jabatan Bekalan Air (Water Supply Department) WWF Malaysia xiv

16 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JPBD Jabatan Perancang Bandar dan Desa (see TCPD) KWR Krau Wildlife Reserve KSAS Kawasan Sensitif Alam Sekitar (Environmentally Sensitive Area) kw Kilowatt LA Local Authority LCP Laporan Cadangan Pembangunan (see DPR) LGA Local Government Act 1976 LMF Lower Montane Forest LPA Local Planning Authority LUAS Lembaga Urus Air Selangor (Selangor Waters Management Board) MACRES Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing MARDI Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute MC&I Malaysian Criteria & Indicators MDA Mineral Development Act 1994 MDB Majilis Daerah Bentung (Bentung District Council) MDCH Majlis Daerah Cameron Highlands (Cameron Highlands District Council) MDR Majlis Daerah Raub (Raub District Council) MHA Malaysian Highway Authority MHLG Ministry of Housing and Local Government MICE Meeting, Incentive, Convention and Exhibition ML Million litres MLD Million litres per day MMS Malaysian Meteorological Services MOCAT Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism MOSTE Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment MP Malaysia Plan MTPB Malaysian Tourism Promotion Board MUS Malayan Uniform System MW Megawatt NAP National Agriculture Policy NDPC National Development Planning Council NCS National Conservation Strategy NETP National Eco-Tourism Plan NFA National Forestry Act 1984 NFP National Forestry Policy NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NLC National Land Code NMP National Mineral Policy NPBD National Policy on Biological Diversity NPPC National Physical Planning Council NWC National Water Council OPP Outline Perspective Plan PATA Pacific Asia Tourism Council WWF Malaysia xv

17 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PERHILITAN Jabatan Perlindungan Haiwan Liar dan Taman Negara (see DWNP) PFE Permanent Forest Estate PSD Public Services Department PTG Pejabat Tanah dan Galian PWD Public Works Department REACH Regional Environmental Awareness of Cameron Highlands RISDA Rubber Industry Smallholder Development Authority RPC Regional Planning Committee RPS Rancangan Pengumpulan Semula RWB Resorts World Berhad SA State Authority SDBA Streets, Drainage and Building Act 1974 SDI Sustainable Development Indicators SMS Selective Management System SMA Special Management Area SPC State Planning Committee SWMAE Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment 1999 TCPA Town and Country Planning Act 1976 TCPD Town and Country Planning Department TNB Tenaga Nasional Berhad TOL Temporary Occupation Licence TSS Total Suspended Solids UDF Upper Dipterocarp Forest UMF Upper Montane Forest UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme VJR Virgin Jungle Reserve WA Waters Act 1920 WQI Water Quality Index WR Wildlife Reserve WS Wildlife Sanctuary WSE Water Supply Enactment WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council WWF World Wide Fund for Nature WWF Malaysia xvi

18 1 INTRODUCTION

19 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Mountains and highlands, regardless of the definition, are extremely important components of the Earth s surface. It is estimated that about 36% of the land area of the world is composed of mountains, highlands and hill country (Fairbridge, 1968). In Peninsular Malaysia, almost 21% of the land area is made up of highlands and mountains, ecosystems which are particularly fragile and which play important roles in sustaining life. The highlands have, in recent years, been under development pressure, particularly from the tourism and agriculture. Evidence at some highlands in Peninsular Malaysia has shown that these sites are very fragile and vulnerable and the cost of development (both financial and environmental) is very high. Prudent and long-term planning is seen as vital to safeguard the highlands while enabling sustainable utilization of the resources that these areas offer. The Study for the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia, commissioned by the Economic Planning Unit (EPU), Prime Minister s Department and funded by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), commenced on 1 December In January 2002, the scope of the study was expanded to include Gunung Benum in Pahang. The study is expected to lead towards the formulation of a sustainable development strategy for the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia. This report is the in a series of seven reports that the study has produced. The previous reports that were presented are : Inception Report submitted on 7 March 2001 First Preliminary Report submitted on 14 September 2001 Interim Report submitted on 27 December 2001 Report on National Consultative Workshop submitted on 4 February 2002 Gunung Benum Interim Report submitted on 8 April 2002 Draft submitted on 22 July 2002 This report is a culmination of all the findings of the study after having taken into consideration all the feedback from stakeholders, especially those received during the National Consultative Workshop in January This is presented in four volumes : Volume I : Executive Summary Volume II : Main Report (Part 1) Volume III : Main Report (Part 2) Volume IV : Appendices WWF Malaysia 1-1

20 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 1.2 Study Objectives The main aim of this study is to promote effective conservation and sustainable use of the natural resources of the highland areas in Peninsular Malaysia, through the formulation of a draft National Highlands Management and Conservation Strategy and the development of guidelines and indicators. In this context, the general problem to be addressed is the overall well-being of highland areas, as expressed by their ability to satisfy the human needs for water supply, soil erosion control and conservation of their biodiversity and at the same time, fulfilling demands for tourism facilities and development. The three main objectives of this study are : Objective 1 Identification of the practical information needs of government agencies, the private sector and other potential users, and consolidating information to form a database that is manageable, capable of being updated, and accessible to those users, especially at aggregate national and State levels. Objective 2 The formulation of a draft National Highlands Management and Conservation Strategy for sustainable development of the highlands in Malaysia. Objective 3 The formulation of guidelines and indicators as elements for a Land Use Management Plan, using the Main Range as a demonstration model for replication in other highland areas in Peninsular Malaysia. 1.3 Study Area As specified in the Terms of Reference, the geographical focus of the study is the Main Range (Banjaran Titiwangsa). The Main Range (Figure 1-1), covering about 14,500 km 2, is the largest highlands area in Peninsular Malaysia. The Main Range lies in the states of Perak, Pahang, Kelantan, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. The portions of the Main Range, which are in the five states, are shown in Figures 1-2 to 1-6. The Main Range in this report is taken as all areas above the 300 m contour. The administrative districts within which the Main Range lies are : Perak : Hulu Perak Pahang : Cameron Highlands Kuala Kangsar Lipis Kinta Bentong Batang Padang Raub WWF Malaysia 1-2

21 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION Kelantan : Gua Musang Jeli Selangor : Gombak N. Sembilan : Jelebu Ampang Jaya Kuala Pilah Hulu Selangor Jempol Hulu Langat Tampin In January 2002, the scope of the study was expanded to include Gunung Benum in Pahang. Gunung Benum (Figure 1-7) covers an area of about 810 km 2 and straddles the districts of Jerantut, Kuala Lipis, Raub and Temerloh. Gunung Benum is important in terms of biodiversity as it hosts the Krau Game Reserve, one of the largest wildlife reserves in Peninsular Malaysia and is protected under the Protection of Wildlife Act Study Approach The strategies in this study were formulated based on the national policies and principles of sustainable development. Data and information were collected from various sources including government agencies, private sector, non-governmental organizations and literature. All important stakeholders were interviewed and their opinions noted. The issues and problems in the highlands were studied from various perspectives and strategies formulated to support sustainable development and the conservation of the highland environment. Guidelines and indicators were then formulated to support the strategies. Figure 1-8 shows the approach to the formulation of the strategies and guidelines. Figure 1-8 : Approach to the Formulation of Strategies and Guidelines Guiding Principles and Policies Management and Conservation Strategy Recommendations Guidelines Problems and Opportunities in the Highlands Strategic Land Use Plan Recommendations Recommendations Guidelines Guidelines Recommendations Guidelines WWF Malaysia 1-3

22 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 1.5 Data Sourcing and Gaps Preliminary data sourcing was carried out at the beginning of the study to determine the baseline conditions and existing situation. Further data sourcing was carried throughout the course of the study as issues and problems were identified and data was required to assess the situation and to formulate strategies and solutions. Data for the study was collected from various sources including: Malaysian Government agencies Private sector Non-governmental organizations Maps Literature (including newspaper reports) The types and sources of the various data obtained as well as gaps with the data are discussed below. The gaps in the data are mainly due to lack of records and inaccessibility of some of the official records. Further data collection will be necessary in the future to expand and update the database and geographic information system on a regular basis. Topography Topographical information was obtained from topographical maps published by the Department of Lands and Survey. The maps used are listed in Appendix 1. The topographic maps were digitized and form the backbone to the GIS database used in this study. Although the topographical maps are available for the entire Main Range, the large contour intervals on these maps do not permit accurate estimation of slope steepness. As the highland development suitability classification recently approved by the Cabinet relies heavily on slope, detailed topographic information will be necessary in order to classify the terrain. More detailed topographic data of the local terrain of the highlands is necessary in order to produce accurate slope analyses to enable appropriate decision-making. Topographic maps of the highlands with higher resolution (contour intervals of not more than 20m) will be necessary to enable such slope analysis. Geology and Soils Information on geology and soils in the Main Range were obtained from published maps and literature. The geological and lithological profiles of the Main Range are described based on past studies specifically within the Main Range and also highlands in general. There is a lack of geological and lithological data of the Main Range due to its inaccessibility and undeveloped status. Large tracts of the Main Range have traditionally been assigned as steepland with not much definite knowledge of the geology and soils. As knowledge of the highland geological WWF Malaysia 1-4

23 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION characteristics improves, geotechnical evaluation of project sites in the highlands will become more accurate and useful. Hydrology and water resources Most of the information was obtained from Water Supply Department (Jabatan Bekalan Air), the National Water Resources Study and topographical maps. Water quality data was obtained from the Department of Environment (DOE) and also the National Water Resources Study. Data was also obtained from publications from Tenaga Nasional Berhad. Climate Climate data was obtained from the Malaysian Meteorological Services (MMS) and data is available up to year Comprehensive meteorological data is available only from the Cameron Highlands meteorological station since there are no other similar stations in the highlands. Rainfall data was obtained from the records of the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID). Except for Cameron Highlands, there is a lack of long-term meteorological data in the highlands. There are several meteorological stations at high elevations but these only measure rainfall. Little is known about climatic features at other hill stations. Population Population data was obtained from published documents such as the Population Census 1991 and Preliminary Population Census 2000 (district level). The Population Census 2000 provides district level population in year This was deemed sufficient in terms of the Main Range linkages to regional level. At present, there is no publication which could specifically depict the past and current population in the Main Range. Estimates were made based on several studies that have been carried out. Information on population profile and structure on major settlements such as Genting Highlands and Fraser's Hill is generally lacking. Again, estimates were made based on the Population Census There are also problems with data on Orang Asli settlements in terms of their socio economic activities. Much of the data obtained so far are qualitative. Data on migration and income is almost nonexistent. The latest data on Orang Asli population and settlement were only available for the year Data on settlements in Cameron Highlands and Gua Musang Districts were obtained through meetings with JHEOA at Federal Level, JHEOA at state level, especially in Kelantan and Negeri Sembilan. WWF Malaysia 1-5

24 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION Tourism Data on tourist arrivals, purpose of visit, expenditure, hotels, guests and guest nights, average length of stay and occupancy rates was obtained from Malaysian Tourism Promotion Board (MTPB), the Third Outline Perspective Plan (OPP3) and Eighth Malaysia Plan (8MP). Data on tourist arrivals and origin of visitors for Cameron Highlands, Genting Highlands and Fraser s Hill was obtained from Fraser s Hill Development Corporation (FHDC). Besides print documents, some information was also sourced from official websites. For major tourist destinations in the Main Range, reliable data is available from MTPB and FHDC for 1999 but for the more minor tourist destinations, location, specific data is not available or up-to-date. Information on tourism parameters is necessary in order to effectively design tourism packages and target specific tourism markets. Information on the popularity of tourism destinations in the highlands needs to be improved based on tourists feedback, and not merely on numbers of tourists and visitors. Another area of tourism industry data that needs to be improved is the economic returns from tourism in the highlands. The availability of such economic data would enable more comprehensive environmental cost-benefit analyses of the tourism industry to be carried out. Minerals The main source of information was published data from Department of Minerals and Geoscience (DMG) including Malaysian Minerals Yearbook 1999 and Industrial Mineral Production Statistics and Directory of Producers in Malaysia and Map of Mineral Distribution of Peninsular Malaysia. The scarcity of data on minerals is due largely to the inaccessibility of the highlands and the lack of surveys on the mineral potential of the highlands. The low demand for mineral products, such as rock and sand, in the highlands has led to little exploration and development of such mineral deposits. Knowledge of the mineral potential of the highlands is important to enable proper land use planning that optimizes the benefits of mining potential while addressing the need for environmental conservation. Forestry and Biodiversity Published reports from the Department of Forestry (DOF) the Annual Report 1999 and the Forestry Statistics Peninsular Malaysia, 1999 were the two principal sources of data used. A Forest Resources Map, FS6, which identified existing primary forest and logged-over forest in Peninsular Malaysia provided by the DOF was found to be invaluable in identifying the existing logging areas in the Main Range. Good State level data is available up to The state forest management plans for states encompassing the Main Range were also used as a reference. WWF Malaysia 1-6

25 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION Poor and inadequate scientific knowledge of highland flora and, especially, fauna presents a major problem to sustainable development of the highlands. The common lament of scientists that there is a paucity of studies on biodiversity in the highlands should be an impetus for more research to be carried out. The impacts of logging and development on montane species, particularly with respect to local extinction and fragmentation of populations, have been poorly studied. The extent of pristine habitats on the Main Range have also not been mapped and differentiated from areas that have been disturbed or logged over. Land use Information was collected from the Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD), structure and local plans. Most of the information on committed projects was obtained from the various State TCPDs. Except for the hill stations at Cameron Highlands, Frasers Hill and Genting Highlands, planning for urban development in most of the highland areas is under the jurisdiction of the State TCPD. The information collected from State TCPD includes information on area, development types, number of residential and commercial units. Generally the quality of information from departments with a database was good although there were instances when they had to be updated. Land use data for the Main Range and the Cameron Highlands Loijng Kinta Highlands and Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik area were also obtained from the Department of Agriculture (DOA). Information pertaining to State land which has been alienated for urban development and land leased for agricultural activities are not compiled by the TCPD but kept in the records of the Land Office. There are several instances of land alienated to state agencies and private sector for development that is not in the record of the TCPD. Some of the State TCPD such as in Perak and Pahang maintain a computerized database on land development while in the other states, the information is in the form of conventional records. Wildlife reserves / Protected areas The data on the extent of wildlife reserves and national/ state parks were obtained from the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) and published reports from various sources including non-governmental organizations. Information was also obtained through personal communication with DWNP staff. Boundaries of protected areas need to be clearly demarcated and surveyed in order to effectively manage the protected areas and to detect encroachment into the areas. The ambiguity over the boundary lines of the protected areas is a problem that needs to be resolved in order to enable land use planning and zoning in the highlands. WWF Malaysia 1-7

26 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION Agriculture Data on crop areas, production levels, human resource involved, input levels and farm gate prices were obtained from Department of Agriculture (both at the Federal and state levels) and from Food and Agriculture Marketing Authority (FAMA). During field visits to Cameron Highlands, information was obtained from meetings with farmers and staff of Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI). While there is good data for Cameron Highlands, information on agriculture activities in Lojing, Janda Baik and Bukit Tinggi is scarce. The locations of farms in the highlands, especially in Cameron Highlands, have not been properly mapped out, thus making proper land use management difficult. Roads Information on existing and proposed roads was obtained from topographic and land use maps and the Public Works Department (PWD). Information was also inferred from Structure Plan proposals for districts that encompassed the Main Range. However, details of certain proposed roads in the highlands could not be obtained due to the non-availability of such data. More comprehensive data on road traffic requirements in the highlands is needed in order to enable better planning of the transport system in the highlands, bearing in mind the fragility of the highlands and the importance of maintaining the natural habitat continuity. The major gap in the data relating to roads and transportation is the absence of information about some proposed road alignments and the lack of transportation plans specific for the highlands. 1.6 Stakeholder Consultation Stakeholder consultation was an important component of the study for several reasons: It provided an avenue for the study team to brief the stakeholders on the objectives, scope and outputs of the study. This proved particularly useful when meetings with the state government agencies who will eventually implement the recommendations of the study. Several stakeholders have asked specific issued, deemed to be important to them, to be studied in greater detail. It enabled the study team to solicit their opinions on current issues in the highlands and those issues affecting the highlands so that these issues can be addressed in the formulation of strategies and guidelines. This has proved extremely useful at the local levels where many issues are site-specific and rarely addressed at the national or state levels. Experience and knowledge of stakeholders at the local level enabled the study team to formulate better strategies. WWF Malaysia 1-8

27 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION It provided the study team with insights on socio-economic and environmental work done by other parties. During meetings with stakeholders, the study team was introduced to several past and on-going studies at different locations within the Main Range. This enabled the study team to identify sources of information including reports, maps and literature that would otherwise have been missed out. Meetings were held with government agencies at Federal, State and local levels. Meetings with government agencies with the state of Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Perak were facilitated by the respective state EPUs. Meetings were also held with the private sector and non-governmental organizations. All the stakeholder consultations undertaken in conjunction with this study are listed in Appendix 5. A national consultative workshop was held on January 2002 at Selesa Hillhomes and Golf Resort, Bukit Tinggi to discuss the Interim Report of this study. 117 delegates including representatives from the five states within the study area (Pahang, Selangor, Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Kelantan), Federal government agencies, local authorities, the private sector, NGOs and Universities participated in the workshop. Although the government sector was well represented, other sectors were actually under-represented (for example, private sector and community) or not represented (for example Farmers Association). The full report on the workshop is presented in Appendix 6 of this report. The objectives of the workshop were: To disseminate the findings of the study, the proposed strategies, action plans and guidelines to the stakeholders To solicit feedback from stakeholders, particularly the respective state governments, on the proposed strategies, action plans and guidelines. The workshop was officially opened by Y. Bhg Dato' Halipah bte Esa, Deputy Director General (Macro) Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister's Department, who gave the opening speech. Mr Freddie Cho, Director, Regional Economics and Environment Section of the Economic Planning Unit chaired the proceedings. On the whole, and despite the short time available, the workshop achieved its objective of soliciting stakeholder feedback very well. The participants put forward numerous issues, comments, suggestions and criticisms and these offered new insights onto the issues and problems identified in the study. Although there were conflicting views even amongst the stakeholders, these views provided a fresh perspective to the issues and problems in the highlands. Most participants also benefited from being briefed on the problems in the highlands as well as from obtaining latest information pertaining to the Main Range. Three mini workshops were also organized in May and June 2002 to further obtain feedback from the stakeholders. The first of the mini workshops was held on 21 May 2002 and involved agencies at the Federal level. The second mini workshop, catering for the state government agencies from Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan WWF Malaysia 1-9

28 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION and Kelantan, was held on 5 June The third mini workshop, catering for the government agencies from Pahang, was held on 7 June The study team reviewed all the feedbacks received during the workshops and has incorporated these into the final recommendations. The stakeholder workshops proved to be a valuable exercise and gave the study team a more comprehensive understanding of local issues and concerns affecting the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia. This helped to ensure that the is a more robust and authoritative document, developed in consensus with stakeholders and partners, and will truly aid in planning for and safeguarding the highlands whilst enabling sustainable utilization of their valuable resources. 1.7 Format of the Report The Draft is produced in four volumes. Volume I Executive Summary Volume II Main Report (Part 1) Volume I contains eight chapters, namely : Chapter 1 : Introduction wherein the background to the study, the study approach, data sourcing, stakeholder consultation process and other introductory material are presented. Chapter 2 : Guiding Principles and Policies wherein the definition of highlands and the basic principles for the study are established. Chapter 3 : The Main Range Environment wherein the physical, biological and the socio-economic environments of the Main Range are documented. Chapter 4 : Problems and Opportunities in the Highlands wherein the main issues and problems pertaining to the management and conservation of the highlands are described. Chapter 5 : Strategic Land Use Plan wherein the strategic land use plans for the Main Range, Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta area, the Genting Janda Baik Bukit Tinggi area and the Frasers Hill area are developed and explained. Chapter 6 : Legal & Institutional Framework wherein the existing legal and institutional frameworks are reviewed and proposals made to streamline and strengthen them. WWF Malaysia 1-10

29 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION Chapter 7 : Economic Instruments and Funding Mechanisms wherein various proposed economic instruments and funding mechanisms for achieving sustainable development in the highlands are presented. Chapter 8 : Study on Gunung Benum wherein the physical and socioeconomic information on Gunung Benum together with the issues and problems as well as strategies and recommendations are presented. Volume III Main Report (Part 2) Volume II contains four more chapters. Chapter 9 : Highlands Management and Conservation Strategy wherein the strategies and recommendations to address the issues and problems in the highlands are formulated. Chapter 10 : Proposed Guidelines wherein new guidelines are proposed covering various aspects of highlands management and conservation. Chapter 11 : Highlands Management and Conservation Indicators wherein indicators have been formulated in order to measure the progress in implementing the highlands management and conservation strategy. Chapter 12 : Conclusions Volume IV Appendices Appendix 1 : Database wherein the database of the Main Range established using the geographical information system is presented. Appendix 2 : References Appendix 3 : Review of Relevant Policies and Plans Appendix 4 : Review of Existing Guidelines Appendix 5 : List of Stakeholder Meetings Appendix 6 : Report on the National Consultative Workshop Appendix 7 : List of Committed Projects in and around the Main Range Appendix 8 : List of Water Intakes WWF Malaysia 1-11

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37 2 GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES

38 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES 2.1 Introduction The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The Commission (also known as the Brundtland Commission) noted that the concept of sustainable development implied limits, these being (i) limitations imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on environmental resources, and (ii) limitations imposed by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. In a subsequent treatise by IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991), in the context of a strategy for sustainable living, sustainable development was defined as improving the quality of human life within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems, and requires action in the economic, human, environmental and technological dimensions to achieve this form of development. MIER (1990), in its report on the implementation of the recommendations of the Brundtland Commission in Malaysia, concluded that the development process generally has not paid much attention to environmental issues. Land use change over the past several decades had been based mainly on economic considerations and drew heavily on the resources of the country. Major land use changes were largely motivated by the desire of the government to eradicate poverty in the rural sector. This was implemented by large-scale clearing of forest for agricultural or urban development. The early land use changes have already caused some serious and irreparable damages to the environment which have been assessed as 'trade off' in the name of economic development. For example, since the beginning of the century, forest cover has declined significantly. It is estimated that at the beginning of the century, over 90% of Peninsular Malaysia was covered with forest. This figure had only decline to 72% at the time of Independence. With the push for land development as described earlier, the forest cover declined rapidly to 48% in 1980 and to 45% at present. Only with the incorporation of a chapter on environment in the Fifth Malaysia Plan ( ) were environmental issues given any attention. The developmental path that the nation had embarked upon could only be sustainable if economic growth placed high priority on protection of the environment, adding that development, which adversely affected the quality of life of the population, would not be sustainable. Sustainable development means thinking in terms of whole systems, with all their interconnections, consequences, and feedback loops. This way of thinking avoids artificial and often misleading categories such as humanity versus nature, or jobs versus the environment. Instead, it places a high value on responding to problems realistically, but through learning and innovation rather than critique and complaint. Sustainable development of the highlands is vital to protect its fragile ecosystem as well as the lowlands which are dependent on the highlands. This chapter sets out the guiding principles and policies that dictate the formulation of the highlands management and conservation strategy and guidelines, particularly the national policies that are relevant to the highlands planning and management. WWF Malaysia 2-1

39 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES 2.2 Definition of Highlands, Hills and Mountains The definitions of hills and mountains, throughout the world, have been made according to the requirements of particular locations and fields of study. There is no standard definition of highlands, hills and mountains that is acceptable to or suitable for all purposes including academic research and public policy formulation. The reason being that the definitions of highlands, hills and mountains vary according to geographical location, altitude, climate and local culture. There have been numerous attempts to define and classify hills and mountains since the beginning of the 20 th century. Early geologists and geographers (e.g. Strahler, 1946; Lobeck, 1926, 1939; Preston James, 1935; Finch & Trewartha, 1936; cited in Gerrard, 1990) had tried to put forward various definitions based on underlying geology, zonation of vegetation and slopes. Most of these early definitions lacked robustness and consistency. In the literature, the term highlands is rarely used. Instead, the debate about definitions usually revolves around the terms hills and mountains. Much of the discussions about mountains originate from countries and regions that are predominantly mountainous, such as the Himalayas and the Andes Problems with the Definition of Highlands The lack of a uniform definition of highlands has resulted in some confusion among different parties with different interests and viewpoints. Some misunderstanding has also arisen over the loose usage of the words altitude (or elevation) and slope. The two are not the same and should not be used interchangeably. Altitude refers to the height of land above a reference point, usually taken as the mean sea level, whereas slope refers to the gradient of the land surface, usually expressed in units of degrees or percent. Steep slopes do not occur exclusively in the highlands. In fact, steep slopes are found wherever there is an abrupt change in elevation, which can occur in lowlands also. Gentle gradients can also be found in parts of the highlands, such as on plateaus and broad inter-montane valleys. Mountains and highlands, however, are normally characterized by steep slopes. There is an indirect relationship between altitude and vegetation, but a direct relationship between climatic conditions and vegetation. The climatic conditions change with altitude at the same grid location, thus influencing the vegetation. The climatic conditions also change with latitude at the same altitude, thus influencing vegetation. Thus, the climate and vegetation at a given altitude would be significantly different in tropical and temperate zones. Therefore, uniform definitions of mountains and hills based on climatic and vegetation criteria cannot be applied globally Review Of Existing Definitions There is no legal definition of highlands in Malaysia. Nevertheless, the first reference to the definition of highlands by elevation, as land above 300m, is attributed to Nieuwolt, Zaki & Gopinathan (1982) who proposed three general terms WWF Malaysia 2-2

40 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES (lowlands, highlands and steeplands) to describe hill land used for agriculture. MARDI (1993) defined highlands as land having elevation greater than 300m and steeplands as land having slopes greater than 25 o. In 1993, the DOA and MARDI had recommended that slopes steeper than 25 were not suitable for agriculture. This land is classified as having very high erosion risk with estimated soil loss exceeding 150 tonnes/ha/year. The National Forestry Council on 24 July 2000 had decided that all forests within Permanent Forest Reserves in Peninsular Malaysia that are above 1000m be gazetted as soil conservation forests and water catchment forests under Section 10(1) of the National Forestry Act The Council also decided that all government land above 1000m should be identified and gazetted as Permanent Forest Estate and classified as soil conservation forests and water catchment forests according to Section 10(1) of the National Forestry Act Gazettement of forests as protection forests means logging is no longer permitted above 1,000m. This gazettement is based solely on the altitude of the land and does not take into account the slope of the ground. The main criteria that have been used in the past to define highlands is elevation (Table 2-1). The DOA (1993) and DOF defined hill land as land above 300m whereas the TCPD classified hill land as land above 150m. JICA, in the Kelantan River Basin-Wide Flood Mitigation Study (1989), defined hilly areas as land from 150m to 1000m, and mountainous areas as land above 1000m. The Malaysian National Conservation Strategy considered land above 915 m as steepland and hill land. Thus, there is no clear consensus on the definition of hill land. It appears that the 150m and 300m are the most common cut-off with 150m representing hilly land and 300m representing highlands. The definition of mountains by Price (1981) as an elevated landform of high local relief e.g. 300m (1000 ft) with much of its surface in steep slopes, usually displaying distinct variations in climate and associated biological phenomena from its base to its summit seems appropriate to describe Malaysian highlands. Most scientists working in mountain areas are of the opinion that relative relief should be greater than 300m and consensus seems to be emerging that a figure of 700m is more realistic (see Gerrard, 1990 for a review). The 300m contour is also an important line in terms of distinct changes in vegetation. In Malaysia, the dominant forest types from the lowlands to the highlands can be grouped into four floristic zones, which are differentiated by altitude. The Dipterocarpaceae dominates the lowland forests up to 300m while the hill dipterocarp forest dominates between 300m and 900m. The upper dipterocarp and oak-laurel forests occur from 900 to 1200m and above 1200m respectively. Above 1200m the montane ericaceous forest appears. WWF Malaysia 2-3

41 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Table 2-1 : Definition Of Highland By Different Agencies Agency/ Organization Committee/ Study Height (m above sea level) Name Remarks 1. Agriculture Department (1993) 2. Forestry Department Letter Ref: PHNKN (sulit 14/16/(39) 24/9/96) 300m Forest area above 1,000 ft (305 m) Hill Land Forest areas to be conserved 3. JICA Kelantan River Basin Wide Flood Mitigation Study, 1989 Exceeding 1,000m (exceeding 3,280 ) 150 1,000m (492 3,280) Mountainous area Hilly area m ( ) Low hilly area 4. Malaysia National Conservation Strategy (Volume 1-EPU) 19/7/ Selangor State Exco (Paper MMK 5/7/1995) 0 75m (0 246 ) i) 3,000 ft (915m) (Peninsular Malaysia) ii) 4,000ft (1,220m) (Sabah/Sarawak) 3 categories of land: i) Above contour line 200 ft (61m) Flat area Steep land/hill land - Protected forest with at least one VJR. No logging permitted Need to be gazetted Hill Slope guidelines to apply 6. JPBD (IP) Unit Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan Nov JPBD Kelantan (1997) ii) Above 1,000 ft (305m) iii) Area above 2,000ft (610m) with slope above 30 i) 150meter (492 feet) and above 0 75 m m m > 300m Protected forest Hill Land Hill Lands Flat Undulating Hilly Highlands Protected forest Developme nt not permitted on slopes exceeding 25% on land above 150m Source: Garispanduan Pembangunan Kawasan Tanah-Tinggi dan Berbukit di Negeri Kelantan (1992) WWF Malaysia 2-4

42 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Definitions Used in this Study As the focus of this study is highlands (rather than steepland), the main definitions are based on elevation rather than slope. The following definitions have been used in this study : Lowlands Hill land Highlands Mountains below 150m 150m 300m 300m 1000m above 1000m The 150m and 300m elevations appear to be the most commonly used in Malaysia by the various agencies to demacrate hill lands and highlands. The 300m contour also coincides with the distinct change in vegetation where the lowland dipterocarp forests are replaced by the hill dipterocarp forests. Both the 900m and 1000m elevations have been used in the past to define mountains. From the biological perspective, the 900m is a good boundary because at this altitude, significant biological differences are observable between the lowland and the montane forests (Perumal, 2001). The 1000m was chosen in this study because it corresponds with the National Forestry Council July 2000 directive to protect forests above 1000m. Considering that the difference is small and for reasons of administrative efficacy, the 1000m appears to be a better criterion to define mountains. Land above 1000m only accounts for less than 5% of the total land area of Peninsular Malaysia. Table 2-2 shows the percentage of land area in Peninsular Malaysia that corresponds to the 150m and 300m contours respectively. Table 2-2 : Percentage of Highland Areas by State State Land below Land between Land above 300m 150m m % area % area % area Perlis Kedah Pulau Pinang Perak Selangor W. Persekutuan Negeri Sembilan Melaka Johor Pahang Terengganu Kelantan Peninsular Malaysia Considering that mountains and highlands are always characterized by steep slopes, a summary of definitions based on slopes are also presented in this chapter (see Table 2-3). There is a general pattern that the definition of steepland occurs between 20 o to 30 o. The more conservative definitions are 20 o. WWF Malaysia 2-5

43 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Table 2-3 : Existing definitions for highlands and hills in terms of slope Agency/ committee Slope measurement Categories of hills/highlands Existing policies/ recommendations Environmental Technical Committee for the Special Cabinet Committee on the Highland Towers Tragedy Soil Conservation in Chamah Highlands, (1994) i ii iii >30 o i Gentle slope + Dangerous slope Critical slope + based on Japan National Government Guidelines Rolling terrain All states adopt the Land Conservation Act 1960 National Land Council established, classification of hilly lands and master Plan for land use Schedule of Works and Schedule of Payment was rearranged. Study on high risk areas Environmental Quality Act 1974 to be amended. Developments on 20 slope are subjected to an EIA although the coverage is less than 50 ha. The land has to be terraced and turfing must be done to prevent soil erosion ii Hilly terrain Only cardamom and rattan can be planted iii Moderate steep terrain Agriculture activities can be carried out with strict soil conservation strategies iv (amplitude of relief greater than 200 ) Steep terrain Suitable for Agro-Forestry v. > 30 Very steep terrain Must be conserved i) 60% must be conserved as pristine forest and can only be explored for adventure tourism (e.g. jungle tracking) research and studies, open natural tropical jungle 10% for intensive agriculture 30% for agro-forestry ii. Guidelines/conditions for agricultural activities; Only land with slopes certified for agriculture shall be used and be planted with vegetation that can strengthen the soil. Marginal WWF Malaysia 2-6

44 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Agency/ committee Slope measurement Categories of hills/highlands Existing policies/ recommendations land can only be used for agro-forestry (cardamom and rattan) which doesn t involve terracing and felling of trees. Soil Erosion Control Agriculture on land above 12 slope must be terraced. The terracing should follow the contour and each terrace is separated by detention walls. Small streams, gullies and drains outlets must be protected. Silt pits drains with 6 20 length is constructed to accumulate the eroded soil from the hills Contour drain drain constructed across the contour to drain the water following the contour Contour bunds constructed to control the flow of water. Plant with cover crops Minimize burning Jabatan Pertanian (1966) i. 0-2 ii. 2-6 iii iv. 20 v. 25 Flat Undulating Rolling Hilly Moderately steep Suitable for short term crops (flowers, tapioca, corn, vegetables), Mid term crops( 2-15 years e.g. banana, papaya, lemon, cocoa), long term crops (rubber, durians, oil palm & dokong). Suitable for mid term and long term crops. Suitable for long term crops Suitable for long term crops Pahang State Government i) Cameron Highlands Structure Plan vi. above 25 Steep Highlands Not suitable for land clearing and agriculture Not suitable for development maximum development - 4 to 8 hectares maximum development size for mixed development projects is 45 ha. Maximum height not more than 4 storeys. All projects are subjected to an EIA although the area involved is less than 50ha. WWF Malaysia 2-7

45 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Agency/ committee Slope measurement Categories of hills/highlands Existing policies/ recommendations ii. Cameron Highlands District Office Only Cameron Highlands is gazetted under the Land Conservation Act Highlands (for Tioman Island) Approval for land clearing must be obtained Approval must be obtained to carryout the following activities: cutting, flattening, removing stumps and grass, ploughing, construction of roads and drains. Permit is required to use bulldozers for land clearing. TOL (Temporary Occupancy License) must be renewed annually. Any land in this area which undergoes change in status must be brought up to the Land Committee Highlands Committee Government s Meeting Council Catchment areas will not be allowed for development Any offence under section 429B shall be liable to a fine not less than RM 500 Department of Environment (1996) Above 20 Highlands i. Not encouraged for land clearing activities ii. The following areas will be conserved Areas which are identified as water supply sources Permanent Forest Reserve Areas which are rich in biodiversity Areas which have high erosion risk including areas above 25 Riparian Reserve Zone along the rivers which has been identified as watershed Areas which have been identified as having special and unique criteria in terms of vegetation and topography. Mineral and Geoscience Department >20 Highlands High risk areas of the highlands WWF Malaysia 2-8

46 Study on the Sustainable Development of the Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Agency/ committee Slope measurement Categories of hills/highlands Existing policies/ recommendations Malaysia National Conservation Strategy (Volume 1 EPU 19/7/91) Selangor State Government (MMK 5/7/1995) >25 Steep land / hilly areas i. Should be gazetted as hills ii. Environmental Impact Assessment is required for hill developments Flat Undulating Rolling terrain i) 0 % - 2% ii) 2% - 6% iii) 6 % - 12% Standard Guidelines for Slopes i) Low Risk Suitable for housing, commercial, industries, institution, tourism and recreational developments (subjected to Planning Assessment Report) ii) Medium risk Developers must submit Environmental Risk Assessment and Environmental Impact Assessment Reports. Planning Assessment Report WWF Malaysia 2-9

47 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES 2.3 Sustainable Development of the Highlands The highlands are environmentally sensitive areas, and much of the Main Range is located on slopes greater than 20 degrees. Highlands are particularly vulnerable to soil erosion due to their steep slopes, deeply weathered soils, and the heavy rainfall as high as 3000mm per year. These areas generally have high value as water catchment areas due to their location in the headwaters of streams and rivers. As an example, the Main Range is by far the main water catchment area for Peninsular Malaysia. All major towns in the states of Kelantan, Perak, Pahang, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan rely, in one way or another, on the Main Range catchments for their water supply. About 98% of Selangor s total water supply is dependent on the Main Range. In addition, cloud forests, thought to occur at elevations greater than 1500m, are very important in the overall hydrological balance of Peninsular Malaysia (Abdul Rahim, 1996). The concept of sustainable development of the highlands underpins the need to strike a balance between economic growth, social well-being and environmental conservation. Essentially the three entities of economy, society and environment are interrelated and there is a need to take account of the links that exist among them. Ultimately sustainable development will lead to a better quality of life for the community and the nation at large. In other words, sustainability means growth that can be achieved over a long period of time without causing imbalances in the economy. In simpler terms, it requires that the utilization of resources to achieve growth today must not impair the availability of resources to achieve growth in the future. The importance of the highlands and, in particular, the Main Range, has been highlighted earlier. Its importance can be examined from the economic, societal and environmental perspectives: Economic importance (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) The Main Range is the main water catchment for Peninsular Malaysia. The major towns in Kelantan, Perak, Pahang, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan depend on the Main Range catchments for their water supply. The hill stations in the Main Range and the other natural attractions of the highlands are important to the tourism industry. The highlands attract over 2 million visitors per year, most of whom visit Genting Highlands. The highlands are suitable for temperate agriculture such as tea, vegetables and flowers because of its cooler climate. There are several hydro electricity projects in the highlands that are vital to the nation s electricity supply. The forests on the highlands are an important source of tropical timber and other forest produce. WWF Malaysia 2-10

48 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Social importance (i) (ii) (iii) There are several settlements in the highlands, especially within the hill stations. The total resident population in the highlands is estimated at over 60,000 people. A large number of Orang Asli in the Peninsular reside in the highlands. The socio economic needs of this community have to be met. The highland areas close to the metropolitan areas provide recreational opportunities for the urban population. Environmental conservation importance (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) The forests in the Main Range are the last remaining tracts of contiguous natural forest in the Peninsular. The highlands are rich in biodiversity with a high degree of endemism. The highland forests are important in providing a protective cover to steep slopes and deeply weathered soils, without which soil erosion and landslides leading to floods in the downstream areas can occur during periods of heavy rainfall. The highlands are important habitats for a wide range of wildlife including large mammals and birds. The highlands are important carbon sinks in removing greenhouses gases from the atmosphere. The highlands capture much moisture by intercepting clouds and become effective water producers The manner we develop the highlands will depend on the value system we attach to the above issues. For example, indiscriminate agriculture practices while resulting in short term economic gains can cause serious damage to the environment. Similarly large-scale tourism development can permanently destroy the charm and ambience of the hill stations. There is obviously a need to strike a balance between these competing objectives. While there is a need to promote development, there is also an overarching need to conserve the natural resources of the highlands. This would suggest that development in the highlands should be introduced in a selective manner, carefully planned and well managed. 2.4 Policies Relevant To The Highlands There are no specific policies on the sustainable development and management of the highlands. Some of the guiding policies relate to those articulated in the international conventions and agreements, the national policies adopted by the WWF Malaysia 2-11

49 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Government and the policies and recommendations of the statutory development plans i.e. Structure and Local Plans. These policies are elaborated in Appendix 3 of this report. International Conventions Some of the international conventions ratified by the Malaysian Government that may have a bearing on the highlands are: Agenda 21 Convention on Biological Diversity United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) Agenda 21 underpins the importance of the highlands as a fragile ecosystem that needs protection. It is also a repository for biological diversity and an important source of freshwater supply. The Convention on Biological Diversity advocates that conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity should be an integral part of the development process in the country. The UNFCC recognizes the highlands as important carbon sinks for greenhouse gases. National plans and policies The relevant national plans and policies are contained in the following documents: (i) The Third Outline Perspective Plan (OPP3) (ii) The Eighth Malaysia Plan (8MP) (iii) National Ecotourism Plan (NETP) (iv) National Policy on Biological Diversity (NPBD) (v) National Forestry Policy (vi) National Agriculture Policy The OPP3 recognizes the importance of integrated approaches and strategies for the conservation of critical natural habitats and resources. Similarly the 8MP calls on all states to identify and gazette ESA s including those found in the highlands. The Plan also calls for local authority and community participation in addressing environmental issues. The highland areas offer tremendous opportunities for ecotourism activities. The National Ecotourism Plan has identified potential sites within the highlands for ecotourism activities. These include Gunung Stong in Kelantan, Frasers Hill in Pahang, the Kenaboi Forest Reserve in Negeri Sembilan, the Greater Templer Park in Selangor and the Belum State Park in Perak. The NPBD was launched in April 1998 with a vision to transform Malaysia into a world center of excellence in conservation, research and utilization of tropical biological diversity. The Policy contains 15 strategies aimed at guiding biological diversity planning, utilization and management. WWF Malaysia 2-12

50 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES The National Forestry Policy calls for the conservation and sustainable management of forest resources. An important recent policy directive by the National Forestry Council is the ban on all logging activities above 1000m. The National Agriculture Policy does not specifically address highland agriculture. However the government recognizes the importance of food security and the need to reduce the national food import bill. The highlands is an important producer of vegetables, tea and temperate flowers and therefore features as a unique agriculture zone. Structure and Local Plans Structure plans have been formulated for all the districts in the Main Range. Most of the Structure Plans were consistent in their recommendations to protect and conserve the highlands. The plans also call for the adoption of existing guidelines on hill development. Some of the major development proposals in the Structure Plans which are relevant to the highlands include: establishment of new urban center in the Kinta Highlands establishment of new growth centers in Lojing, Kelantan. Among the major new road proposals affecting the Main Range include: Ulu Selim Raub road connection Simpang Pulai- Gua Musang Highway Cameron Highlands Lipis road. Kuala Lumpur- Karak By pass The proposed Highland Resort Road has also been adopted in some of the Structure Plans. The various concepts on sustainable development, international, national and local development policies will serve to guide the formulation of the Highlands Management and Conservation Strategy. This will be elaborated in greater detail in the subsequent chapters. 2.5 Sustainable Tourism in the Highlands Principles Sustainable tourism can be defined as any form of tourist development or activity which respects the environment, ensures long-term conservation of natural and cultural resources, and is socially and economically acceptable and comfortable. The rationale for sustainable tourism in the highlands is clear. Tourism is a major activity in parts of the highlands and it is important that it is managed in a sustainable way. The aim should be for tourism in the highlands to grow significantly in ways, which are economically, socially and environmentally beneficial for all the stakeholders including the Orang Asli community. WWF Malaysia 2-13

51 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES The natural environment in the highlands and to a lesser extent the cultural heritage are the very factors which attract both domestic and foreign visitors but, at the same time, are ecologically sensitive, fragile and potentially vulnerable assets that have to be very carefully conserved. It is thus vital that tourism development occurs in harmony with the natural environment. Similarly, historical places, objects and buildings in urban and rural centres of the highlands are reflective of culture, identity and religious beliefs. These play an important role in providing cultural identity and continuity in a rapidly changing environment. Thus the conservation, rehabilitation and culturally sensitive, adaptive reuse of urban, rural and architectural heritage in the highlands would be in accordance with the sustainable use of natural and man made resources Policies Sustainable tourism development is, as clearly recognised in the 8MP, a critical requirement for the long-term success and viability of the tourism industry. The Plan also indicates that sustainable tourism development is the key strategy for providing the necessary balance among economic, social, cultural and environmental needs in the country s tourism planning and implementation. The OPP3 noted that the tourism industry is a key driver in service sector growth. It indicates efforts will be made to attract more international tourists to stay longer, spend more and undertake repeat visits. In order to achieve these objectives, State Tourism and Culture agencies will be established and research and data collection intensified so as to upgrade the tourism database. The rural areas will also be promoted as attractive destinations for both city dwellers and foreign visitors. The National Eco-Tourism Plan (NETP) also contains a number of policies and guidelines which are both relevant and specific to the highlands. It emphasizes that mountain environments are especially fragile and problems can be exacerbated by tourism and other developments. The Plan clearly specifies what are permissible and non-permissible tourism activities in the highlands, provides many guidelines for site planning and management including construction of buildings, access roads, toilet facilities, walking routes and energy sources. The Malaysia National Conservation Strategy (MNCS) contains a number of principles pertaining to sustainable tourism development and made a number of recommendations relating to tourism planning and management. It proposed, for example, that physical developments for visitors should be subject to careful planning and control, protected areas should be zoned, specialised courses for nature tourism guides should be further developed, no tourism facilities should be permitted unless and until facilities to maintain waste collection treatment and disposal are in place, ecotourism developments should be supply-led and criteria should be developed to determine carrying capacity. A number of Structure Plans and other development plans also provide policy recommendations relevant to tourism development in the highlands. In Kelantan, the Gua Musang Structure Plan recommended Lojing and Gunung Chamah be WWF Malaysia 2-14

52 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES developed as highland tourism centres and the former as an ecotourism site. The Jeli Structure Plan proposed that Gunung Reng, Lata Pergau and Hutan Lipur Lata Janggut be designated as recreational areas. The Hulu Perak District Structure Plan contained proposals for tourism development in the highlands at Tasik Temenggor, Tasik Chenderoh, Lembah Belum, Lata Kijang Recreational Forest and the East West Highway. Low-density development of tourism areas was also proposed. The Bentong Raub - Kuala Lipis Structure Plan, , contained several recommendations related to tourism in the highlands, including the development of Kampung Janda Baik and Bukit Tinggi as recreation zones and the promotion of controlled development in the Genting Highlands as a centre for international and local tourist attractions. The Structure Plan for Raub noted that Fraser s Hill will be developed as a popular tourist centre while ensuring sustainable development practices and indicated that the Fraser s Hill Local Plan would be undertaken to guide and monitor development in the locality. The Plan further noted that development in Fraser s Hill would be closely monitored to avoid negative impacts on the natural environment. New sites for tourism proposed within the highlands included: Hutan Simpan Rotan Tunggal, Air Terjun Lata Lembik, Bukit Telaga and Air Terjun Jeriau. The Kuala Lipis Structure Plan identified the Kenong Rain Forest and Kuala Medeng as areas with potential for highland tourism although neither are located on the Main Range. Also in Pahang, the Cameron Highlands Structure Plan, , recommended, inter-alia, that development within Cameron Highlands, should conform with its image and identity as a hill resort and agriculture activities and tourism products based on natural resources. The Jelebu Jempol - Kuala Pilah Structure Plan identified Kenaboi Recreational Forest in Jelebu as having good potential to be developed as a tourism centre for ecotourism. The Ampang Jaya, Gombak, Hulu Langat Structure Plan noted that a number of tourist attractions would be upgraded and further developed in order to meet the needs of local and foreign tourists. There would be management and development of forest areas for ecotourism and development at Klang Gates dam and surrounding areas for water based recreational activities. 2.6 Sustainable Agriculture in the Highlands Rationale Agricultural development in the highlands faces several problems. The rampant and indiscriminate agriculture practices arise from the fact that much of the agriculture practices are on TOL land and therefore long-term sustainability is sacrificed for short-term monetary returns. Development of agriculture in the highlands has been associated with excessive erosion and siltation of waterways as well as the accumulation of agrochemicals leading to considerable degradation of the environment. Thus the need to enhance food security will need to be balanced against the need to safeguard the environment and the quality of life. Highland WWF Malaysia 2-15

53 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES agriculture also faces difficulties from shortage of labour (and the increasing reliance on immigrant labour). A far more serious threat is likely to arise from cheaper imports from neighbouring countries especially following implementation of AFTA. Therefore sustainable agricultural practices are vital to safeguard the environment and to retain the viability of the industry Policies The DOA and MARDI have defined highlands as all land more than 300m (Jabatan Pertanian Semenanjung Malaysia, 1998). An important factor that led to this definition is the cool temperature, above this height, which renders the areas unsuitable for the dominant plantation crops like rubber and oil palm. The cooler temperature, particularly in the elevation bands 1,200m to 1,500m and 1,500m to 1,800m, permits the cultivation of temperate vegetables and flowers (cabbage, Chinese cabbage, tomatoes, cauliflower, broccoli, roses, chrysanthemum, carnation) as well as subtropical fruits like mandarin oranges and persimmon. The highland environment is also highly suitable for the cultivation of tea. The temperate vegetables, subtropical fruits and tea are produced largely for domestic consumption with limited export to Singapore. There is considerable, sustained demand for these crops within the country and the demand is likely to grow with increasing population and rising living standards. The Third National Agricultural Policy ( ) (Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia, 1998) places considerable importance on enhancing food security through increasing domestic food production. All three National Agricultural Policies gave importance to increasing farm income. The Third National Agriculture Policy sets out to ensure that the agriculture and forestry sectors remain strategically important as a provider of food and raw materials for agro-and resourced-based industrial development. It focuses on new approaches to increase productivity and competitiveness, cross-sectoral linkages, venture in new frontier areas, as well as utilize natural resources on a sustainable basis. These emphases are in line with that of the National Forestry Policy. The NAP3 stresses that sustainable forest management will continue to remain the underlying basis of forest management. One of the strategies of the NAP3 is to adopt a strategy that optimizes resource usage for agricultural and forestry development. Towards this end, an agroforestry strategy to integrate agriculture and forestry development outside Permanent Forest Estates (PFEs) is adopted by the NAP3. This agroforestry approach views agriculture and forestry as mutually compatible and complementary and therefore provides a scope for joint development that can bring about mutual benefits. 2.7 Forests and Biodiversity Malaysia is one of the 12 megadiversity countries in the world. Up to 90% or more of the terrestrial biodiversity in Malaysia is located in the forests. Forests fulfill many functions. They are the source of timber and non-timber goods, and provide WWF Malaysia 2-16

54 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES numerous services. Non-timber goods include rattan, bamboo, fuelwood and extractives (dyes, gums, incense, latexes, oils, resins, and including those leading to development of pharmaceuticals), and food such as fish, game, fruits, nuts, honey and spices. Services provided by forests include soil and watershed protection (extremely important in the highlands), conservation of terrestrial biological diversity, maintenance of aquatic biological diversity, regulation of climate, carbon sequestration and recreation and tourism Sustainable development rationales Montane areas of the highlands are particularly rich in biodiversity. Despite the present insufficient knowledge of much of the flora of Peninsular Malaysia, studies carried out so far have provided an insight into the nature of the flora of the highlands, and especially of the montane areas (see Chapter 3 for details on highland flora and fauna and a discussion on endemism). As forests occupy most of the highland areas in the country, sustainable management of these forests is part and parcel of the whole issue of sustainable development in the highlands. Ensuring that forests are managed sustainably, strictly in accordance with existing policies and guidelines, would be part of the larger sustainable development scenario for these highlands. Where there are deficiencies in these provisions, the required strengthening would need to be taken. The evolving process of forest management certification is designed to lead to good forestry practices, although globally complete agreement has yet to be reached on this issue. Nevertheless, several regional processes are underway, and for Peninsular Malaysia, the adoption of the Malaysian Criteria, Indicators, Activities and Standards of Performance (MC&I) for Forest Management Certification (Forest Management Unit Level), Peninsular Malaysia is seen as addressing environmental concerns in forestry practices (see Section 4.6.1) Constitutional and legal provisions In order to facilitate the adoption of a coordinated and common approach to forestry, the National Forestry Council (NFC) was established in 1971 by the National Land Council (NLC). The NLC is empowered under the Malaysian Constitution to formulate national policies for the promotion and control of the utilization of land for mining, agriculture and forestry. The National Forestry Policy 1978 was adopted through the mechanism of the NFC and the NLC. The NFC serves as a forum for the Federal and the State governments to discuss and resolve common problems and issues relating to forestry policy, administration and management. All the decisions of the NFC have to be endorsed by the NLC. The responsibility for implementing the decisions of the NFC lies with the State governments unless it is within the authority of the Federal Government. The legal basis for law enforcement and management in the forestry sector were the Forest Enactment and Rules of the respective states, but, as these became obsolete and limited in terms of scope and objectives, a comprehensive National WWF Malaysia 2-17

55 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES Forestry Act was enacted in The purpose of this Act is to standardize and strengthen legislation in relation to administration, management, conservation and development of forests in the states in Peninsular Malaysia. The National Forestry Act 1984 is supplemented by the Wood-Based Industries Act 1984 that regulates and ensures the rational development of wood-based industries. The National Forestry Policy 1978 recognized the need for a Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) of sufficient areas of land strategically located throughout the country and properly managed to maximize social, economic and environmental benefits to the nation. This required that the PFE be demarcated and classified accordingly as Protective Forests, Productive Forests and Amenity Forests. Thus, while timber production was deemed to be important to the nation, the protective role of forests and the need to conserve unique flora and fauna contained therein was given emphasis in the Policy. The National Forestry Act 1984 facilitated the establishment of the PFE. By this time, most of the lowland forests were being actively cleared for land development schemes that saw vast tracts of oil palm, in particular, being planted throughout Peninsular Malaysia. This policy decision by the Government led to forestry activities being moved into the highlands where the bulk of the PFE is now located. The term PFE is somewhat misleading as it implies that the forested area in question will be permanent. This is, however, not entirely true as the permanency is not guaranteed since the state government can degazette any area of the PFE for other purposes. This is spelt out in Section 11 of the National Forestry Act Nevertheless, Section 12 of the Act does say that, wherever possible, land excised from the PFE should be replaced by an equal area of land. In practice, this is not often done. The National Forestry Act 1984 provides a basis for defining and recognizing forest areas according to a range of uses and services that they provide. Section 10(1) of this Act provides for the classification of the PFE into the following categories: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) timber production forest under sustained yield soil protection forest soil reclamation forest flood control forest water catchment forest forest sanctuary for wildlife virgin jungle reserved forest amenity forest education forest research forest forest for federal purposes Any part of the PFE in Peninsular Malaysia may be classified under one or more of these categories. While the National Forestry Policy 1978 has shifted the emphasis away from solely timber production to focus on other goods and services, timber production forests still forms a major part of the PFE. This is evident from the fact that 2.9 million ha, or 60%, of the 4.85 million ha of the PFE is productive forest (Source: Annual Report 2000, Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia). Thus, WWF Malaysia 2-18

56 CHAPTER 2 : GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES timber production will continue to be the major forestry activity in Peninsular Malaysia. The 40% of the PFE remain as protection forest. They are generally located above 1,000m but can also be below this elevation to include areas where slopes exceed 40 degrees and serve protective function in relation to water, soil and the environment. However, they are mostly not afforded legal protection through gazettement by way of Section 10(1) of the National Forestry Act Sustainable Human Settlements The Rio Declaration of Agenda 21 has a chapter on promoting sustainable human settlement. It acknowledges the importance of improving the social, economic and environmental quality of human settlements as well as the living and working conditions for all people. This would result in a more equitable distribution of economic development where all possible dichotomies of rural-urban strata are minimised and equal opportunities for income generation are made available to both the rural and urban communities. One of the key strategies for achieving distributional objectives, singled out in the OPP3, is to improve the distribution of income and narrowing the income imbalance between and within ethnic groups, income groups, economic sectors, regions and states. OPP3 reported that by the end of 1999, the incidence of poverty among the Orang Asli was 50.9% and the incidence of hardcore poverty was 15.4%. RM8 has proposed reorientation of poverty eradication programmes to reduce the incidence of poverty to 0.5% by It will be targeted specifically at remote areas and the Orang Asli issue will be addressed in this programme. There are gaps in terms of access to basic social amenities and infrastructure between communities in the highlands. In urban areas, such as Cameron Highlands, Fraser's Hill, Janda Baik and Genting Highlands, the basic social amenities and infrastructure are already in place while the scattered rural settlements such as the Orang Asli communities, still lack the accessibility to these necessities and in some cases, the affordability. The OPP3 has also stressed the need for improvement on the quality of life especially in rural areas. It acknowledges the importance to upgrade the quality of basic amenities, housing, health, recreation and educational facilities. During the RM8, several programmes have been identified to further alleviate and assist the Orang Asli community social and economic status. Efforts have been committed to be undertaken, to provide education and skills training, especially among the Orang Asli youth. These efforts will be materialized through greater cooperation and coordination with existing skills training institutes. WWF Malaysia 2-19

57 3 THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT

58 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT 3.1 Introduction The landscape of Peninsular Malaysia has been described as ancient and scarcely disturbed by tectonic changes. The mountain ranges stand up prominently in the northern half of the Peninsula but diminish southwards where their line disappears beneath the sea to the south, to reappear as the hills of the Lingga, Riau and Banka islands. There are eight mountain ranges in Peninsular Malaysia, namely the Nakawan, Kedah-Singgora, Bintang, Keledang, Titiwangsa, Benum, Tahan and Timur Ranges (Figure 3-1). The mountain ranges vary in area from 39 km 2 (Nakawan Range) to 14,476 km 2 (Main Range) and make up close to 20% of the land area of Peninsular Malaysia (Table 3-1). The Main Range is the largest of the mountain ranges, constituting 60% of the total area of the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia. The next largest mountain ranges are the Timur and Bintang Ranges, which make up 21% and 11% of the total highland area respectively. The general alignment of the mountain ranges is in a north-south direction. On either side of these mountain ranges are hills taking their form and pattern from scarps developed upon the folded sedimentaries flanking the lines of granite. Much of the underlying rocks in the Peninsula are covered by thick weathered soils that support the lush vegetation. The underlying rocks are evident especially along stream channels and in some instances, in the stream beds and eroded parts of hills. The highest point in Peninsular Malaysia is Gunung Tahan (2,187 m), located in the Tahan Range. Figure 3-2 shows the topography of Peninsular Malaysia. Table 3-1 : Land Area of Mountain Ranges Mountain range Area (land above 300 m) % of total area of km 2 % Peninsular Malaysia Benum Bintang 2, Gunung Tahan 2, Kedah-Singgora Keledang Nakawan Timur 5, Main (Titiwangsa) 14, Total 25, WWF Malaysia 3-1

59 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT 3.2 Physical Environment Topography The Main Range, is the largest, most prominent and continuous mountain range in Peninsular Malaysia. The Main Range has an igneous core that was intruded into ancient fold mountain systems. The Main Range granite batholith forms a massive mountain range stretching in an arc from Thailand in the north to Negeri Sembilan in the south. The elevation bands of the Main Range show that up to 45% of the area of the highland range is between 305 m 610 m and 28% between 610 m 914 m (Table 3-2). A typical topographic profile of the Main Range is shown in Figure 3-3. Table 3-2 : Elevation Bands of the Main Range Elevation bands % Area m (1,000-2,000 ft) m (2,000-3,000 ft) m (3,000-4,000 ft) ,220-1,524 m (4,000-5,000 ft) 8.0 1,524-1,800 m (5,000-6,000 ft) 2.5 > 1,830 m (> 6,000 ft) 0.4 Total The Main Range stretches approximately 500 km from the border with Thailand in the north to Negeri Sembilan where its height decreases and merges into Melaka coastal plain. The Main Range is often regarded as the divide between the East and West Coasts of the Peninsula. However, the Main Range does not divide the Peninsula into two equal halves. The area of the Peninsula west of the Main Range is smaller than that on the east. Two other mountain ranges, namely the Benum and Timur Ranges, are found east of the Main Range, while the Keledang and Bintang Ranges are on the west. The northern half of the Main Range runs in a north-south direction while the southern half curves slightly eastwards into a northwest-southeast axis. Thus the Main Range appears as an arc and an inverted triangle with a broad base in the north that tapers southwards to a tip. The Main Range is about 85 km wide at its widest section in the north (in Perak and Kelantan) and narrows to less than 35 km wide in Negeri Sembilan. The highest mountain ridges vary from about 800 m in the southern end to 2,184 m at Gunung Korbu, which is the highest peak of the Main Range and the second highest peak in Peninsular Malaysia. Gunung Korbu is located 25 km NNW of Cameron Highlands. The Main Range also forms the state boundary between Perak and Kelantan, between Perak and Pahang, between Selangor and Pahang and between Negeri Sembilan and Pahang. Ridges branching out to the lowlands also form boundaries between states and districts. WWF Malaysia 3-2

60 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT The Main Range is characterised by a complex pattern of primary, secondary and tertiary ridges, which are separated by narrow, steep-sided valleys, spurs and other natural formations typically found in granite ridges in the Peninsula. Broad alluvial valleys are absent. Typical inclinations of the hillsides range from 26.6 to 37.5 degrees to the horizontal; equivalent to slopes of 1 (vertical) : 1.4 (horizontal) to 1 (vertical) : 2 (horizontal). Steeper slopes of 1v : 1.4h also occur with moderate frequency and are particularly common in the vicinity of Gunung Ulu Kali near Genting Highlands. On both sides of the Main Range, the steep slopes and rugged terrain slowly give way to gentler slopes, undulating plains, valleys and flat lands where agricultural activities, urban development, and industrial and commercial areas are to be found. Relatively steep slopes are generally confined within 15 km of either side of the ridge tops aligned along the spinal axis of the Main Range. Figure 3-4 shows the slopes map of the Main Range. (a) Pahang The Main Range forms the western boundary of Pahang with Perak, Selangor and parts of Negeri Sembilan. 21.3% of the Main Range is within Pahang. The length of the Main Range along the Pahang border is about 200 km. The highest peaks of the Main Range along the Pahang's western border are Gunung Berembun (2,076 m), Gunung Brinchang (2,031 m), Gunung Chamah (2,171 m) and Gunung Tangga (2,015 m). Three of the biggest and most popular hill stations of Peninsular Malaysia, namely Cameron Highlands (1,600 m), Fraser's Hill (1,300 m) and Genting Highlands (1,700 m), are located within the state of Pahang. The rugged terrain of the Main Range is evident as one travels along the roads up to the hill stations. (b) Perak The state of Perak contains the largest area of the Main Range (41.5%). A large part of the Main Range in Perak is undeveloped forest in the Belum district. The Main Range runs the entire length of the eastern boundary of Perak from the border with Thailand in the north to Selangor in the south. The Main Range is the boundary between Perak and the states of Kelantan and Pahang. The northern section of the Main Range around the Lake Temenggor is a large river valley that has been impounded to form the reservoir for hydroelectricity generation. The Main Range courses south from Thailand, making a loop eastwards at Gunung Noring before continuing in a zigzag trail all the way to Selangor. The elevation rises significantly at Gunung Korbu (2,184 m) and maintains a relatively high elevation until Gunung Berembun (2,078 m). Eight peaks above 2000 m are located within Perak or on its boundary with other states. WWF Malaysia 3-3

61 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT (c) Kelantan About 25% of the Main Range is located within the state of Kelantan. The forested slopes of the Main Range in Kelantan have been relatively undeveloped until recently, when the Lojing highlands were logged and subsequently opened for agriculture. The topography of the Main Range within Kelantan is generally less steep than the western side of the Main Range. Broad river valleys extend in an easterly and northeasterly direction to the coastal plain. Kelantan shares its western border with Perak along the ridge of the Main Range. The prominent peaks of the Main Range in Kelantan are Gunung Noring Timur (1,861 m), Gunung Noring (1,889 m), Gunung Basor (1,840 m) and Bukit Jual (959 m). (d) Selangor Selangor has the smallest portion (5.6%) of the Main Range among the five states that encompass the Main Range. The elevation of the Main Range in Selangor is generally lower than the northern regions. However, due to rapid development and urbanization in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur, the foothills of the Main Range are experiencing development pressure. The main peaks of the Main Range that straddle the border of Selangor are Gunung Ulu Kali (1,772 m) and Gunung Nuang (1,493 m). There are also unique geological formations on the Main Range within Selangor, namely the Klang Gates quartz ridge and limestone outcrops at Batu Caves and Bukit Takun. (e) Negeri Sembilan Negeri Sembilan contains 6.3% of the Main Range. The elevation of the Main Range within Negeri Sembilan is lower than in the other four states as the Main Range gradually tapers down to the plains. Negeri Sembilan is the only state that straddles both the eastern and western slopes of the Main Range, as the axis of the Main Range passes through the state. South of Selangor, the Main Range's highest ridge no longer forms the state boundary between states. The major peaks of the Main Range within Negeri Sembilan are Gunung Telapak Burok (1,193 m), Gunung Besar Hantu (1,462 m) and Bukit Tampin (764 m) Geology The Main Range was formed as a result of the collision between the oceanic Indo- Australian and continental Eurasian tectonic plates. The convergence forced the heavier oceanic plate below the lighter continental plate. The descending plate, upon reaching a depth of 100 km, was melted into magma. The magma, being less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks, slowly rose to intrude into the continental crust. At the surface, the magma cooled and crystallised. Over time, the repetitive effects created a line of mountain peaks that forced themselves through the crust. The Main Range was formed from this mountain building episode and its granite bedrock is derived from such crystallized magma. However, it represents a more WWF Malaysia 3-4

62 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT stable episode of mountain building and is not subject to any uplift today, unlike the more recent Javan and Sumatran ranges. The exact time when the granite intrusion took place is not known but some believe that it could have occurred during the Upper Mesozoic or Tertiary epochs. The granite also cuts sedimentary rocks thought to have been deposited during the Carboniferous and Triassic periods (Roe, 1951). Van Benmelen (1949) believed that the batholith, derived from granitic magma, intruded into the anticlinal folds of the Malay Peninsula during the late Triassic and early Jurassic. Based on radiometric dates from granite samples in southern Thailand and parts of the Peninsula, Burton and Bignell (1969) believed that the Main Range is Triassic or older. Minor dykes of late phase granitic materials, dolerite and vein quartz were injected into the granite batholith, and to a lesser extent, the sediments and metamorphics, during the late Mesozoic and early Tertiary (Shu, 1989). Generally, two main types of bedrock prevail along the middle section of the Main Range (Figure 3-5). About 90% of the Main Range is underlain by primarily acidic intrusive granite rocks formed in the Late Triassic period. The granites are over 200 million years old. The depth of bedrock varies considerably from approximately 5m to over 25m. The granite is classified as being mainly a medium to coarse grained, porphyritic, biotite granite. Other sub-classifications include finer grained microgranite and granite porphyry, of which the porphyritic biotite granite is the most abundant. The porphyritic biotite granite is a coarse to medium grained granite with randomly orientated phenocryst of alkali feldspar up to 5 cm long. The colour ranges from greyish to white with an inequigranular feature. It consists of quartz, alkali feldspar, plagioclase, biotite, chlorite, tourmaline and opaque minerals mainly iron oxides. The granite body is commonly intruded by numerous quartz and aplite veins. The quartz-mica schist is a fine grained, highly folded schist with a well developed schistosity plane. It consists of alternating laminae of linearly arranged platy minerals such as sericite, muscovite and chlorite and quartz minerals generally less-than 0.44 mm diameter. In some areas, graphite is found interlayered with the quartz and mica minerals. A small section of the Main Range about 20 km west and north of Fraser's Hill, lies on metasedimentary, thought to be a roof pendant on the granite. The metasedimentary rocks are qualified as Lower Paleozoic schists (quartzites interbedded with schists, phyllites and shales), forming lionfishes locally near granite contacts. It is believed that these formed during the late major Triassic orogenic phase and were metamorphosed generally in the green schist facies. Tin mineralisation of the metasediments occurs in the vicinity of its contact with the granitic intrusions giving rise to some mining activities in the past (e.g. along valley areas of Sg. Sempam catchment). The precise extents of this bedrock's western and eastern boundaries are not reliably known. Faulting is predominantly in NW-SE and the orthogonal NE-SW directions as reflected by the drainage pattern. WWF Malaysia 3-5

63 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Soils The Main Range is predominantly steep and forested. In many mountain valleys, shallow beds of peat occur although much of the forest grows in a mat of organic soil with little root penetration below this surface. Large areas are also covered with sandy soil mixed with peat while others are studded with granite boulders. Others are covered with loamy soils and beds of clay. In some places where granite is decaying, quartz fragments occur in a uniform soil but are generally absent in the upper layers which usually has the appearances of loam. The colour of decaying granite varies from deep red, yellow to almost white in some places. The weathered overlying soil also varies from deep red, light yellow and even pink. These can be easily seen especially along fresh road cuttings or logging tracks. The fertility of soil derived from granite is variable but generally low. Granite rocks weather under the climatic regime in Malaysia to produce kaolinite rich tropical red clays. Such soils have good drainage characteristics, low to moderate plasticity, and moderately high shear strength. An important characteristic is that they do not significantly swell, nor significantly change their engineering properties. The high permeability of the surfacial soils together with steep slopes has enabled these soils to unsaturated on most occasions. Numerous studies on tropical residual soils have indicated an effective friction angle of 35 degrees and an average cohesion of 5 kpa for decomposed granitic soils. The partly weathered bedrock below the granite residual soils produces "gruss", a slightly clayey silty quartz sand with the granite texture still showing. This passes downwards into rocklike material with less clay and silt. The quartz grains derived from the parent granite gives strength to this material so that the properties of the weathered rock can be considered to be reasonably good. Within the weathered granitic mass, core granite boulders of up to 10 metres in diameter can be found in Grade III and Grade IV soils usually located greater than 10 metres below grade. Previous bore hole tests indicate that the sub-soil is basically composed of four distinct layers. A dark gray organic top soil prevails to a depth of 0.6 metres. This is followed by a stiff clayey silt layer varying in thickness from m. Following is a layer comprising of completely to highly weathered granite. The thickness of this layer of sandy silt and silty sand is found to vary from 6.0 to 15.0 m. Core boulders can also be found within this layer. Bedrock formation, consisting of slightly weathered to fresh granite forms the final bottom layer. This type of rock is mostly igneous, but phyllite is also found. On an overall basis the weathered surfacial soils are of about 50% sand and 30% silt/clay. The approximate distribution of these soils in relation to hill slopes is shown in Figure 3-6. Little is known about the residual soils developed on the metasediments but as they are basically quartz rich their properties should be, in general, somewhat similar to the granite soils. Metasediments, which were originally shales, mudstones and nonsandy materials, could have significantly poorer residual soil characteristics with probable lower shear strengths, poorer drainage characteristics and greater deformability. WWF Malaysia 3-6

64 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT In general, the soils along the Main Range are expected to be highly weathered to substantial depths in excess of 25 metres; and be deeper at joints and faults. The water retention capability in the top most organic layers are generally good; whilst the lower weathered residual soils possess excellent drainability and moderately good strength characteristics. It is anticipated that soils are poor in nutrients as is usual under tropical rain and cloud forest cover. The action of constant high temperatures, and humidities and the luxuriant vegetation growth, create soils that have more similarities than differences despite their different origins. Such soils are normally acidic (ph ) and leached of silica and basic ions, leaving a reddishbrown sandy clay loam rich in sequisoxides. With increasing altitude the soil becomes yellower and less clayey, with a trend towards podsolisation at the upper end of the range. Altitudinal changes in the soils of the ever-wet tropics are much sharper and are marked by a zone of peaty soils corresponding roughly with the cloud zone and the mossy facies of upper montane rain forest. Up to 1,000m elevation, or a little higher, the normal lowland soils occur, ranging from latosols (orthox) on basic parent materials in stable sites, through red-yellow podzolic soils (udults) to shallow soils resembling acid brown earths (tropepts) on steep slopes. The continuous blanket of peat associated with the cloud forest zone is found above 1,500m on the Main Range. Between about 1,000m and the cloud forest zone, within the lower montane forest formation, rainfall is not necessarily higher than in the lowlands, but cloudiness and humidity are higher and evapotranspiration is sharply reduced. Soil formation is markedly affected by the greater amount of water available, which leads to increased leaching, podzolization or soil waterlogging, depending on local circumstances. At the same time biological activity and chemical weathering are retarded by the lower temperatures. Brown earths, podzols and peaty gley soils all occur in the lower montane zone, together with intergrades. The lower rate of weathering is reflected in soils which are shallower than those of the lowlands, with a higher cation-retention capacity. Commonly the soils are very acid. Some are extraordinarily low in calcium, as has been documented in Cameron Highlands. It has been found that a sample of sun leaves from lower montane forest in the Cameron Highlands had only 39 percent of the calcium content found in a sample from lowland forest. Some soils developed over limestone contain only traces of exchangeable calcium. Unusually strong phosphate fixation has been noted in a brown earth from the Cameron Highlands at 1,430 m. In the cloud forest zone, peat is virtually continuous, even on steep slopes (for example, 25 ). The thickness varies from about 0.3 m to considerably more than 1 m. In the field it is almost invariable wet, with a water content of percent. Except in its lowest part the mineral content of the dry matter is low, less than 10 percent, and sometimes less than 1 percent. ph values in the peat are extremely low, often between ph 3.0 and ph 3.5 in water and around ph 2.5 measured in potassium chloride solution. Hardly any data exists concerning the base content, but there can be little doubt that this is low. Very low fertility is suggested by leaf analyses which show that the content of nitrogen, phosphate and calcium in leaves WWF Malaysia 3-7

65 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT from three peaty montane sites in Peninsular Malaysia was much lower than that of lowland leaves (Grubb, 1974). Potassium was slightly below the lowland level, but not magnesium. The subsoil sometimes has an appreciable base content, but roots do not reach this. Thus extreme nutrient deficiency may have something to do with the low stature of upper montane rain forest. The soils of the Main Range have generally been classified as steepland in the soil reconnaissance maps of Peninsular Malaysia due to lack of data. Pramanathan has proposed mountain soil series as shown in Table 3-3 and Figure 3-7. Table 3-3 : Proposed Soil Series on the Main Range Soil Series Area (ha) Batang Merbau-Prang-Musang 19 Binuang 61 Brinchang 8518 Gunung Alab 1210 Harad-Chenian-Penyabong-Kulai 1 Hatton Mangga Rengam-Beserah-Lanchang 160 Ringlet Serdang-Malau <1 Tanah Rata Tiang Ulu Kali-G.Padang-Brinchang Total Climate The climate of the highlands is different from the lowlands because of the difference in elevation. The higher elevation of the highlands results in lower temperatures, higher relative humidity and lower solar radiation. The following sections describe the climatic patterns of the Main Range, using mostly data from Cameron Highlands because comprehensive climatic data is not available from other locations of the Main Range. Cameron Highlands is the only meteorological station with long-term climate data. There are other meteorological stations but these record only rainfall and number of raindays. Figure 3-8 shows the climatic patterns at Cameron Highlands and Ipoh, which is a lowland station included for purposes of comparison. WWF Malaysia 3-8

66 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Temperature The average temperature at Tanah Rata is about 18 C (Figure 3-8). The mean maximum temperature is around 22 o C while the mean minimum temperature is about 15 C. These temperatures do not fluctuate much from month to month. Long-term temperature records at Tanah Rata show fluctuating trends. Based on over 50 years of data, trends for minimum and mean temperatures have a very slight decreasing trend from 1930 to 1965 after which the temperature increases from 1930 till 1960, then falls sharply till 1970 which is then followed by an upward trend. The mean temperature has either a small increasing or no trend from 1930 to 1975 and then there is an increasing trend. All the three - maximum, mean and minimum - temperatures have been increasing since The increase in temperature at Tanah Rata may be entirely or partly caused by global "greenhouse" warming effect. It is observed that the temporal variation of Cameron Highlands temperature do not differ much from that of the global mean temperature. The earth's temperature increased from 1930 to 1945, remained constant till 1975 and since then it has been increasing. The warming of the earth's temperature has been attributed to increasing concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases (greenhouse effect). It has to be noted that it is not possible yet to quantify the relative contributions of the various factors (deforestation, urbanization, greenhouse gases etc) to local temperature changes. It is necessary to mention that observed trends in global temperature records are still within the statistical noise level of the data set. There are also considerable uncertainties associated with the magnitude of the change in global temperature. Local topography also affects the temperature. For example, east-facing slopes are warmer in the morning than west-facing slopes and vice versa in the afternoon. During the night, radiative cooling reduces the temperature of the ground surface which in turns cools the air immediately in contact with it. Due to higher density of cooler air, it flows down the slopes of hilly areas towards the valleys causing the minimum temperatures in the valleys to be lower than those at the slopes or peaks Humidity and evaporation The highlands in Malaysia are generally more humid than the lowlands. The average relative humidity is 90.5% and does not fluctuate much from month to month. The relative humidity recorded at Tanah Rata varied from a low of about 88% (dry February) to a maximum of 93% (wet October) (Figure 3-8). Since the temperatures of the highlands are also lower, the vapour pressure deficits of the air will be much less in the highlands. Hence, the evaporative demand at the highlands is less than that at the lowlands. Evaporation rates in the highlands are much lower than those of the lowland areas. In Cameron Highlands, the average daily evaporation is slightly above 2 mm (Figure 3-8) whereas that of the lowlands is about 4 mm. WWF Malaysia 3-9

67 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Rainfall The average monthly rainfall patterns in all hill stations are similar to the rest of Peninsular Malaysia in that they are monsoonal. All the three major hill stations experience typical rainfall averages in excess of 2,200 mm, with a tendency of slightly higher rainfall on the western slopes than on the eastern slopes of the Main Range as the former is closer to the coastline. The western foothills of the Main Range experience higher rainfall than the mountain peaks due to induced precipitation of humid air. For example, Tapah, which is at the western foothills of the Main Range, receives an average annual rainfall of 3,000 mm, whereas Cameron Highlands receives an average of 2,800 mm. In the Main Range within Negeri Sembilan, the annual rainfall amount dips significantly due to the sheltering effect of the mountains. The district of Jelebu, which is on the eastern (leeward) slopes of the Main Range and surrounded by hills, is one of the driest locations in the Peninsula with only about 1,500 mm of rain a year (Figure 3-9). In Cameron Highlands, rainfall is quite uniform through the year. The wettest period is from October to November with rainfall of about 350 mm per month, while the relatively drier period occurs between January and February with about 100 mm of rainfall per month (Figure 3-8). Other months have about mm of rainfall. The interannual variability is very large. However, there is no distinct pattern in the way rainfall varies from year to year. The highest annual rainfall of 3153 mm was recorded in 1956 and the lowest value of 1969 mm was recorded in the year On the average, two out of three days are rainy. Records of annual raindays show smaller but significant variability. The number of raindays ranged from 211 in 1990 to 272 in Sunshine and solar radiation The highlands are generally cloudier than the lowlands. The average daily sunshine duration of Cameron Highlands is 4.5 hours (Figure 3-8) where as the surrounding lowland areas have about 6 hours of average daily sunshine. Lower sunshine duration periods are experienced during the northeast monsoon season, coinciding with higher intensities of rain and cloud cover. The cloudier highlands conditions are also indicated by lower solar radiation measured there. The average daily solar radiation at Cameron Highlands is about 14 MJ m -2 while the lowlands areas receive about MJ m Surface wind The average wind speed in Cameron Highlands is 2 ms -1, similar to that of lowland coastal areas. Calm periods are generally less than in the lowlands. The wind directions are influenced by the monsoon seasons. Wind direction is predominantly easterly and northeasterly during the northeast monsoon and westerly and northwesterly during the southwest monsoon (Figure 3-10), when the intercontinental winds prevail. Winds are weaker during the intermonsoonal periods, WWF Malaysia 3-10

68 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT being largely determined by local conditions. In the rugged terrain of the Main Range, winds occur during the day and are generally weaker at night. Heavy mist can frequently form in the early mornings as a result of surface cooling brought about by the accumulation of dense cold air in valleys Hydrology and Water Resources The Main Range forms the headwaters of most major rivers in the Peninsula, especially those that flow through the states of Selangor, Perak, Kelantan and Pahang (Figure 3-11). The Main Range is characterized by steep cliffs where numerous narrow swift-flowing streams, set in deep valleys and precipitors gorges, fan out along various slopes and in various directions. Ultimately these streams converge and contribute to the formation of a network of rivers along the foothills and lowlands of the Peninsula River systems The rivers that drain the Main Range are Sg. Muar, Sg. Melaka, Sg. Linggi, Sg. Teriang, Sg. Langat, Sg. Kelang, Sg. Selangor, Sg. Bernam, Sg. Batang Padang, Sg. Kinta, Sg. Pelus, Sg. Perak, Sg. Pahang, Sg. Neggiri, Sg. Pergau, and Sg. Kelantan (Figure 3-11). (a) Sg. Kelantan Sg. Kelantan and its tributaries drain northwards covering a total area of about 13,000 km 2 or 85% of the state of Kelantan. The river originates in the southern rugged and steep region of the state, where elevation ranges between 1,000m and 2,000m. The two principal tributaries are Sg. Lebir and Sg. Galas. They meet at the confluence not far upstream of Kuala Krai. The Sg. Kelantan then meanders along a wide and flat coastal plain before discharging into the South China Sea. (b) Sg. Pahang The Sg. Pahang basin occupies an area of 29,300 km 2 of which 27,000 km 2 are in Pahang and 2,300 km 2 in Negeri Sembilan. The highland areas situated within the basin are the Main Range along its western side and the Banjaran Timur in the north-east between Kuantan and Sg. Tembeling. These upland areas are highly dissected and generally range from 1,000m to 1,500m in elevation with some peaks reaching 2,000m. The headwater tributaries of the Sg. Pahang originate from the Main Range. The upper catchment is steep whilst the lower catchment is flat and mostly swampy. The Sg. Pahang itself has a relatively flat gradient averaging only 1:6,500 from Kuala Tembeling to the South China Sea. WWF Malaysia 3-11

69 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT (c) Sg. Perak The Sg. Perak originates in the northern portion of the Main Range. It flows southward into the Straits of Melaka. The river has a catchment area of about 14,700km 2, which covers about 70% of the state of Perak. The northern catchment boundary borders on Thailand, while the eastern catchment boundary borders on Kelantan. The major tributaries are Sg. Pelus, Sg. Kinta, Sg. Batang Padang and Sg. Bidor. Forests are widespread in the upper reaches covering 60% of the river basin, while agricultural lands are developed on the alluvial plain in the middle and lower reaches covering 30%. There are many ex-mining ponds, particularly in the lower reaches, covering about 3% of the basin. Some of these ponds are now being used for aquaculture. (d) Sg. Bernam The catchment area of Sg. Bernam is about 3,335km 2. Its main tributaries are Sg. Slim, Sg. Daharoi, Sg. Erong and Sg. Trolak. Sg. Bernam, which forms the boundary between Selangor and Perak, drains in westerly direction into the Straits of Melaka. The upper catchment area is mountainous and predominantly forested. The catchment is generally flat at the lower reaches and flow through low-lying areas that are mostly swampy. (e) Sg. Selangor The Sg. Selangor has a catchment area of about 1,820km 2. The river meanders along the low lying peat swamp forest near the coastal regions. Mangrove swamps are found along the coast and estuary areas. The middle region of the catchment is predominantly undulating with vegetative cover consisting of rubber trees and oil palms. The headwaters region of the basin consists of forested foothills and rugged mountains with peak rising to 1,500m. (f) Sg. Klang The Sg. Klang basin drains an area of about 1,425 km 2 and with total stream length of about 120 km. At the upper basin where the capital city of Kuala Lumpur is located, the Sg. Klang is further divided into 3 major sub basins; Sg. Gombak, Sg. Batu and Sg. Klang and other minor subcatchments along the main stem of Sg. Klang as it meanders westward to the Straits of Melaka. The headwaters of the river are in mountainous areas where the maximum elevation rises up to about 1,400 m. The Sg. Klang basin is the most heavily built up, whereby urban centres have been rapidly sprouting within the basin in the last decade. The rubber and oil palm estates as well as defunct mining lands are being converted into suburban centers WWF Malaysia 3-12

70 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT with relatively high population density. The upper catchment is still predominantly forested. (g) Sg. Langat The Sg. Langat has a catchment area of about 2,400km 2. The basin occupies the southernmost region of Selangor. Part of the catchment intrudes into Negeri Sembilan in the southeast corner. The upper catchment is generally rugged mountain terrain. The lower catchment of the Sg. Langat basin is generally lowlying swampy land with some ex-mining ponds. The basin has two major river systems, namely Sg. Langat and Sg. Semenyih. The flows in these two rivers are regulated by two dams, namely the Langat Dam and the Semenyih Dam, which are located at the upper reaches of these rivers. (h) Sg. Linggi The Sg. Linggi has a catchment area of 323 km 2. The maximum length and breadth of the catchment are 42 km and 19 km respectively. The river passes through Seremban town and several industrial estates before draining into the Straits of Melaka. The main tributaries include Sg. Pedas and Sg. Rembau. About 23% of the catchment is mountainous rising to heights over 900m. The remainder is mostly hilly and undulating land, with some swamps along the lower reaches of the river. A large portion of the catchment has been converted to agriculture, industrial, commercial and residential uses. Some parts of the lower reaches of this river are swampy and are flood prone. (i) Sg. Muar The catchment area of Sg. Muar basin is about 7,600 km 2. It rises in the north-east of Gunung Telapak Burok in Kuala Pilah district and flows to the east, crossing into Johor, then south for a total of 300 km before discharging into the Straits of Melaka near Bandar Maharani. The catchment of Sg. Muar which falls within Negeri Sembilan is among the driest in the country with an annual rainfall of 1600 mm and annual surface runoff of 300 mm. (j) Sg. Melaka The Sg. Melaka basin lies in the central part of the State of Melaka. It has three main tributaries namely Sg. Tampin, Sg. Batang Melaka and Sg. Durian Tunggal. The river flows through Melaka town into the Straits of Melaka. The northern portion of the basin consists of hills rising to around 600m. The lower slopes of these hills are generally cultivated with oil palm whilst forest reserves form WWF Malaysia 3-13

71 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT parts of the upper slopes. The central section of the basin consists of undulating ground arising to around 100 m. For many years, rubber has been the dominant crop in the area. However, most of the rubber trees have been replaced with oil palm trees in recent years River water quality The water quality of the rivers flowing from and within the Main Range was assessed using data from the DOE and from past studies in the area. Descriptions of the river water quality trends are based on the river classification system developed by the DOE. The classification system places rivers under specific categories ranging from Class I describing rivers in their pristine conditions, to Class V for rivers which are heavily polluted. The bulk of the discussion on water quality is based on the data from the National Water Resources Study (EPU, 1999). (a) Pahang Sg. Lipis There are three DOE water quality monitoring stations along the Sg. Lipis. The water quality at the upstream of Sg. Lipis recorded Class II quality in 1992 and 1993, deteriorated to Class III in 1997, but improved again to Class II in The mid-stream and downstream water qualities were generally good with Class II quality recorded over the same period. Most of the parameters fall within the Class II, with the exception of iron which occasionally exceeds the Class II limit. The trends also indicate slight deterioration in water quality from 1993 to Sg. Semantan The Sg. Semantan is one of the main tributaries of the Sg. Pahang. The DOE maintains two water quality stations along this river and the water quality data between 1992 and 1995 classifies this stretch as having Class II quality. Sg. Teras/ Sg. Bilut/ Sg. Kenang The Sg. Teras and Sg. Bilut have one DOE water quality monitoring station each. The station along Sg. Teras recorded water quality of Class I between 1992 and 1993 but deteriorated to Class II in 1994 and On the other hand, the water quality along the Sg. Bilut was Class 1 category in 1994 but deteriorated to Class II category in The pollution sources affecting the quality of water along the Sg. Bilut include palm oil mills, rubber factories and run off from agricultural areas. Sg. Kenang recorded a Class 1 category. WWF Malaysia 3-14

72 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Sg. Telemong The Sg. Telemong is a tributary of Sg. Bentong. There are two DOE water quality monitoring stations along this river established since Water quality at the upstream ranged between Class I and Class II for the period between 1993 and On the other hand, the water quality at the downstream remained constant at Class II for the period between 1993 and There is a potential dam site on the Sg. Telemong and the water quality at this site indicates that most parameters have exceeded the Class II limit on certain occasions. Overall, there was a slight deterioration in quality from 1993 to Sg. Bentong There are four DOE water quality monitoring stations along Sg. Bentong. Water quality at the upstream reaches was fairly good, with Class II quality throughout the 1993 to 1995 period. Similarly, the downstream stations also recorded Class II quality in 1994 and The station at the confluence of Sg. Bentong and Sg. Perting recorded a Class II quality between 1992 and 1997, but deteriorated to Class III in The water quality at this station is influenced by the quality of water from Sg. Perting which is subjected to spikes of high TSS concentrations. Pollution sources that affect the quality of water at these stations include rubber factory effluent and discharges from industries. Sg. Benus There are two DOE water quality monitoring stations along the Sg. Benus. Water quality data for the upper reaches of the Sg. Benus is only available for the year 1995, when water quality Class II was recorded. The downstream station recorded Class II quality between 1992 and 1993 which deteriorated to Class III in However in 1995 the river water quality at this station improved to Class II. The pollution sources identified along this river are mainly from animal breeding farms and human settlements. There is a potential dam site on the Sg. Benus. Assessment of the water quality from the upstream of the proposed dam indicate that the concentrations of SS, turbidity and iron exceeded the Class III limits between 1993 and 1995, reflecting considerable increase in solids loading in this river. The level of E. coli was also found to exceed the Class II limits on several occasions. Sg. Perting/ Sg. Chamang/ Sg. Penjuring The Sg. Perting, Sg. Chamang and Sg. Penjuring are upstream tributaries of Sg. Bentong. There is one DOE water quality monitoring station along Sg. Perting, and one along the Sg. Penjuring but none along Sg. Chamang. The DOE data for the period from 1992 to 1997 indicated that the river water quality remained between Class II and III throughout the period. However, the water quality deteriorated to WWF Malaysia 3-15

73 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Class III in 1998 due to increase in TSS, BOD and COD concentrations. This was due to mining activities upstream which is reflected by the spikes in TSS concentrations recorded throughout the period. A potential dam site has been identified on the Sg. Perting and another on the Sg. Chamang. For the Sg. Perting, the water quality trends indicate fluctuations in the parameter levels, with concentrations exceeding the Class III limits on several occasions. The water quality trend of the Sg. Chamang was based on the water samples collected at the confluence of Sg. Chamang and Sg. Bentong. The trends indicate that most of the parameters fall within Class II limit with exception of SS, turbidity and iron exceeding the limits on a few occasions, reflecting the increase in solids loading the river. Cameron Highlands There are seven rivers which drain Cameron Highlands, namely Sg. Ringlet, Sg. Bertam, Sg Habu, Sg Burong, Sg Tringkap, Sg Telom and Sg Terla. The water quality analysis of these rivers from 1996 to 1998 generally indicates that the quality of the rivers was good, within Class I and Class II, except for Sg Telom and Sg Tringkap, which fall under Class III. However, the concentration of total suspended solid (TSS) was found to be gradually increasing over the years. For example, at Sg Bertam the concentration of TSS recorded in 1996 was 28 mg/l, which increased to 69 mg/l in 1997 and 141 mg/l in Whereas at Sg Habu, the TSS values were 10mg/l in 1996, 22mg/l in 1997 but shot up to mg/l in Sg. Tringkap recorded the highest BOD in 1997 which was 22.4 mg/l compared to other rivers which generally recorded values less than 3 mg/l. In 1999, suspended solids were found to be the main source of pollution in most of the rivers. Sg Ringlet and Sg Telom were found to be heavily silted with TSS values of 4056 mg/l and 1469 mg/l respectively. However at Sg. Burong, where the water intake point is located, the TSS concentration was 49 mg/l, still within Class II of the Proposed Interim National Water Quality Standard. Overall, the water quality of the rivers in Cameron Highlands has been deteriorating over the years. This is mainly due to land clearing for development, road construction and agriculture which causes the rivers to be heavily silted. (b) Selangor Sg. Kerling There is one DOE water quality monitoring station along this river, located at Pekan Pasir, Kerling. The WQI values at this station classified the river as having Class I quality in The water quality deteriorated to Class II for the period between 1993 and 1996, before reverting back to Class I quality in 1997 and Pig farming was the main pollution source that affects water quality along this particular stretch of the river. In addition, surface runoff from agricultural land and forests are contributory factors towards the river water quality. Despite the presence of various WWF Malaysia 3-16

74 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT pollution sources at the upper catchment, the water quality at this station is still considered good, probably due to high assimilative capacity of the river. Sg. Batang Kali There is one water quality monitoring station along the Sg. Batang Kali, which is located at Kg. Genting Malik. Based on the WQI values from 1992 to 1998, the river was classified as having Class II quality. Although there are no records of point pollution sources in the DOE database, the most likely sources of pollution which affect the river water quality include agricultural runoff, industrial discharges as well as land development in this region. Sg. Klang There are 10 water quality monitoring stations along the main stem of the Sg. Klang. The WQI values at the most upstream stations, located immediately downstream of the Klang Gates Dam, revealed the river as having Class II quality for the period between 1992 and The water quality at this station is influenced by the flow released from the reservoir which is typically of Class II quality. As the river flows downstream, the water quality deteriorates to Class III and Class IV. Industrial effluent and domestic discharges, as well as surface runoff from the surrounding urban areas of Ulu Klang, are among the major sources of pollutants affecting the river water quality along this part of the Sg. Klang. The most downstream stations indicate Class IV quality. Pollution of the river water is contributed from the extensive point and non-point sources within the river basin, including effluent discharges from industries, palm oil mills, rubber processing factories as well as domestic discharges from squatters and urban areas Sg. Gombak There are two DOE water quality monitoring stations along the mainstream of Sg. Gombak. The water quality at these stations was classified as Class III for the period between 1992 and The major pollution sources include industrial discharges from the Batu Caves area, as well as agricultural and urban runoff. In addition, the tributaries of Sg. Gombak, including Sg. Batu, Sg. Jinjang and Sg. Keroh which drain its western catchment, also have a direct impact on the river water quality of the Sg. Gombak. The water quality in these rivers is within Class III and Class IV categories. Pollution sources include effluent from the industrial estates in Selayang, Jinjang and Kepong, organic wastes from pig farms, as well as domestic and sewage discharges from both urban and illegal settlement. Sg. Langat There are seven DOE water quality monitoring stations along the Sg. Langat. Water quality along the upstream reaches was generally within Class I and Class II limits WWF Malaysia 3-17

75 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT from 1992 to As the river flows downstream, the water quality deteriorates to between Class III and IV. The sources of pollution here include industrial effluent and domestic discharges, as well as agricultural, rural and urban stormwater runoff. Sg. Lui The water quality of this river was categorized under the Class I quality in 1992 but was subsequently classified as Class II throughout 1993 to The TSS values recorded in this river were generally low, mg/l in 1998 but in 1999 the value increased slightly to 74 mg/l. The river water quality is still considered good due to the absence of major urban developments within its catchment. Sg. Labu There is one water quality monitoring station along Sg. Labu, which recorded a Class II category in The river was classified as Class III throughout 1993 to The water quality at this particular monitoring station is subjected to discharges from its tributaries including Sg. Jijan and Sg. Chinchang. Industrial and urban discharges from the townships of Nilai and Salak Tinggi contribute to water quality deterioration along Sg. Labu. Sg. Semenyih There are three water quality monitoring stations along the Sg. Semenyih; located at the upstream, mid-stream and downstream reaches. The upstream station recorded Class II quality for the period between 1993 and The midstream and downstream stations also indicated water quality between Class II and Class III categories in The mid-stream and downstream stations also indicated water quality between Class II and Class III categories in Sources of pollution include effluent from palm oil mills and other industries, and domestic discharges from the township and settlements of Semenyih. In 1998, two stations recorded class III quality. The main pollutant here was found to be suspended solid. However in 1999, all the stations was within the class II water quality. Sg. Rinching There is only one monitoring station located at the upstream reaches of the Sg. Rinching. Based on the DOE monitoring data, the river was classified under Class II and Class III quality in 1994 and 1995, respectively. The sources of pollution include pig farms, along with urban and agricultural runoff. WWF Malaysia 3-18

76 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT (c) Negeri Sembilan Sg. Pedas The water quality at the mid-stream section of this river was within Class II from 1992 to Further downstream of Sg. Pedas, the water analyses showed high iron content in 1992 and E.Coli and total coliform count was high in As a whole, Sg. Pedas river water quality from was within the Class II standard. The main sources of pollution in this river originate from the palm oil mills and rubber factories. Sg. Triang Sg. Triang river system originates from the hilly area of the Main Range in Jelebu. Some parts of the forest near the proposed Triang Dam area have been cleared for sugar-cane plantation. There is only one DOE monitoring station along this river before it joins Sg. Pahang. The agricultural activities have been identified as the non-point pollution source in this river whereas the discharges from Simpang Pertang Industrial Estate has been identified as the point pollution source. Based on water quality sampling carried out in February 1999, the water quality at the upstream section was found to be good with most the parameters within Class II limits. However, the total coliform value was found to be high, amounting to 34, 700 count/100ml when compared to 5,000 count/100ml as stipulated by the Class IIA limit. Sg. Kenaboi Sg. Kenaboi, a tributary of Sg Triang is a popular picnic area among the locals. The fast flowing current is typical of upstream river characteristics, which originate from the mountainous area. The water sample at the upstream shows excellent quality. The water is very soft with neutral ph value and Class I DO value. The water is also clear with very low total suspended solids, and Class II iron content. The E.Coli count was 280 count/100 ml whilst the total coliform count was very high, at 31,600 count/100ml. The river being a picnic area is exposed to pollution from human activities as indicated by the rubbish being thrown around the area. Sg. Kongkoi Sg. Kongkoi, also a tributary of Sg Triang, originates from the Main Range, which is covered with montane or submontane forest type. The water quality was comparable to Class I water quality. It is naturally soft with hardness value of less than 1.0mg/l. The DO value is at 8.56 mg/l. The total coliform count was 16, 700 count whereas the E. coli count was 240 count per 100 ml. WWF Malaysia 3-19

77 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Sg. Jerang Sg. Jerang is a tributary of Sg. Triang. The upstream analysis of this river shows that most parameters are within the Class II limits. The total coliform count was high (15,200 count/100ml), but the E. Coli level was below the Class II limits. (d) Kelantan Sg. Kelantan There are four monitoring stations along the Sg. Kelantan. Two of them are located along the lower reaches of Sg. Kelantan, near Pengkalan Chepa and the other two stations near the industrial developments of Tanah Merah and Kuala Krai respectively. Results have indicated that both stations recorded Class III status in However, the water quality appears to have reverted favourably to Class II throughout 1993 to Sg. Pergau The Sg. Pergau is a tributary of Sg. Galas which drains the north-western region of the Sg. Kelantan basin. Monitoring stations are located in the upstream and downstream reaches of this river. These two stations recorded water quality which fluctuated between Class II and Class III. The monitoring result of 1995 revealed Class II categories for both stations. The various point and non point sources of pollution which flow into Sg. Pergau include industrial and domestic waste discharges from the Jeli township, as well as agricultural runoff. Sg. Nenggiri There are two monitoring stations, used to gauge water quality changes in the Sg. Nenggiri. The former station recorded Class II quality in 1992, whilst Class III was observed at the latter station in These two stations however, were discontinued from the monitoring program after (e) Perak Sg Perak Sg Perak has 53 water quality monitoring stations. Although there are no water quality monitoring stations at the upper catchment, the water quality is expected to be good. There is a water quality monitoring station located approximately 245 km from the river mouth and this represents the water quality of the upper basin. WQI value at this station indicates Class II water quality. The same quality has been recorded for the midstream areas of Sg Perak. WWF Malaysia 3-20

78 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Sg Bernam The DOE has set up nine water quality monitoring stations along Sg Bernam and its tributaries. The upper stretch of Sg Bernam and all tributaries have at least Class II water quality. Water quality at the midstream areas is also identified as Class II. The upper catchment of Sg Bernam is occupied by Bukit Slim, Keledang Sayung and Gunung Besout Forest Reserves. However, rubber industries and palm oil mills scattered throughout the catchment, contributing towards water quality pollution in Sg Bernam Water supply Almost 90% of the water supply for Peninsular Malaysia is derived from the highlands. The Main Range itself is the main water catchment area for at least five states (Figure 3-12). Almost all the major rivers originating from the highlands are vital sources of water, not only for domestic needs but also for agriculture and industrial requirements. These factors should in themselves be justification for the highland areas to be protected and managed for their catchment functions. This is more pertinent now than ever in light of the water crisis faced by many states in Peninsular Malaysia. The water crisis has not been unforeseen; the DID had, in 1993, warned of the potential chronic water shortage in 2020 if efforts are not made to conserve water resources in the country. Appendix 8 lists the water intakes in Peninsular Malaysia that are influenced by the Main Range Existing water supply dams In Peninsular Malaysia, there are 56 existing dams, constructed largely in areas under forest cover primarily because of the availability of good quality water. Of the 56 dams, 28 are located within the Main Range (Table 3-4). The data from existing dams suggests that the Main Range supplies at least 50% of the surface water needs of Peninsular Malaysia. (a) Selangor Klang Gates Dam and Batu Dam The Klang Gates Dam was constructed in 1959 and the Batu Dam in The catchments are quite similar in topography and hydrology. The catchments are forested and rugged with maximum relief of about 1,300 m. Soil texture generally ranges from clay to coarse and fine sand. Soil depth varies from a meter to greater depths in places of deep weathering. Both dams supply water to the Klang Valley. The Klang Gates supplies about 145 MLD of water to the Bukit Nanas Treatment Plant while the Batu Dam supplies about 115 MLD of water to the Batu treatment plant. WWF Malaysia 3-21

79 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-4: Dams located within the Main Range Dam State Type 1. Terip Negeri Sembilan Water supply 2. Pedas Negeri Sembilan Water supply 3. Upper Muar Negeri Sembilan Water supply 4. Kelinchi Negeri Sembilan Water supply 5. Gemenceh Negeri Sembilan Water supply 6. Sg Tinggi Negeri Sembilan Water supply 7. Pergau Kelantan Hydropower 8. Repas Baru Pahang Water supply 9. Repas Lama Pahang Water supply 10. Habu Pahang Hydropower 11. Sultan Abu Bakar Pahang Hydropower 12. Robinson Falls Pahang Hydropower 13. Kg Raja Pahang Hydropower 14. Kuala Terla Pahang Hydropower 15. Jor Perak Hydropower 16. Woh Perak Hydropower 17. Odak Perak Hydropower 18. Temenggor Perak Hydropower 19. Chenderoh Perak Hydropower 20. Bersia Perak Hydropower 21. Kenering Perak Hydropower 22. Sg Piah Perak Hydropower 23. Sungkai Perak Water supply 24. Semenyih Selangor Water supply 25. Batu Selangor Water supply 26. Klang Gate Selangor Water supply 27. Langat Selangor Water supply 28. Selangor Selangor Water supply Source : Lai (1999) Langat Dam and Semenyih Dam The Langat Dam was constructed in 1979 and the Semenyih Dam in The Semenyih Dam (catchment area of 54 km 2 ), located in the upper reaches of the Sg Semenyih, and the Langat Dam (catchment area of 41 km 2 ) at Pangsoon, have their entire catchment area within the Main Range. In addition, there are numerous small water intake points spread throughout the catchment, mainly in the upper reaches. The two dams are important sources of water to the Klang Valley. Other Dams Other minor water supply impoundment in the Sg. Klang basin includes Ampang impounding headwork that only drains about 42 km 2 of the Sg. Ampang catchment. The storage capacity is relatively small. The dam is the main water source for the WWF Malaysia 3-22

80 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Ampang WTP downstream of the Sg. Ampang. Another smaller impoundment, which drains about 5 km 2, is located nearby. The Ampang impoundment reservoir supplies less than 2 MLD. (b) Negeri Sembilan There are five existing dams in Negeri Sembilan (Table 3-5). The Gemenceh Dam, commissioned in early 1999, has a catchment area of 37km 2 and an active storage capacity of 1307 ML. The reservoir surface area covers an area of 3km 2. Net supply capacity of this dam is MLD. Table 3-5 : List of completed dams in Negeri Sembilan Name of Dam Catchment area (km 2 ) Active storage capacity (ML) Reservoir surface area (km 2 ) Construction period 1 Terip Pedas Upper Muar Kelinchi Gemencheh Source : Master Plan for Water Supply in Negeri Sembilan by JBANS, Proposed water supply dams The 7MP and 8MP give emphasis to long term water resource planning and development. According to water demand projections, the states of Kedah, Penang and Selangor are expected to face water shortages after the year Given the accelerated growth of several states, the Government plans to introduce a more systematic design to coordinate the uneven distribution of water resources in the long term through interstate water transfer projects. These involve the construction of the Sg. Rui Dam in Perak to transfer raw water to Kedah, Penang and Perlis, and the Kelau and Telemong Dams in Pahang for water transfer to Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. These projects are in addition to the Sg. Buluh Dam and Kelinchi water transfer tunnel, which were completed in (a) Selangor Sg. Selangor Dam (under construction) The proposed Sg. Selangor Dam, with a catchment area of 197 km 2 is located along the Kuala Kubu Baru - Fraser s Hill road. The proposed dam will be about 110 m high and create a reservoir covering an area of about 600 ha. The proposed reservoir area is presently covered with belukar, rubber estates, orchards and some logged over forests. The phasing of the dam works is tabulated in Table 3-6. WWF Malaysia 3-23

81 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-6 : Project Phasing of Sg. Selangor Water Supply Scheme Sg. Selangor scheme Phase 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Phase 2 Stage 1 Stage 2 Year commissioned Total capacity MLD in 50 years Net Yield MLD Remarks Run-of-river yield With Tinggi Dam Under construction Phase Stage 1 (Rasa) Stage (Btg B tai) Stage (Sel. Dam) Stage 2 (Rasa) Stage (Btg B tai) Stage 3 (Rasa) Source: EPU (1999) Sg. Selangor Dam completed Once implemented, the Sg. Selangor Dam will operate as a regulating dam. During the dry periods, releases from the dam will be made to ensure sufficient water is available for abstraction at downstream intakes. There are presently picnic spots and white-water rafting activities along the Sg. Selangor which will be affected by the dam project. (b) Pahang Benus Dam The proposed Benus Dam will be located across the Sg. Benus at a steep-sided valley formed by the Bukit Beroga and Bukit Janda Baik. The dam will have a catchment area of about 90 km 2 and a reservoir that would inundate an area of about 180 ha. The dam and reservoir lie within the Bukit Tinggi and Lantang Forest reserves, with most parts of the proposed impoundment having been logged over in the past. The Kg. Janda Baik Malay Reserve is located within the catchment area just upstream of the proposed reservoir. The dam is proposed to be limited to a height of 49 m in order to avoid flooding the houses in the kampung. WWF Malaysia 3-24

82 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Lower Perting Dam The headwaters of the Sg. Perting originate in the Main Range north of the Genting Highlands. The river joins the Sg. Chamang and finally the Sg. Bentong, north of the Bentong town. The lower Perting Dam is proposed to be located across the Sg. Perting at a point above the existing intake weir for the Bentong phase II water supply scheme. The dam has a catchment area of about 118 km 2 and a reservoir area of about 320 ha. Repas diversion weir/ Chamang Dam The scheme involves the construction of a weir across the Sg. Repas above the existing JPS reservoir, with a canal to transfer flows from the river to the Chamang reservoir which is to be sited across the Sg. Chamang. Both the Sg. Repas and Sg. Chamang are tributaries of Sg. Bentong. At the proposed Chamang Dam site, the catchment area is about 18 km 2, with an impoundment area created by the dam of about 210 ha. Kelau Dam The Kelau dam was proposed to mitigate future water shortage in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. The water transfer project will involve three basins in Pahang which includes Kelau basin, Telemong basin and Bentong basin. The Kelau basin (810km 2 ) drains the Benom range. The proposed Kelau dam will be located on Sg Kelau before its confluence with Sg Bilut, 10km north east of Bentong town, whilst the proposed Kelau Intake will be located after the Sg Kelau- Sg Bilut confluence. The project would be undertaken in three phases and is expected to take about 11 years to complete with a total reliable yield of 2407 MLD. This project is supposed to ensure that supply meets demand until The project proposes to build: i. Two earthfill dams in Pahang on the Sg Kelau, reservoir ha 10 km NE of Bentong and on the Sg Telemong, reservoir ha 1 km south of Karak ii. A water intake on the Sg Kelau with 11 km of pipeline iii. A weir on the Sg Bentong with 7 km of pipeline iv. A 45 km water transfer tunnel with inlet 1.5 km south of Karak that goes beneath the Main Range and has an outlet about 3 km downstream of Pekan Ulu Langat. WWF Malaysia 3-25

83 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Liang Dam The proposed Liang Dam will be located about 0.5 km from the Raub-Cheroh road. The dam will release water by gravity through a tunnel to discharge into the Sg. Kerling, in north Selangor. The headwaters of this proposed dam lie in the midmontane forest. This proposed impoundment area is located within logged over forests and are presently categorized as poor quality forests. Lipis/ Sia Dam The proposed dam will be located on the Sg. Lipis below its confluence with the Sg. Sia, about 2 km from the Kg. Jeram Bt. Malim. The reservoir will be inter-connected with the Liang reservoir and will provide water via the transfer tunnel to Sg. Kerling in Selangor. Two settlements at Kg. Ulu Sungai and Ulu Satak may be affected by the impoundment. (c) Perak Kinta Dam The proposed dam will be located on Sg Kinta about 5 km east of Tg Rambutan. The catchment area of the dam is about 148 km 2, maximum elevation in the catchment is about 2090m and the elevation at the proposed dam site is about 172 m. The gross storage of the reservoir is about 44 million m 3. The reservoir storage is expected to help meet all the projected water demands and also mitigate the flooding to some extent in the Kinta valley. There is no logging or any plantation activity in the upper catchment of the river or the reservoir area. Raia Dam Raia Dam is located about 13 km east of Ipoh. The catchment area of the river is about 107 km 2, the maximum elevation in the catchment is about 2120 m and the elevation at the proposed dam site is about 112m. Most of the catchment is covered with thick forest with steep slopes. The gross storage of the reservoir is about 70 million m 3. Berok Dam The Berok Dam is proposed across Sg. Berok near Kg. Padang Setar. The upper catchment is covered with mixed forests. About 5 ha of rubber plantation will be inundated. WWF Malaysia 3-26

84 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Rui Dam The Rui Dam is proposed across Sg. Rui, about 1 km downstream of Kg. Pahit Inar. Upper catchment is mountainous and covered with forest. Batang Padang Dam The Batang Padang Dam will be located on the Sg. Batang Padang near Kg. Batu Tiga Belas along the Cameron Highlands-Tapah road. Upper catchment is hilly and located within Bukit Tapah forest reserve. The TNB Dam at Jor is located within the catchment. There is expected to be resettlement problems at Kg. Semai and Kg Batu Tiga Belas. Gepat Dam The Gepat Dam is proposed on Sg. Gepat at about 1.5 km upstream of Orang Asli settlement at Kg. Sg. Gepi. Upper catchment is steep and located within Bukit Tapah forests reserves. About 20 ha of rubber and 50 ha of paddy land will be inundated. Sungkai Dam The dam will be located on Sg. Sungkai about 1 km downstream of the confluence with Sg. Tisong. The catchment consists of Bukit Slim and Bukit Tapah forest reserves. The size of the reservoir will be about 92ha. Pelus Dam This dam is proposed at 1km downstream of the confluence of Sg. Pelus and Sg. Kerbau. The catchment is located within the Korbu and Piah forest reserves. The size of the proposed reservoir is 1140ha. Several small villages and plantations will be inundated and the relocation cost is expected to be high. The Orang Asli settlements here will also have to be relocated. Korbu dam This dam will be located on Sg. Korbu at about 1.5 km downstream of Kg Arial. The catchment area consists of Korbu Forest Reserve. The size of the proposed reservoir is about 130ha. WWF Malaysia 3-27

85 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT (d) Negeri Sembilan Teriang Dam The proposed reservoir is located in the southwest side of Sg. Pahang basin, within the Kenaboi Permanent Forest Reserve. This dam has a catchment area of 60km 2 with a reservoir surface area of 7km 2. At about 700m downstream of the dam, a weir (operated by DID) diverting water from the Sg. Teriang for paddy irrigation is located. The dam will also be part of the inter-basin transfer scheme, which will serve Sg. Linggi and Sg. Terip water treatment plants. Both of the treatment plants are currently supplying water to Seremban, Port Dickson and Jelebu districts. Gelami Dam Sg. Gelami is a tributary of Sg. Pahang. The catchment area of the dam will be 58 km 2. The active storage capacity will be 436 MLD and the nett supply capacity is 49.3 MLD. The area is uninhabited. Kenaboi Dam The Kenaboi Dam is located in the southwest side of Sg. Pahang basin, about 40 km north of Seremban. The impoundment of the Kenaboi Dam will inundate Kg Bertam and Kemajuan Tanah Kampung Esok. Kg Bertam is a small Orang Asli village of 60 people, located along Sg. Bertam, a tributary of Sg. Kenaboi. Kemajuan Tanah Kampung Esok is a FELCRA scheme for rubber cultivation. Kongkoi Dam Sg. Kongkai is a tributary of Sg. Kenaboi. The dam site will be located about 45 km north of Seremban town and within the Kenaboi Forest Reserve. Some areas within the impoundment area have been alienated for agriculture purposes and the predominant crop is rubber. Jerang Dam Sg. Jerang is a tributary of Sg. Triang. The Sg. Jerang Dam is to be constructed near Durian Tipus. Most of the impoundment area will fall within the Kenaboi Forest Reserve. The catchment area of the dam is 64 km 2. A preliminary assessment indicated that the direct supply yield would be about 35MLD. The water supplied by this dam will be conveyed to the Sg. Terip Water Treatment Plant through a 40 km pipeline before reaching the proposed Triang/ Terip transfer tunnel. WWF Malaysia 3-28

86 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT e) Kelantan The 1977 Kelantan River Basin Study, cited in the Kelantan Water Resources Study (1999), identified five potential dam sites for multi- purpose development (Table 3-7). Table 3-7 : Proposed Dam Sites in Kelantan River Dam site Remarks Sg Galas Dabong 5 km downstream of confluence with Sg Pergau. After detailed study, this site was found to be not feasible. Sg Galas Kemubu 1 km upstream from railway bridge at Kemubu. After detailed study, this site was found to be not feasible. Sg Nenggiri Batu Buloh 23 km upstream from Bertam Sg Nenggiri J. Unangs 35 km upstream of Bertam (Alternative to Batu Buloh) Sg Lebir Jeram Panjang 6 km upstream from Kg Tualang Source: EPU (1999) Nenggiri Dam site This dam will be located on the Sg Nenggiri Dam and would not offer significant flood mitigation benefits as it would only intercept 15% of the 1967 flood volume at Guillemard Bridge. Benefits would come from the hydroelectric power generation and water supply. This dam, if constructed, would inundate ha of land and threaten the life of seladangs and elephants living in the reservoir area. Lebir Dam site This site will be located 6 km upstream of Tualang and will have a catchment area of 2,480 km 2 and could provide a safe regulated yield of 17,280 MLD. Lebir Dam would not provide benefits in terms of flood mitigation because it would only intercept only 22% of the 1967 flood at Guillemard Bridge. However, by working in conjunction with Kemubu Dam, the Lebir-Kemubu combination would be able to keep the peak discharge at Guillemard Bridge at around the allowable limit of 11,000 m 3 /s Hydropower development Malaysia is rich in hydro-power potential, amounting to 29,000 MW and 123,000 GWh/year. Only 4% of this potential is tapped. Hydropower resources in Peninsular Malaysia are more developed than in Sabah and Sarawak. WWF Malaysia 3-29

87 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT In the 1950 s hydropower development started with a mini hydrostation (900 kw) and between , the Cameron Highlands scheme with the installed capacity of 100 MW was constructed. Later, several mini hydroprojects were commissioned, followed in by Batang Padang Project with the installed capacity of 150 MW. In , the first large hydroelectric project with the installed capacity of 328 MW was constructed at Temenggor on the Perak river, quickly followed by Bersia and Kenering plants which were completed in In 1987, the SJ hydro power plant was then erected to be now fully operating Existing hydropower plants The installed capacity for hydro-power presently represents nearly 17% of the total power capacity in the Peninsular Malaysia. The existing hydroelectric plants located within the Main Range are listed in Table 3-8. Table 3-8: Main Hydroelectric Power Plants located within the Main Range Hydro Power Stations Units Total Capacity MW 1.Temenggor Bersia Kenering Sg. Piah Sultan Yusof Jor Sultan Idris (II) Woh Chenderoh (3 11) + (1 8) 41 8.Habu Odak Source : TNB The Cameron Highlands project incorporates two power stations (officially known as the Sultan Yusuff power station) with an installed capacity of 100MW and Habu with an installed capacity of 5.5 MW. Four other projects were constructed in Cameron Highlands at the same time; namely Robinson Falls (0.9 MW), Kg. Raja (< 3 MW), Kuala Terla (<2 MW) and the Sungai Plan ur diversion from the state of Kelantan. The Cameron Highlands project involves the transfer of water from the Sg. Telom and Sg. Bertam, both headwater tributaries of the Sg. Pahang through a system of tunnels to the Ringlet Falls reservoirs and release to the main hydropower plants at Jor located in the headwaters of the Sg. Batang Padang scheme in Perak. There has been considerable silting of the Ringlet Falls reservoirs, also known as the Sultan Abu Bakar Dam. In 1997, TNB had said that it would have to spend RM 2.2 million that year to clean up the dam as siltation and rubbish had obstructed WWF Malaysia 3-30

88 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT water flow, causing reduced power generation. Sediment removal from the fringes of the reservoirs has been an on-going process but it is arguable whether the measures taken have been successful. It is understood that the main Telom tunnel has been partially filled with sand which has significantly reduced flows. It is conceivable that this project will require major rehabilitation or even re-design, if its useful life is to be extended beyond 50 years. The first stage of the Pergau hydroelectric power project was completed in 1996 and operation commenced in The dam is located in north-western Kelantan, about 75 km south-west of Kota Bahru. The plant is true peaking plant with a capacity factor of about 11% and is designed for an energy production of about 570 GWh/annum. The project consists of an underground power station with an installed capacity of 600MW drawing water from a dam located on the Sg. Pergau just downstream of its confluence with Sg. Yong. The flow capture of the scheme is enhanced by the pumped transfer of water from adjoining southern catchment s through a tunnel approximately 24 km long. A re-regulating pond in the vicinity of Kg Lawa will control the outflow from the power station into Sg. Pergau. The hydropower plant is operated on an average of about 5 hours per day to support peak hour power requirements and therefore releases are irregular and unreliable for water supply needs. The Sultan Azlan Shah Bersia Hydroelectric Power Station is located in the upper Sg. Perak approximately 20 km downstream of the Temenggor Dam. The construction of the 33m high concrete gravity dam created a reservoir approximately 5.7 km 2 at full supply level. With a catchment area of 3,560 km 2, the dam impounds 70 million m 3 of water at normal full supply of which 58 million m 3 of water is utilized as active storage. The Temengor Hydroelectric Power station is located on a site on the Upper Sg. Perak immediately downstream of its confluence with Sg. Temenggor. The 127m high rockfill dam has a reservoir 80 km long covering an area of 15,000 ha. With a total catchment area of 3,400 km 2, the dam impounds 6,050 million m 3 of water at normal full supply level, of which 1,270 million m 3 is utilized as live storage. The power station has four generating units - each with an output of 90,000 kw. The Chenderoh Hydro Electric Power Station is about 52 km downstream of Kenering Hydro Electric Power Station. The damming of the river created a reservoir of approximately 21 km 2. The dam impounds 95 million m 3 of water at full supply level, 49 million m 3 of which is utilized as active storage. This dam was completed in July 2000 and has a capacity of 40 MW. The Kenering Hydroelectric Power Station is located approximately 70km downstream of the Temengor Hydro-Electric Project. The construction of the 48m high concrete gravity dam has created a reservoir approximately 40 km 2. The dam impounds 352 million m 3 of water at normal full supply level, of which 318 million m 3 is utilized as active storage. The Sungai Piah Hydro Station consists of a cascade of two schemes and involves diversions of water via nine intakes and 21.5 km of tunnels to two power stations. WWF Malaysia 3-31

89 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT The Upper scheme diverts the water of the upper reaches of Sg. Piah and Sg. Piah Kecil through a tunnel system to a conventional surface power station with a rated capacity of 14.6 MW. The Lower scheme will re-use the water from the Upper power station and additional water from side streams (Sulieh, Dindap, Beltek, Poi & Temor) and channel the combined flow to an underground power station. The station has a total station rated capacity of 55.4 MW. The total energy generation is some 380 million kwh per year Hydro power potential Tenaga Nasional Berhad has identified several potential hydro power sites which will be developed near future (Table 3-9). Most of the sites are within the Main Range. Table 3-9: Potential Hydro Power Generation in Peninsular Malaysia Project Capacity Within Main Range Ulu Jelai, Pahang 516 MW a Nenggiri, Kelantan 450 MW a Ulu Terengganu, Terengganu 300 MW Tembeling, Pahang 150 MW a Tekai, Pahang 156 MW a Lebir, Kelantan 272 MW a Telom Dam, Pahang 91 MW a Maran, Pahang 109 MW a Galas, Kelantan 108 MW a Kelantan Barrage, Kelantan 82 MW Sg. Pelas, Perak 62 MW a Kenyir Phase II, Terengganu 300 MW Total 2596 MW Source : TNB a Mineral Resources Metallic minerals Gold production from stand-alone mines takes place at Jeli and Gua Musang, Kelantan and in Raub and Lipis, Pahang. The largest single mine is the Penjom Gold Mine in Ampang Jaleh, Kuala Lipis. This is operated by Specific Resources Sdn. Bhd., a subsidiary of Avocet Ventures Inc. of Canada. In Raub there is the Raub Australian Gold Mining Sdn Bhd; this is a joint venture between Akay Holding Sdn Bhd and Well Gold Corp NL Australia. Tin ore is produced in Kinta and Batang Padang, Perak whilst iron-ore production is from small operations in Kinta, Perak. Most of the iron-ore produced is consumed locally by the pipe-coating industry and small quantities by cement factories and the remainder is exported mainly to China. WWF Malaysia 3-32

90 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-10 shows that metallic mineral production comprised gold, tin and iron-ore. Estimated gross volume were 3.09 tonnes of gold valued at RM 105 million, tonnes of tin ore valued at RM 21.9 million and 44,800 tonnes of iron ore valued at RM 1.6 million. Thus preliminary estimates of total metallic mineral production were RM million Non-metallic minerals There is a baryte producer in Gua Musang, Kelantan with an output of 566 tonnes and the estimated production value is RM 101,000. Kaolin production takes place in Batang Padang, Perak (production of 173,187 tonnes and estimated value of production in 1999 of RM 21.3 million. Mica, in the form of fine grained sericite, is produced in Batang Padang, Perak with an estimated value of RM 551,691 and production of 3,675 tonnes. Clay production, mainly consumed by the bricks and ceramic industries takes place in Jeli, Kelantan. In 1999, production totalled 803 tonnes and the estimated value of production was RM 99,431. Limestone production for the cement manufacturing industry takes place only in Kinta, Perak; in 1999 the estimated value of production was RM 47.0 million and output of 8.2 tonnes. The output of silica sand was 62,100 tonnes with a production value of RM 2.3 million in Batang Padang, Perak. Estimates of non-metallic mineral production are shown in Table The nonmetallic mineral produced include barytes, kaolin, mica, clay, limestone and silica. The total value of non-metallic mineral production in 1999 was RM million. WWF Malaysia 3-33

91 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-10 : Volume and Value of Metallic Mineral Production, 1999 State/District Production (tonnes) Gold Tin Iron Ore Total Value (RM '000) Production (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Production (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Production (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Kelantan Jeli , ,655 Gua Musang Perak Hulu Perak Kinta - - 1,210 15,362 44,800 1,656 46,010 17,018 Batang Padang , ,584 Pahang Raub , ,917 Lipis , ,711 Bentong Selangor Hulu Selangor Negeri Sembilan Jelebu Tampin Kuala Pilah Total ,113 1,728 21,946 44,800 1,656 46, ,714 Source: Minerals and Geoscience Department (1999) WWF Malaysia 3-34

92 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT State/District Prod. (tonnes) Table 3-11 : Volume and Value of Non-Metalic Mineral Production, 1999 Barytes Kaolin Mica Clay Limestone Silica Total Value (RM '000) Prod. (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Prod. (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Prod. (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Prod. (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Prod. (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Prod. (tonnes) Value (RM '000) Kelantan Jeli ,162 99, ,162 99,431 Kuala Krai Gua Musang Perak Kinta ,222,289 47, ,222,289 47,031 Hulu Perak ,100 2,393 Batang ,187 21,302 3, ,100 62, ,962 24,246 Padang Pahang Cameron Highlands Lipis Raub Bentong Selangor Hulu Langat Gombak Hulu Selangor Negeri Sembilan Jelebu Tampin Kuala Pilah Total ,187 21,302 3, ,162 99,431 8,222,289 47,031 62,100 62,100 9,264, ,810 Source: Minerals and Geoscience Department (1999) WWF Malaysia 3-35

93 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT 3.3 Forests and Biodiversity The highland forests in Peninsular Malaysia are important storehouses of biological wealth. As commercial, agricultural and urban land use changes increasingly alter lowlands, the mountainous areas are perceived as holding the remnants of good natural habitat. These highland forests function as critical corridors for migrating wildlife and as sanctuaries for many species of plants and animals that are part of Malaysia s distinctive heritage. They also serve a variety of other important ecological functions, i.e. from regulating the microclimate to maintaining the hydrological regime. Over 95% of the Main Range is forested. Most of the forest is under Permanent Forest Estates (PFE) while small patches are stateland forests. Most of these forests are in relatively good condition although large patches have been logged. The following sections describe the forests types and resources within the Main Range. It is important to note that whilst sufficient information is available on the forest cover and logging activities, knowledge of the flora, fauna and ecology of montane forests is relatively poor Forests Cover Malaysia is blessed with relatively large tracts of highly complex natural tropical forest. In 1999, Peninsular Malaysia had a total of 5.94 million ha of forest land, equivalent to 45% of the total land area (Table 3-12). This forested area is made up of 4.85 million ha of Permanent Forest Estates (PFEs), 0.77 million ha of National Parks (of which 0.1 million ha fall within the PFEs) and 0.38 million ha of state land forests. PFEs make up 36.5% of the total land area in Peninsular Malaysia. In addition, there are also about 74,000 ha of forest plantation established both in the PFEs and the stateland forests. Forest cover is greatest in the three Main Range states of Pahang, Kelantan and Perak (Table 3-12) whereby all have forest cover in excess of 50% of their respective land. Of these three states, Kelantan has the highest forest cover, amounting to 59.9%. Table 3-13 shows the various types of forested land found in the five Main Range states. About 45% of the forest of Peninsular Malaysia is located at 300m altitude and above (Table 3-14). For the five Main Range states, the total area of highland forests amount to about 50% of the total forested land. Perak, with 78%, has the largest area of forest above 300m, followed by Kelantan 60% and Pahang 34%. Based on the Third National Forest Inventory of 1992 (NFI3), forested areas on the Main Range at altitudes of 300m and above amounted to 1.40 million ha. This would mean that just over 51% of highland forests in Peninsular Malaysia are located on the Main Range itself, spread over Perak, Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. WWF Malaysia 3-36

94 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-12: Forest Cover in Peninsular Malaysia Main Range States Other States Peninsular Malaysia State Total land area (ha) Forested Area (ha) % of forested area Perak 2,102,122 1,050, Pahang 3,596,585 2,071, Kelantan 1,493, , Selangor 787, , Negeri Sembilan 664, , Sub-total 8,643,643 4,490, Melaka 164,988 6, W.P. 24, Johor 1,898, , Terengganu 1,295, , Perlis 80,302 12, Kedah 942, , Pulau Pinang 103,150 7, Sub-total 4,509,565 1,447, Total 13,153,208 5,938, Source: DOF (1999) State Table 3-13: Forest Reserves and Other Forested Land Permanent Forest Reserve Forested State land Other Forested Area Wildlife ** Reserves/ Other National Reserves Parks Outside PFE (c) (d) Total Protection Status Forests with legal protection (a) + (c) + (d) Forests without legal protection (b) (a) (b) Perak 1,001,705 41,107 7, ,520 1,009,118 41,107 Pahang 1,521, , ,655 5, ,563 1,920, ,823 Kelantan 629, , , , , ,801 Selangor 246, , , ,559 0 Negeri 168,883 3, ,030 50, ,913 3,896 Sembilan Total 3,567, , ,737 52, ,479 4,138, ,627 Total Peninsular Malaysia 4,853, , ,217 52,115 1,084,422 5,550, ,090 Source: DOF (1999) ** Portions of wildlife reserves / national parks are found within PFE. WWF Malaysia 3-37

95 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-14 : Forest Cover in Relation to Topography Region State Forested Area (ha) Forest area below 300 m % Forest area above 300 m Northern Perlis 10, Kedah 366, , , P. Pinang Perak 1,031, , , sub-total 1,414, , , Central Selangor 272, , , N. Sembilan 192,968 86, , Melaka W.P sub-total 473, , , Southern Johor 458, , , Eastern Pahang 2,105,003 1,389, , Terengganu 685, , , Kelantan 843, , , sub-total 3,633,412 2,143, ,489, % Peninsular Malaysia 5,979,957 3,279, ,700, Forest Types in the Main Range The largest block of remaining natural forest in Peninsular Malaysia occurs on the Main Range (Figure 3-13). Here, and also elsewhere in the other highlands of Peninsular Malaysia, the forest types in altitudinal sequence are the Hill Dipterocarp Forest ( m), the Upper Dipterocarp Forest (750-1,200m), the Lower Montane or Oak Laurel Forest (1,200-1,500m) and the Upper Montane or Montane Ericaceous Forest (1,500m to the tree line). Natural forest ecosystems are vital to protect the biodiversity and the environment of Peninsular Malaysia. There are many types of natural forest ecosystems that are vital for the sustenance of biodiversity and the environment. Table 3-15 shows all the forest reserves within the Main Range. It can be seen that, except for some areas around existing hill stations, most of the Main Range is covered by forest. The following sections describe the forest types according to vegetation-based classification for the forest that can be found in the Main Range. WWF Malaysia 3-38

96 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-15 : Forest Reserves on the Main Range State Perak Selangor Forest Reserve 1. Belum 2. Gerik 3. Lepang Nenering 4. Temenggor 5. Air Cepam 6. Piah 7. Korbu 8. Bukit Kinta 9. Bukit Tapah 10. Bujang Melaka (Kinta Manjung) 11. Bujang Melaka (Perak Selatan) 12. Bukit Slim 13. Behrang 1. Hulu Selangor 2. Bukit Gading 3. Bukit Kutu 4. Semangkok 5. Batang Kali 6. Hulu Gombak 7. Serendah 8. Bukit Lagong 9. Hulu Langat 10. Sungai Lalang Negeri Sembilan 1. Kenaboi 1 2. Triang 1 3. Gapau 4. Lenggeng 5. Serting 6. Berembun 1 7. Pelangai 8. Setul 9. Gallah 10. Angsi Senaling Inas 12. Johol 13. Gunung Tampin Pahang 1. Ulu Jelai 2. Gunung Siku 3. Sungai Terla 4. Sungai Wi 5. Ulu Ichat 6. Batu Gangan 7. Sungai Kial Tambahan 8. Bertam WWF Malaysia 3-39

97 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT State Kelantan Source: DOF Forest Reserve 9. Bukit Jerut 10. Mentigi 11. Bukit Bujang 12. Ringlet 13. Lemui 14. Gunung Berembun 15. Batu Talam 16. Sungai Sia 17. Tranum 18. Bukit Tinggi 19. Klau 20. Lentang 21. Persit 22. Sungai Yu 1. Sungai Terah 2. Gunung Basur 3. Gunung Stong Utara 4. Gunung Stong Selatan 5. Gunung Stong Tengah 6. Balah 7. Berangkat 8. Perias 9. Nenggiri 10. Sungai Betis 11. Batu Papan 12. Lojing 13. Ulu Galas 14. Sungai Brok (a) Hill Dipterocarp Forest Hill Dipterocarp Forest (HDF) occurs between about 300m and 750m, lower on coastal hills and higher on the flanks of big hill ranges. It often has a high proportion of big timber trees and open understorey with little regeneration. The bulk of timber extraction forest in all states is now of this type. The majority of forest in forest reserves in all states is HDF. The HDF has many similarities with the Lowland Dipterocarp Forest (LDF) with four vertical vegetation layers. In general, trees are smaller and shorter than in the lowland, except along ridgetops where Shore curtisii predominate. Along the steep slopes, the understorey is rich in palms such as Arenga westerhoutii, Oncosperma horrida, Orania macrocladus and stemless palms like Licuala spp. The ground flora is rich with species of Alocasia, Colocasia and Donax. WWF Malaysia 3-40

98 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT (b) Upper Dipterocarp Forest This forest type is found from about 750m to 1,200m, with smaller trees of different species from those lower down. Few dipterocarp trees reach this level but some of them can be abundant. Rattans and dwarf palms often predominate in the understorey. The bulk of Upper Dipterocarp Forest (UDF) is contained within the PFE, some of it for timber extraction and some protection forest, and it is represented in all national parks and wildlife reserves and sanctuaries which have land within the appropriate altitude band. The UDF structure is three-layered with a shorter emergent layer than that of the LDF or HDF. In the upper hill, the forest is dominated by smaller trees which rarely exceed 60cm diameter at breast height (dbh). Only a few dipterocarp species are present in this forest. The characteristic dipterocarp species of this zone is Shore platyclados. Other common dipterocarps are Dipterocarpus costatus, D. retusus, Shorea ciliata, S.ovata and S. submontana. (c) Oak Laurel Forest (Lower Montane Forest) This forest type occurs between about 1,200 and 1,500m. It is rich in oak and laurel species, hence the name of the forest type. It is only suitable for timber extraction in a few areas, as the trees tend to be small and are often not straight, and grow on steep slopes. Virtually all Lower Montane Forest (LMF) lies within forest reserves or within protected areas such as national parks, wildlife reserves and sanctuaries. The LMF is two layered with a fairly even top canopy about 18m to 24m in height. The trees are small, rarely bigger than 45cm dbh. The common genera present in the forest are Quercus, Litocarpus, Castanopsis, Cinnamomum, Litsia and Lindera. (d) Montane Ericaceous Forest (Upper Montane Forest)(UMF) This forest type, often called mossy forest, occurs from about 1,500m upwards to the tree line. In exposed places, the trees are short and gnarled. Conifers, rhododendrons, pitcher plants, orchids, mosses and filmy ferns are important plant groups. Most forests of this type occur in forest reserves and some occur in national parks, wildlife reserves and sanctuaries. The Upper Montane Forest (UMF) is important in minimising erosion on slopes, preventing landslides and water retention Forest Management Forest management in Peninsular Malaysia has shifted from being mainly timber production oriented in the past to that based on sustainable production and management. This encompasses commercial extraction of non-timber forest produce (such as rattan, bamboo, medicinal plants, resins and dyes) and the enhancement of the ecological functions of the forests, including the conservation of biological diversity. WWF Malaysia 3-41

99 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT The production forest is managed under two management systems, namely the modified Malayan Uniform System (MUS) and the Selective Management System (SMS). Briefly, the MUS consists of removing the mature crop in a single felling of trees down to 45 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) for all species while the SMS entails the selection of optimum management (felling) regime based on pre-felling forest inventory data. Trees are felled selectively according to specific cutting limits, over 55 cm dbh for dipterocarps and over 45 cm dbh for non-dipterocarps (but at correspondingly higher diameters in richly stocked forests, leaving at least 32 trees per ha in the cm diameter to form the next crop in years. The MUS is based on a 55-year cutting cycle while the SMS is based on a 30-year cutting cycle. However, it is important to note that MUS does not work well on HDF and forests in the highlands. In Malaysia, forest harvesting practices in the inland forest are generally carried out by a combination of crawler tractor-winch lorry or crawler-tractor-wheel skidder. Under this harvesting system, the crawler tractor skids the logs from the felling sites to the skid trails where the winch lorry continues the transportation to the roadside landings. Reduced impact logging (ground skidding) techniques have now been tried out in several forest areas in the country. To further mitigate the adverse effects of forest harvesting, the DOF has also adopted Standard Road Specifications and Forest Harvesting for strict adherence by all logging contractors both at the planning and implementation levels. All harvesting operations have to be carried out in accordance with these specifications and guidelines, particularly those pertaining to road construction, alignment, gradient, drainage, tree marking, direction of felling and the setting up of log-yards. The DOF s role is to supervise closely the implementation of the environmental conservation measures such as the choice of machinery, construction of water bars and control of pollution of rivers and water bodies resulting from logging. The use of directional felling technique in forest harvesting operation helps to reduce damage to the residual stand, which is in line with the principle of sustainable forest management. Malaysia had formulated the Malaysian Criteria & Indicators (MC&I) in accordance with the new ITTO document on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests and its two Manuals for its application. This revised MC&I (1999) will be used as basis for future forest management certification in the country and will be refined periodically to reflect new concepts of sustainable forest management Forest resource development The Government has implemented various forest development programmes for the conservation, management, and sustainable development of the nation s forests. In Peninsular Malaysia logged-over forests were rehabilitated to ensure continuous log supply and to achieve sustainable forest management. To further improve and sustain the productivity of harvested inland production forests, various silvicultural activities have been carried out. The main silvicultural activities undertaken were girdling and cutting of climbers, enrichment planting, rattan planting, bamboo WWF Malaysia 3-42

100 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT planting and planting in mangrove forest. The implementation of these activities has improved the rehabilitation potential of logged-over forests. To relieve the pressure on the natural forests as well as to supplement future wood supply of the country, forest plantations which are capable of yielding a high volume of timber per unit area and with shorter rotations are being established. Although the DOF has been very active in establishing forest plantations for over 40 years, the total area of plantation forests established in Peninsular Malaysia is only 74,435 ha as of the end of 1999, representing only 1.3% of the total forested area in Peninsula Malaysia. Within the five Main Range states, a total of 47,703 ha of plantation forests have been established (Table 3-16), although only a small percentage of this is within the Main Range. Table 3-16: Forest Plantation, 1999 State Acacia mangium Teak Pine Hevea Azadirachta excelsa Others Total Pahang 19,145-1, ,137 24,043 Perak 3, ,338 Kelantan 3, ,844 Selangor 9, ,934 Negeri 4, ,544 Sembilan Total 39, , Logging Of the 5.94 million ha of forest in Peninsular Malaysia, 4.85 million ha comprise the Permanent Forest Estate (PFE). Of the PFE, 2.9 million ha, or 60%, is productive forest from which timber is harvested on a sustained yield basis. The remaining 1.94 million ha is protective forest, mainly above 1,000m elevation but also including areas below this elevation with slopes greater than 40 degrees. Timber production from the productive forest of the PFE is therefore in perpetuity and is guaranteed by section 10(1) of the National Forestry Act Harvesting of logs from the production forests is regulated by annual coupes predetermined in the Five-Year Plans and based primarily on the latest National Forest Inventory data. The annual allowable cut has been steadily declining over the Five- Year Plan periods from 71,200 ha per annum in the Fifth Malaysia Plan period ( ) to 42,870 ha in the Eighth Malaysia Plan period ( ) (Table 3-17). Notwithstanding this, in almost all the eight years since 1993, the total area harvested fell well below the stipulated annual coupe in the five Main Range states. Together, these states have been harvesting between 24,000-31,000 ha of primary forest annually since 1993 (DOF, 1999). WWF Malaysia 3-43

101 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT The annual coupe was 46,040 ha under the 7MP and 42,870 ha under the 8MP. In 1999 the total area opened for harvesting under the annual coupe was only 41,527 ha which was about 10% below its stipulated annual coupe. There was a further 14,270 ha outside the stipulated annual coupe area, but within the PFE, that were opened for harvesting and this added up to a total of 55,797 ha of the PFE opened for harvesting in 1999 (Table 3-18). The above hectareage within the PFE for harvesting comprised only about 30% of the total area opened for harvesting in This included stateland forest (61,634 ha) and alienated land (36,294 ha) which accounted for the larger portion of 64 % of the 153,725 ha opened for harvesting in Peninsular Malaysia. Table 3-17 : Annual Coupes Under Plan Periods (ha) Malaysia Plans States Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Pahang n.a. Perak n.a. Kelantan n.a. Selangor n.a. N Sembilan n.a. Sub total n.a. Other states n.a. Peninsular Malaysia Source: Forestry Statistics Peninsular Malaysia, Harvesting area since 1990 As shown in Table 3-18, of the areas opened up for logging according to the different classes of forest, over 67% came from the five states in the study area. Pahang, Kelantan and Perak had the largest areas opened at 38,493 ha, 32,534 ha and 25,878 ha respectively, forming almost 63% of the total area opened in Peninsular Malaysia in The areas opened for harvesting of logs have declined steadily over the last decade at an annual average rate of 4.7 % from 238,000 ha in 1990 to 154,000 ha in There has been a drastic reduction of areas for logging in the PFE areas from 133,000 ha in 1990 to 56,000 ha in It was the stateland, and alienated land, that were opened for harvesting and maintained almost unchanged from 104,000 ha in 1990 to 98,000 ha in 1999, that provided a steady stream of log output for the country. WWF Malaysia 3-44

102 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-18 : Areas Opened For Logging, 1999 Classification Total State PFE Stateland Alienated Land % No % % No % % No % % No % Main Range States Pahang 13,690 20,504 4,299 38, Perak 7,065 22,886 2,583 32, Kelantan 6,600 4,295 14,983 25, Selangor 2, , Negeri Sembilan 1, ,158 3, Sub Total 30,922 48,229 24, , Other States 24,875 13,405 11,921 50, Total Peninsular 55,797 61,634 36, ,725 Malaysia Source: Forestry Statistics, Peninsular Malaysia, 1999 by Forestry Department, Peninsular Malaysia. WWF Malaysia 3-45

103 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT a) Production of logs by forest type The total log production in 1999 for Peninsular Malaysia amounted to over 5.35 million cubic metres (Tables 3-19 and 3-20). Nearly 4.27 million or more than 80% came from the five Main Range states. The value of the export of major timber products from Peninsular Malaysia in 1999 was almost RM 1.96 billion of the RM billion for the whole country (Ministry of Primary Industries Malaysia, 2000). Log production in Peninsular Malaysia, reflecting the reduction of forest areas opened for harvesting, declined from about 12.8 million m 3 in 1990 to just over 5.4 million m 3 in The decline averaged 9% per annum for the period 1990 to This decrease is in line with the Government s conservation policy and commitment to achieving International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) Year 2000 objective of sustainable forest management. It is pertinent to note that production of logs from the PFE area was 2.6 million m 3 while that from the state land/alienated land was higher at 2.8 million m 3, giving a total of 5.4 million for Peninsular Malaysia. Table 3-19 shows that close to 80 % of logs are produced in the Main Range states, with Pahang (43%), Kelantan (20%) and Perak (12%) accounting for three-quarters of Peninsular Malaysia total output. b) Employment in logging industry In 1999, there were a total of 12,475 workers engaged in the logging industry. The number of workers has been declining over the years, with the corresponding decreasing output at an average annual rate of 3.4 % from 1990 to The Main Range states had a total of 8,379 workers or 67% of the total. WWF Malaysia 3-46

104 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT State Study Area States Pahang Perak Kelantan Selangor Negeri Sembilan Sub Total Other States Table 3-19 : Production of Logs by Forest Type, 1999 ( 000 m 3 ) Classification Total PRE Stateland Alienated Land % No % % No % % No % % No % , , ,389 Total Peninsular Malaysia 2,572 2, Source: Forestry Statistics, Peninsular Malaysia, 1999 by Forestry Department, Peninsular Malaysia ,327 1, ,267 1,088 5, WWF Malaysia 3-47

105 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT c) Revenue from logging The total revenue collected by the states in Peninsular Malaysia comes in various forms premium, which is the charge based on the area harvested for timber; royalty, which is the charge on logs harvested (saw logs) and other forest produce, the charge on saw logs depending on species and volume; cess, and the charge on timber harvested based on volume extracted. This total revenue goes to the states coffers, with the cess being returned to the forestry sector for development activities. In contrast, levy is collected by the Malaysian Timber Industry Board (MTIB) from timber exports, and this revenue goes to the Federal Government. Premium, royalty and cess is collected irrespective of whether the timber comes from permanent reserved forests, stateland forests, or alienated land, or even from privately owned land. The total forest revenue in 2000 amounted to RM million, and of this RM million, or 69.3%, came from the five Main Range states. Revenue from premium, royalty on saw logs, and cess amounted to RM million in 2000, and of this RM million, or 68.3%, came from the five Main Range states. The total royalty collected by states in Peninsular Malaysia has declined from RM 123 million in 1990 to RM 65 million in This is reflected by the decline in log output of 12.8 million m 3 in 1990 to 5.4 million m 3 in The five Main Range states combined royalty amounted to RM 50 million in 1999 (Table 3-20). Table 3-20 : Royalty Collected and Output of Logs, 1999 State Royalty (RM 000) Output ( 000 m 3 ) Pahang 23,332 2,327 Perak 15,476 1,082 Kelantan 9, Selangor Negeri Sembilan 1, Sub Total 50,416 4,268 Other States 14,931 1,088 Total Peninsular Malaysia 65,347 5,356 Source: Forestry Statistics, Peninsular Malaysia, 1999 by Forestry Department, Peninsular Malaysia Flora Diversity in the Highlands The highland forests are known to contain a diverse array of plant species. The mountain flora has been estimated to include about 3000 species of vascular plants, including some 2125 species restricted to mountains (Kiew 1995). Individual mountains, depending on their height and area, have different tallies: Stone (1981) WWF Malaysia 3-48

106 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT recorded 460 species at the summit of Mt. Ulu Kali on the Main Range, while old survey on the Taiping Hills on the western side of the Main Range (Burkill and Henderson, 1925) listed 1939 species. Soepadmo (1987) estimated that 25% of Malaysia s flowering plant flora is montane and Kiew et al. (1987) reported that 56% of the fern flora occurs above 1,000m. Kiew (1998) concluded that the level of species endemism displayed by the flora of Fraser s Hill, a lower montane forest, averages about 36% for monocotyledons and dicotyledons, and 11% for gymnosperms, compared with an average of 26% for trees in Peninsular Malaysia (Ng et al., 1990). Among the 11 states of Peninsular Malaysia, hyper-endemic tree species (defined as species endemic to one state only) was highest for Perak (103), and distinctly lower for most of the states around it: Kedah (13), Terengganu (18), Pahang (76) and Selangor (21) (Ng et al., 1990). These figures pertain to trees occurring in the entire range of habitats and are not specific to highlands. Woody taxa that are notably montane, such as the Araliaceae, Ardisia (Myrsinaceae) and Theaceae, have significant proportions (25-40%) of endemic species. Among predominantly montane herbaceous dicots, endemism can be higher, such as in Argostemma (Rubiaceae) (88% of 41 species), Henckelia (Gesneriaceae) (94% of 87 species), and Begonia (Begoniaceae) (96% of 47 species) ( Kiew 1991). Among the orchids, which are richly represented in montane areas, some 50% of 850 species in Peninsular Malaysia are endemic (Seidenfaden and Wood 1992). In addition, nine of the 22 genera endemic to the Malay Peninsula belong completely to the montane provenance on the Main Range: Exorhopala (Balanophoraceae), Pernettyopsis (Ericaceae), Micraeschynanthus (Gesneriaceae), Orchadocarpa (Gesneriaceae), Holttumochloa and Maclurochloa (Gramineae), Tricalistra (Liliaceae), and Gentingia and Klossia (Rubiaceae) (Wong 1998). The major point about the distribution of montane endemics is that a large number are known from just one or two peaks (Kiew 1995); for instance, 59% of Argostemma species, 73% of Henckelia, and 80% of Sonerila are each known in the Malay Peninsula from one peak alone (Kiew, 1991). This is hyper-endemism, and is a special feature of the Main Range. Detailed studies are lacking for most areas in the highlands. Two localities where detailed checklists are available, namely Fraser s Hill and Gunung Ulu Kali, reflect the richness in flora biodiversity in the highlands. There are 952 indigenous seed plant species in 405 genera and 120 families recorded in Fraser s Hill alone. This flora, spread over just slightly more than 2,800 ha of ridges and valleys, exceeds 10% of the peninsula s 8,000-odd species of seed plants and so is a very rich sample of the plant diversity. A total of 259 plant species and varieties are considered critically endangered or vulnerable. In addition, 14 species known in Peninsular Malaysia, which are found only at Fraser s Hill, have not been found by botanists again for more than half a century, and perhaps can correctly be regarded as extinct or severely threatened. Gunung Ulu Kali (1,773 m) in Genting Highlands is the southern-most peak of the Main Range. Lying on the crest of the Main Range, it straddles the state boundary of Selangor and Pahang. It forms the apex of Genting Highlands, which is geographically located in Pahang. A total of 460 species have been recorded in the UMF of Gunung Ulu Kali. Among these are some of the endemic species found on Gunung Ulu Kali WWF Malaysia 3-49

107 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT (Stone 1981) namely Dacrydium comosum, Pandanus klosii and Ternstroemia maclellandiana. Gunung Bunga Buah, also in Genting Highlands, straddles the boundary between Selangor and Pahang. Its summit is 1,430m and it forms the south-westerly flank of the Genting Highlands and the southern flank of the Batang Kali Forest Reserve. The summit area and ridges of Gunung Bunga Buah, which harbour remarkably rich and interesting flora, are the forest catchments for Sg. Bunga Buah and Sg. Batang Kali. Stone (1982) reported that the flora of Gunung Bunga Buah comprises at least 500 species. Ternstroemia maclellandiana, Sonerila nidularia, Argostemma spp. and Geostachys elegens are some of the endemic species found here. Because of the species richness and the scientific as well as horticultural interest of the plants, and because of the beauty of the landscape and recreational potential, Gunung Bunga Buah has been regarded as an important natural forest area for protection and conservation purposes. Stone (1981, 1982) has stressed that in the montane oak forest areas of these two mountains, endemic and rare plant species (herbs, shrubs, trees etc.) are known to occur, and Ng et al. (1990) have stated that Hill Dipterocarp and Upper Dipterocarp Forests are known to harbour rare and endemic tree species. The Klang Gates Ridge is a good example of the uniqueness of the flora on the Main Range particularly in the HDF zone. The quartz ridge, where the quartz formation comprises bare rock with almost no soil or nutrient and is much exposed to sun and wind, has produced quite a different community of plant species adapted to these extreme conditions. Most of the species are rare and endemic to the ridge. The present plant status for the Klang Gates Ridge, and eight other smaller quartz outcrops nearby, stands at 72 families, 146 genera and 175 species of ferns and flowering plants excluding weeds (Kiew, 1982). Five endemic species have been recorded at the Klang Gates Ridge. This is very unusual for such a small area, and makes the ridge of great scientific interest. The five endemic species include: Aleisanthia rupestris (small shrub with yellow flowers, grows on rock surfaces), Ilex praetermissa (small tree, relative of the holly, grows on rock surfaces), Borreria pilulifera (small herb, found on rocks), Eulalia milsummi (grass which grows on the rocky surface of the ridge) and Didymocarpus primilina (herb with yellow flowers, relative of the African violet, grows on the forest at the base of the ridge). Other interesting flora at the Klang Gates Ridge are the Tectaria rumicifolia (fern) small hairy fern, rosette in shape, grows in rock cervices; Rhodoleia championii- the characteristic plant of Klang gates; Seraya, Shorea aurtisii and Bayas palm, Oncospermun horridum. In addition to their rich and endemic species, forest areas within the Main Range are also known to harbour rare and endangered species. At Templers Park, another example of a locality within the HDF zone of the Main Range, rare plants like the black waterlily Barclaya kustleri, Peperomia maxwelliana (listed as one of Peninsular Malaysia's 10 most endangered plants) (Kiew et al., 1985) and Maxburrettia rupicola can be found. Other examples include the Acrymia ajugifolia, listed as one of Peninsular Malaysia's 10 most endangered plants, which can be found only at the quartzite ridge in the Kanching VJR. Gunung Bunga Buah is also the only site where the beautiful Phyllagathis magnifica and the extremely rare P. stonei are present. WWF Malaysia 3-50

108 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Soepadmo (1992) estimated that in Peninsular Malaysia about 1200 plant species are known to have therapeutic or medicinal properties and have been used for many generations in various traditional medical systems. These plant species belong to more than 18 families, some of which are also found in the highlands. While documentation of medicinal plants found in the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia is inadequate, Baharuddin et al. (1992) have reported the presence of a few such plants at various altitudes on G. Bubu of the Bintang Range, and the use of these plants by the local communities there. Similarly, Lim (1997) listed 47 plant species whose parts are used for medicinal purposes by Orang Asli communities in Bukit Tapah Forest Reserve on the west flank of the Main Range. Successful drug development from any such plant sources could lead to high economic returns. For example, anti-leukaemia drugs developed from Catharanthus roseus, the Madagascar rosy periwinkle, were patented and marketed in By 1985, sales had reached USD100 million, 88% of which was profit (Farnsworth, 1988). Also, as many plant groups in the highlands have ornamental value or are threatened, a national inventory would provide baseline data for making assessments and decisions on protection or utilization of particular areas in the highlands Wildlife This section focuses on wildlife species that are found on the Main Range, based on the premise that they are representative of what the country s highlands harbour. Species not found on the Main Range but of conservational significance will also be noted. This section will also take a brief look at the wildlife reserves of the Main Range. This section will attempt to demonstrate that, in spite of paucity of information, the fauna of the highland is very diverse. This section will also look at some of the more important conservation issues relating to the Main Range in particular and significant to the highland areas of the Peninsula Wildlife reserves and protected areas Peninsular Malaysia has a total of 0.77 million ha of Wildlife Reserves/ National Parks comprising 39 gazetted areas ranging in size from less than 1 ha to more than 400,000 ha (the tri-state Taman Negara). Six of these can be considered as having an association with the Main Range (see Table 3-21). The largest, contiguous, truly montane reserve is the Bukit Fraser Wildlife Reserve, comprised of one section each in Pahang and Selangor. However, these areas have been largely developed and do not serve the functions one would normally associate with a wildlife reserve. It is noted that from a historical perspective, the declaration of Bukit Fraser as a wildlife reserve was subsequent to its development as a hill station resort. The apparent intention of the gazettement was to prevent the poaching or trapping of highland fauna in the vicinity of the developed areas. The other reserves listed i.e. Sungkai and Chior do not have any truly montane habitat. Thus the only Wildlife Reserve on the Main Range that has some montane component is the Bukit Kutu Reserve. WWF Malaysia 3-51

109 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-21 : Wildlife Reserves on or adjacent to the Main Range State Reserve, Sanctuary or Park Size (ha) Perak Chior WildlifeReserve * 689 Sungkai Wildlife Reserve* 2,468 Pahang Fraser's Hill*^ 2,000 Selangor Bukit Kutu Wildlife Reserve*^ 1,943 Fraser's Hill*^ 2,979 Klang Gates Wildlife Reserve* 130 * - Within or adjacent to Main Range ^ - With significant montane areas Wildlife habitats of the Main Range Four highland habitats for wildlife are generally distinguished, based upon floral (forestry - tree) factors as described earlier in this chapter. In general, animals show varying abilities to adapt and utilise these habitats. Of concern for the conservation of fauna are those species that are dependent upon highland forests for survival because they are naturally the main habitat of the species concerned. (a) The Hill Dipterocarp and Upper Hill Dipterocarp Habitats The hill dipterocarp forest and the upper dipterocarp forest have effectively existed as continuous strips of forest on the eastern and western slopes of the Main Range, from the vicinity of the Thai border all the way south to Negeri Sembilan. The significance of this continuity of hill dipterocarp forest and the upper dipterocarp forest is that they contain species whose populations once encompassed the length of the Main Range and, from the genetic perspective, would have constituted continuous breeding populations. Many species of these two habitats are not found in the lowland forests and it is for these species that a continuity of habitat is particularly important. Among the avifauna, a total of 65 species are in this category (Table 3-22). This represents more than one-third of all the birds of the mountains. Bird species confined to these two habitats include two pheasants, a trogon, a barbet, a pitta, three babblers, a laughing thrush, two thrushes and two warblers. b) The Oak Laurel Habitat The Oak Laurel forest (that grows above the upper dipterocarp forest) is not a continuous habitat system along the whole length of the Main Range. It exists as adjacent patches of habitat in the northern (Perak) part of the Main Range, patches separated only where the east-west divide dips below the 1,200m line. In south Selangor, montane oak forests occur around and north of Fraser s Hill and around G. Ulu Kali with two small areas in the upper reaches of the Sg. Langat catchment. WWF Malaysia 3-52

110 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Montane oak forests are absent from the Main Range in Negeri Sembilan. Faunal species that are restricted to this habitat may be more adapted to smaller population bases but there are very few such species. Among the mammals only four species are limited to this habitat viz. the Short-tailed Mole (Talpa micrura), the Himalayan Water Shrew (Chimarrogale himalayica), the Spotted Flying Squirrel (Petaurista elegans) and the Marmaoset Rat (Hapalomys longicaudatus) (Ratnam et al., 1991). c) The Montane Eriaceous Habitat The montane ericaceous habitat is naturally somewhat fragmented along the length of the Main Range. It occurs at the high points of the ridges between Perak on the west and Kelantan and Pahang on the east, including one peak system just north of the Selangor border. Located south of this is a single patch of montane ericaceous habitat on the Selangor-Pahang border and to the north of Fraser s Hill. However, this analysis is based upon mapping contours and assumes that this habitat exists above 1,500m. The possibility that small isolated patches of montane ericaceous vegetation occur below this level cannot be discounted. Faunal vertebrate species of the montane ericaceous habitat may be regarded as primarily belonging to the montane oak, upper dipterocarp and hill diperocarp habitats that utilise this habitat from time to time. Little is known about the vertebrates and it is more than likely that given sufficient research, scientists will be able to catalogue species that are unique and either confined to, or possibly endemic to, these areas. Much more scientific work is needed in these ecosystems to understand the specific ecological requirements of their fauna Species The second aspect relating to wildlife when planning development in the highlands is to consider the species affected first in terms of the broad spectrum of species diversity, and then more critically in terms of threatened species. Here the focus will be on species where the highland forests are either critical or significant to their survival. a) Species diversity The montane habitats contain a rich diversity of fauna although less rich/diverse than that of the lowland habitats. How much less diverse montane forests are compared to lowland forests is impossible to quantify due to lack of data on invertebrate species. However a feel of this difference may be obtained by comparing the vertebrate fauna. Montane habitats harbour approximately 320 terrestrial vertebrate species in comparison to about 1,200 in the lowlands. In any case, in the montane areas of Peninsular Malaysia, the vertebrates (which also include fish species) may total about 370 species (based on 80 herpetofauna, 40 mammals, 200 bird and about 50 fish species). However the spectrum of diversity includes an infinitely greater number of species among the invertebrates that cover all the arthropods (e.g. insects, spiders, centipedes) the gastropods, the round, flat and segmented worms, down to simple multi-celled and single-celled animals. Studies of just one medium sized insect group, WWF Malaysia 3-53

111 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT the butterflies, have already revealed more than 500 species in the highlands (Kirton, 1991). In order to demonstrate the complexity of even the vertebrate data, Table 3-22 lists all the bird species that are known to inhabit montane areas (Strange & Jeyarajasingam 1993). The 204 species listed represent a third of the recorded Peninsular Malaysian avifauna and include 41 bird families. Of these 204 species, 65 have been identified as dependent upon montane habitats for survival. Despite the fact that montane forests are not as rich as the lowland forests in fauna diversity, they do contain many endemic or rare species such as volant and non-volant mammals (Cranbrook & Medway, 1963; Medway 1983; Lim 1967), reptiles (Tweedie, 1983; Lim 1963, 1967), amphibians (Berry, 1975), birds (Jeyarajasingam and Pearson, 1999) and fish (Mohd Zakaria-Ismail, 1991). Some of these species are found only in the upper elevations of the Main Range (see Tables 3-22, 3-23, 3-24 and 3-25). It is certain that a large number of faunal species still remain unknown to science especially if one considers the invertebrates in particular the insects (beetles primarily). However, the cataloguing of vertebrate fauna can be considered to be effectively finished. While additions are not impossible, they will make little difference to the lists that have already been established. It should be reiterated that while there is a tendency to focus on the vertebrate fauna because they are large, often charismatic and relatively better known, these vertebrates in fact form a very small part of the full spectrum of animal life in the mountains (and the lowlands as well). The difference between the lowland habitats and highland habitats is that much more of the latter still survives and therefore lends itself to a better long term cataloguing. In the lowlands, many representative areas of different forest and habitat types have either been developed (removed), or badly degraded. b) Threatened species Threatened species are defined as rare, genetically impoverished, of low fecundity, dependent on patchy or unpredictable resources, extremely variable in population density, persecuted or otherwise prone to extinction (UNEP Global Diversity Assessment, 1995). Several assessment of threats at species level have been undertaken. Among these are the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals and the Threatened Birds List by BirdLife International. In Peninsular Malaysia, there are few published comprehensive assessment or listing of threatened fauna. Species listed in international publications such as the IUCN may be globally threatened but not necessarily threatened locally or at the country level. On the other hand, species which are threatened or experiencing extinction locally may be common elsewhere or globally. The PERHILITAN-DANCED study on Capacity Building and Strengthening of Protected Areas Systems in Peninsular Malaysia in 1995 has listed 138 threatened species. Most of these species have little or no connection with the highlands. However, for a number of species, the highlands may play an important if not critical role in their future survival (Table 3-26). WWF Malaysia 3-54

112 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-26 : Endangered/threatened vertebrate fauna in Peninsular Malaysia (Species where highland habitats are important/critical to their survival) Scientific Name Common Name Notes Mammals Capricornis sumatraensis Serow Mainly montane Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Sumatran Rhinoceros Survives mainly in highlands Elephas maximus Elephant Only in Belum area a lowland species Hylobates syndactylus Siamang Main population in MR Panthera pardus Leopard/Panther Main population survives in highlands c) Endemic species Another factor in evaluating the highland environment and its fauna is to consider how restricted the distribution of the species is. Obviously, while a species may be rare on the Main Range but is to be found in many other places, then the local population is not too significant. On the other hand, if a species is found only on the Main Range (i.e. endemic to the Main Range), then that species assumes a high level of importance and so does the habitat system that supports it (Table 3-27). It must also be noted that as the science of cataloguing animals advances, there will be periods when a species may be considered endemic simply because it has not yet been found at other suitable habitats. For this reason, some caution must be exercised in listing endemic species. Endemic species usually belong to groups that have been well, if not exhaustively, studied. As far as our highlands are concerned, this is probably the case for the mammals and birds but less true of the herpetofauna. For example, the Malaysian mountain rat (Maxomys inas) and the Mountain peacock pheasant (Polypectron inopinatum) are both believed to be endemic to the country s highlands. Between them there is a higher probability that M. inas may be found elsewhere in South-east asia than P. inopinatum because the pheasants have been much more thoroughly studied and investigated than the forest rats. Sometimes, though, the reverse process may result in a known animal species becoming an endemic simply due to taxonomic reclassification. For example the Malayan hill partridge (Arbrophial campbelli) is a recently declared endemic to the Main and Bintang Ranges of the Peninsula. This identification has been changed more than once and previously it was thought to be a species found in other South-east Asian countries. WWF Malaysia 3-55

113 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-27 : Endemic vertebrates in Peninsular Malaysia (Species where highland areas are important or primary habitats) Scientific Name Mammals Murina aenea Maxomys inas Birds Polypectrum inopinatum Arborphila campbelli Myiophonus robinsoni Common Name Bronzed Tube nosed bat Malayan mountain rat spiny rat Mountain peacock-pheasant Malayan Hill partridge Malayan Whistling Thrush Amphibia Philautus vermiculatus Rhacophorus prominanus Metaphrynella pollicaris Reptilia Gonocephalus robinsoni Amphiesma sanguineum Callorhabdium williamsoni Macrocalamus jasoni Macrocalamus lateralis Macrocalamus schulzi Macrocalamus tweediei d) Significant species that can benefit from Main Range habitats Out of the lists of species presented so far (Tables 3-22 to 3-25) that depend upon the montane habitats, there are a number of species where further discussion is needed. This discussion will also include species that are not normally montane in nature but where the highlands can play a role in their survival and sustainability. Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) Among the endangered/threatened species that have a connection with highland areas, the most outstanding example is the Sumatran rhinoceros. While this species is able to utilise many types of forest from fresh water swamp forest to montane habitats, it is now clear that the future survival of the species in Peninsular Malaysia is very dependent upon remaining habitats in the mountains and foothills. The main reason for this is that most existing lowland habitats where the species was once found are either degraded, fragmented or too small to support a breeding population of the species. In addition, a 10 year-plus captive breeding project has not yielded any results in spite of heavy funding and high tech methods. The Sumatran rhinoceros now survives in a number of areas and viable populations may be found in Taman Negara and in the Ulu Belum forest, where a 1998 survey WWF Malaysia 3-56

114 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT indicated and 5 8 animals respectively. Endau Rompin, which appeared to be the main rhino area in the 1970s and 1980s, only recorded 2 3 animals. Thus, the Belum area is, at present, perhaps the second most important area in Peninsular Malaysia for the conservation of this species. However, the Belum area suffers from a serious disadvantage at present. Due to its location against the Thai border, which is forested along its length, the area is frequented by poachers from across the border. There are indications that animals have been lost in the past. At present surveys have indicated that the there are some animals in the southern part of Belum at high altitudes near the Kelantan border. At this distance, they are probably safe from Thai poachers. In addition, it may be expected that the poaching situation will be brought under control especially as the Belum State Park is put into operation. It is therefore hoped that the depleted areas to the north can once again be repopulated and Belum as a whole can play a much greater role in the conservation of this endangered species. The serow (Naemorhedus sumatrensis) The only wild goat of the Peninsula, this species is primarily distributed in highland habitats. It is considered threatened, the most serious threat coming from poachers who are able to sell the meat, skull and bones for lucrative returns. Local folklore attributes medicinal properties to the flesh and bones of the serow. Unfortunately as highland areas are opened, the protection of remoteness is eliminated and populations of serow close to roads and agricultural areas come under risk. There have been unconfirmed reports of serow being shot along the new road from Simpang Pulai to Cameron Highlands. The Leopold/Panther (Panthera pardus) While this species can survive in the lowlands, the foothills and lower montane areas are able to support resident populations of panther. The species is believed to be under threat from habitat destruction and highlands, especially remote and undeveloped areas, offer suitable habitat for its survival. As a top predator it is important that there is large scale habitat continuity for this species - not only along the length of the Main Range but also a continuity across to the Bintang range, the Benom Range and with the forests of Taman Negara. The tiger (Panthera tigris) This is not a highland species but has been recorded in montane areas. However such records are usually associated with the opening or disturbance of habitat, which results in the migration of wild boar (its main prey species) into what is atypical habitat. Disturbed highland areas, for example areas that have been logged, can play a role in harbouring this species. More important is the role of highland habitats that provide links between lowland areas, e.g. across the Main Range. The elephant (Elephas maximus) This is not a highland species but is brought into this discussion due to the use of the upper Belum forest translocation area for animals captured as pests in other parts of the Peninsula by the DWNP. There is little data on what is actually happening to the 50 WWF Malaysia 3-57

115 CHAPTER 3 : THE MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT odd animals released so far in this area. It can be expected that they will survive in the immediate future and adapt to the higher than normal altitude. Monitoring and habitat evaluation is needed before any reliable prediction can be made as to the long term suitability of the area for this species. WWF Malaysia 3-58

116 TABLE 3-22 : Montane birds, their habitat ranges and need for montane habitat Based on checklist in A Photographic Guide to the Birds of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore by Morten Strange and Allen Jeyarajasingam Key to abbreviations used adapted from checklist above A = Lowland Forest. B = Lower montane forest (equivalent to Hill Diperocarp plus Upper Hill Dipterocarp forest and Oak Laurel Forest. C = Upper montane forest (equivalent to montane ericaceous forest found in this habitat absent in this habitat D = Dependency on montane forest Y - montane species that needs montane habitat for survival - Also found in lowland and not dependent on montane habitat S = Status (1 -abundant/common; 2 - uncommon; 3 - rare) Family Habitats where found S D Species A B C Accipitridae Pernis ptilorhyncus Spilornis cheela Ictanaetus malayensis Hieraaetus kienerii Spizaetus alboniger Falconidae Falco peregrinus Phasianidae Rhizothera longirostris Arborophila orientalis Y Caloperdix oculea Rollulus rouloul Polypectron inopinatum Y Rheinardia ocellata Y Argusianus argus Columbidae Treron seimundi Treron sphenura Y Treron curvirostra Ptilinopus jambu Ducula badia Macropygia unchall Y Macropygia ruficeps Chalcophaps indica WWF Malaysia 3-59

117 Psittacidae Loriculus galgulus Cuculidae Cuculus spaverioides Cuclulus saturatus Chrysococcyx minutillus Surniculus lugubris Phaenicophaeus tristis Phaenicophaeus javanicus Strigidae Otus spilocephalus Y Glaucidium brodiei Y Strix leptogrammica Caprimulgidae Eurostopodus temminckii Caprimulgus indicus Apodidae Collocalia gigas Aerodramus fuciphaga Aerodramus maxima Collocalia brevirostris Collocalia esculenta Hirundapus cochinchinensis Hirundapus giganteus Rhaphidura leucopygialis Apus pacificus Apus affinis Hemiprocnidae Hemiprocne longipennis Hemiprocne comata Trogonidae Harpactes oreskios Harpactes erythrocephalus Y Alcedinidae Actenoides concretus Meropidae Nyctyornis amictus Bucerotidae Berenicornis comatus Anorrhinus galeritus Rhyticeros undulatus Buceros rhinoceros Buceros bicornis Rhinoplax vigil Capitonidae Psilopogon pyrolophus Y Megalaima chrysopogon Megalaima mystacophanos Megalaima franklini Y WWF Malaysia 3-60

118 Megalaima oorti Y Megalaima australis Calorhamphus fuliginosus Picidae Picuminus innominatus Y Sasia abnormis Picus flavinucha Y Picus canus Y Picus puniceus Picus chlorolophus Y Picus miniaceus Dinopium rafflesii Gecinulus viridis Meiglyptes tristis Hemicircus concretus Blythipicus pyrrhotis Y Blythipicus rubiginosus Eurylaimidae Corydon sumatranus Eurylaimus javanicus Serilophus lunatus Psarisomus dalhousiae Y Calyptomena viridis Hirundinidae Delichon dasypus Pittidae Pitta oatesi E Y Camphephagidae Hemipicus picatus Tephrogernis virgatus Coracina novaehollandiae Y Coracina fimbriata Pericrocotus igneus Pericrocotus solaris Y Pericrocotus flammeus Chloropseidae Chloropsis cochinchinensis Chloropsis hardwickii Y Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus atriceps Phcnonotus melanicterus Pycnonotus squamatus Pycnonotus cynaniventris Pynonotus finlaysoni Criniger ochraceus Hypsipetes mcclellandii Y Hypsipetes malaccensis Hysipetes flavala Dicruridae WWF Malaysia 3-61

119 Dicrurus aeneus Dicrurus paradiseus Dicrurus remifer Y Oriolidae Oriolus cruentus Y Irenidae Irena puella Corvidae Cissa chinensis Y Corvus macrorhynchus Paridae Melanochlora sultanea Sittidae Sitta frontalis Sitta azurea Y Timalidae Trichastoma tickelli Y Pomatorhinus hypoleucos Y Pomatorhinus montanus Napothera mamorata Y Napothera brevicaudata Napothera epilepidota Pnoepyga pusilla Y Stachyris rufifrons Stachyris chrysea Y Stachyris nigriceps Macronus gularis Garrulax lugubris Y Garrulax mitratus Y Garrulax erythrocephalus Y Leiothrix argentauris Y Cutia nipalensis Y Pteruthius flaviscapis Y Pteruthius melanotis Y Gampsorhynchus rufulus Y Minla cyanouroptera Y Alcippe castaneceps Y Alcippe peracensis Y Heterophasia picaoides Y Yuhina zantholeuca Turdidae Brachypteryx leucophrys Y Lucinia calliope Y Lucinia ruficeps Y Lucinia cyane Copsychus saularis Cinclidium leucurum Y Enicurus ruficapillus Enicurus schistaceus Y WWF Malaysia 3-62

120 Monticola gularis Myiophoneus robinsoni Y Myiophoneus caeruleus Zoothera citrina Zoothera sibirica Turdus obscurus Sylviidae Seicercus castaniceps Y Seicercus montis Y Abroscopus superciliaris Phylloscopus inornatus Phylloscopus borealis Phylloscopus plumbeitarsus Y Phylloscopus coronatus Phylloscopus trivirgatus Y Orthotomus sutorius Orthotomus atrogularis Orthotomus cuculatus Y Prinia rufescens Prinia atrogularis Y Muscicapidae Rhinomyias umbratilis Muscicapa sibirica Muscicapa dauurica Muscicapa ferruginea Muscicapa thalassina Ficedula mugimaka Ficedula solitaria Y Fidedula westermanni Y Cyanoptila cyanomelana Niltava grandis Y Niltava sumatrana Y Cyornis concreta Cynornis unicolor Cyornis rubeculoides Cyornis banyumas Cyornis tickelliae Muscapella hodgsoni Y Culicicapa ceylonensis Rhiphiduridae Rhiphidura albicollis Y Monarchidae Philentoma velatum Terpsiphone paradisi Motacillidae Motacilla cinerea Anthus hodgsoni Laniidae Lanius trigrinus WWF Malaysia 3-63

121 Nectarinidae Hypogramma hypogrammicum Aethopyga saturata Y Aethopyga mystacalis Arachnothera longirostra Arachnothera crassirostris Arachanothera robusta Arachnothera chrysogenys Arachnothera affinis Arachnothera magna Y Dicaeidae Prionochilus thoracicus Prionochilus maculatus Dicaeum agile Dicaeum ignipectus Y Dicaeum trigonostigma Zosteropidae Zosterops everetti Estrilidae Erythura prasina Erythura hyperythra Lonchura striata Fringillidae Pyrrhula nipalensis Y Total species 204 Total species dependent on montane habitat for survival 65 WWF Malaysia 3-64

122 Table 3-23 : Amphibia species that depend upon Natural Montane Habitats for survival. (Species recorded or believed to occur on the Main Range) Family Species Habitat (metres a.s.l.) DF Scientific reference HD UD+OL ME (SITE ) ( ) ( ) (> 1500) Caecilidae Icthyiophis monchrous A 1(GB), 16(MR) Pelobatidae Leptobrachium gracile A 1(GB), 16(MR) Leptobrachium heteropus A 1(GB), 16(MR) Megophrys longipes C 2(BL,FH) Megophrys nasuta A 1(GB), 16(MR) Bufonidae Ranidae Ansonia malayana A 1(GB), 16(MR) Bufo parvus B 1(GB), 16(MR) Cacophryne borbonica B 1(GB), 16(MR) Pelophryne brevipes A 1(GB), 16(MR) Amolops larutensis B 2(CM) Rana hascheana B 1(GB), 16(MR) Rana kuhli A 2(BL), 16(MR) Rana laticeps C 1(GB) Rana latosa A 1GB), 16(MR) Rhacophoridae Philautus aurisfasciatus A 1(GB), 16(MR) Rhacophorus appendiculatus A 1(GB), 16(MR) Rhacophorus bimaculatus A 2(KP), 16(MR) Rhacophorus nigropalmatus B 16(MR) Rhacophorus prominanus B 2(KP), 16(MR) Rhacophorus reinwardtii A 1(GB)), 16(MR) Microhylidae Chaperina fusca B 1(GB), 16(MR) Microhyla annectans A 1(GB),16(MR) HD = Hill Dipterocarp UD+OL = Upper Dipterocarp and Oak Laurel ME = Montane ericaceous DF = Dependency factor / The species need for montane habitats A = Highly dependent: A totally montane species B = Partially dependent: Also in lowland habitats C = Marginal need: more a lowland species found throughout habitat range found in lower elevations of habitat range found in upper elevations of habitat range GB - Gunung Benom BL - Bukit Larut FH - Frasers Hill KP - Kedah Peak CM - Cameron Highlands MR - Main Range record WWF Malaysia 3-65

123 Table 3-24 : Reptiles species that depend upon Natural Montane Habitats for survival. (Species recorded or believed to occur on the Main Range) Family Species Habitat range (metres a.s.l.) DF Scientific references HD UD+OL ME (SITE) ( ) ( ) (> 1500) SNAKES Colubridae Pareas vertebralis A 16(MR) Pareas laevis A 16(MR) Amphiesma sarawakensis A 1(GB), 3(N) Elaphe porphyracea A 3(CM) Gonyophis margaritatus A 1(GB) Callorhabdium williamsoni A 16(MR) Macrocalamus tweedie A 3(CM) Macrocalamus lateralis A 3(CM) Oreocalamus hanitschi A 3(CM) Liopeltis baliodeirus A 16(MR) Lycodon butleri A 3(CM) Viperidae Trimeresurus popeirum A 3(CM,GH) LIZARDS Agamidae Gonocephalus robinsoni A 16(MR) HD = Hill Dipterocarp GB - Gunung Benom UD+OL = Upper Dipterocarp and Oak Laurel CM - Cameron Highlands ME = Montane ericaceous FH - Frasers Hill DF = Dependency factor / The species need for montane habitats KP - Kedah Peak A = Highly dependent: A totally montane species GH - Genting Highlands B = Partially dependent: Also in lowland habitats N -? C = Marginal need: more a lowland species * - (has been recorded found throughout habitat range in Main range but data found in lower elevations of habitat range not yet published) found in upper elevations of habitat range WWF Malaysia 3-66

124 Table 3-25 : Mammals species that depend upon Natural Montane Habitats for survival. (Species recorded or believed to occur on the Main Range) Family Species Habitat (metres a.s.l.) DF Scientific reference HD UD+OL ME (SITE) ( ) ( ) (> 1500) INSECTIVORA Erinaceidae Hylomys suillus A 4(CM), 6(JB), 16(MR) Soricidae Chimarrogale himalaya A 9(B), 16(MR) Talpidae Talpa micrura A 10(CM) CHIROPTERA Pteropodidae Aetholops alecto A 4(CM) Rousettus amplexicaudatus A 4(CM), 16(MR) Dycopterus spadiceus A 4CM) Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus macrotis C 4(GB),16(MR) Rhinolophus robinsoni A 4(FH) Vespertilionidae Murina suilla B 4(B) Murina cyclotis B 4 Murina huttoni A 4(GB),16(MR) Murina aenea A 4(B) Miniopterus medius A 4, Miniopterus schreibersii B 16(MR) Hesperopterus blandfordi A 16(MR) Hesperopterus tomesi A 16(MR) Pipistrellus societus A 5(GB) Phoniscus atrox B 4(UG) SCANDENTIA Tuapaiidae Ptilocercus lowii C 16(MR) PRIMATES Hylobatidae Hylobates lar B 9(B), 16(MR) Hylobates agilis B 9(B), 16(MR) Symphangulus syndactylus A 9(B), 18 RODENTIA Sciuridae Callosciurus erythraeus A 4(CM,FH),5(GB) Tamiops macclellandii A 5(GB),4(CM) Petaurista elegans A 4(CM),5(GB) Muridae Rattus edwardsi A 13(CM), 5(GB) Pithecheir parvus A?(lbl 1972) Niveventer rapit A 15(CM) Hapalomys longicaudata A 19 (CM) CARNIVORA Ursidae Helarctos malayanus B 5(GB),16(MR) Felidae Pathera pardus B 16(MR) WWF Malaysia 3-67

125 Family Species Habitat (metres a.s.l.) DF Scientific reference HD UD+OL ME (SITE) ( ) ( ) (> 1500) ARTIODACTYLA Cervidae Muntiacus muntjak B 5(GB), 9(B), 16(MR) Bovidae Naemorhedus sumatrensis A 5(GB), 9(B), 16(MR) HD = Hill Dipterocarp UD+OL = Upper Dipterocarp and Oak Laurel ME = Montane ericaceous DF = Dependency factor / The species need for montane habitats A = Highly dependent: A totally montane species B = Partially dependent: Also in lowland habitats C = Marginal need: more a lowland species found throughout habitat range found in lower elevations of habitat range found in upper elevations of habitat range GB - Gunung Benom FH - Frasers Hill KP - Kedah Peak CH - Cameron Highlands GH - Genting Highlands JB - Janda Baik MR - Main Range record B - Belum UG - Ulu Gombak WWF Malaysia 3-68

126 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT 3.4 Socio-Economic Environment The socio economic environment of Main Range is characterized by the dominance of tourism and agricultural sectors, with urban and rural communities, especially the Orang Asli, and the large forested area making up the complete system. The linkages are also well defined with the availability and the on-going construction of road networks such as the Simpang Pulai Gua Musang highway, the East-West Highway, the Kuala Lumpur Karak Highway and Kuala Kubu Raub road Population Information on the exact population in the highlands is not readily available. However, there are several studies related to the highlands, which provide some insight into the dynamics of population structure. The studies include the Cameron Highlands Local Plan, the Cameron Highlands Structure Plan and several EIA studies for projects such as the Kinta Highlands Development and the Hill Resort Road. It is estimated that the population in the highlands was about 62,000 in the year 2000 (Table 3-28). The population is concentrated in Cameron Highlands, Genting Highlands, Fraser's Hill, Bukit Tinggi, Mukim Nenggiri of Gua Musang District, Mukim Temenggor and Mukim Belum of Hulu Perak District and parts of Mukims in Ulu Perak, Kuala Kangsar, Kinta, Batang Padang, Raub, Kuala Lipis and Bentong districts. There are 14 traditional villages and they are mostly found in Janda Baik and Bukit Tinggi. Small and remote populated areas mostly resided by the Orang Asli can be found in Jelebu, Seremban, Kuala Pilah, Rembau and Tampin districts in Negeri Sembilan, Hulu Selangor, Gombak, Hulu Langat districts in Selangor and Jeli district in Kelantan. The majority of the Main Range population are in Pahang with 36,269 (or 58.8% of the total population in the Main Range) followed by the Perak with 24.3% and the Kelantan with 9.5% Pahang With an estimated population of 36,269 in the Main Range, Pahang has the majority of residents in the Main Range. Cameron Highlands, Genting Highlands, Fraser's Hill, Bukit Tinggi and Janda Baik contribute largely to the high number of residents. Other resided areas are mostly the Orang Asli settlements. In Raub District, 19 Orang Asli villages are in the Main Range. The other villages such as Kampung Ulu Yol, Kampung Sungai Royong, Kampung Sungai Temir and Kampung Satak are close to the boundary of the Main Range. The main ethnic groups are Semai and Temuan while Che Wong is another ethnic group, which can be found in Kg. Sungai Yol, Kg. Rempan and Kg. Ulu Tok Machang. The number of Semai people was 1,912 WWF Malaysia 3-69

127 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT in 2000 while Temuan was 939 and Che Wong was 267. In Kuala Lipis District, the major ethnic group is Semai while Bateq could be found in some of the villages. State Kelantan Table 3-28 : The Population in the Main Range, 2000 District Population in the Main % of Population in The Range Main Range Gua Musang 5, Kuala Krai 0 - Jeli Sub Total 5, Pahang Bentong 2, Cameron Highlands 28, Kuala Lipis 3, Raub 1, Sub Total 36, Seremban Negeri Sembilan Tampin 0 - Kuala Pilah Jelebu Rembau Sub Total 1, Ulu Selangor 1, Selangor Gombak Ulu Langat 1, Sub Total 3, Ulu Perak 4, Perak Kuala Kangsar 4, Kinta 3, Batang Padang 2, Sub Total 14, Total 61, Source: i. Preliminary Count Report for Local Authority areas, Statistics Department, 1991 ii. Mukim Preliminary Count Report, Statistics Department, 1991 iii. Preliminary Count Report for Urban and Rural Areas, Statistics Department, 2000 iv. Discussion with DOOAA District, State and Federal Offices v. Data Klasifikasi Kampung: Perkampungan Orang Asli Semenanjung Malaysia, DOOAA, 1997 vi. Consultant's Estimate WWF Malaysia 3-70

128 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Cameron Highlands The entire district of Cameron Highlands is in the Main Range. The Population Census shows that the Cameron Highlands population increased from 25,555 in 1991 to 28,050 in 2000 with an average annual growth of 1.04%. The number of households also increased from 5,234 in 1991 to 6,381 in The major settlements in Cameron Highlands are Tanah Rata (the town centre), Brinchang, Habu, Ringlet, Lembah Bertam, Kg. Raja, Kea Farm, Kuala Terla and Tringkap. Ringlet's population in 1980 was 558 and has increased to 2,431 in 1991 and 2,605 in 2000, and Tanah Rata's population was 1,593 in 1980 and has increased to 6,863 in 1991 and 8,097 in Based on the Population Census by DOOAA in 1997, there were 26 Orang Asli settlements in Cameron Highlands. The number of households was 825 and the population was 4,868. The two major ethnics groups are Semai and Temiar. Fraser's Hill Fraser's Hill's population increased from 399 in 1980 to 888 in An unpublished study carried out in 2000 by the WWF Fraser's Hills Nature Education Centre revealed that about 76% of the population in Fraser's Hill is Malay, 19.8% Indian and 4.2% Chinese. Fraser's Hill lies on two state peripheries, Selangor and Pahang. On the Selangor side, there seems to be a decreasing growth pattern of population, from 153 in 1991 to 93 in On the contrary, the population in the Pahang side has increased from 888 in 1991 to 1,163 in In total, Fraser's Hill's population has increased to 1,256 in 2000 from 1,041 in 1991 with AAGR of 2.11%. Comparatively, the population growth was above the Pahang average growth rate of 1.84%. Genting Highlands The Genting Highlands population increased from 3,950 in 1991 to an estimated 5,109 in 2000 with AAGR of 2.9%. The population is concentrated at the lower part of Genting Highlands. The number of male was 2,427 and the number of female was 1,520 in The number of household was 1,243 in Bukit Tinggi Bukit Tinggi population was 583 in 1980 and increased to 1,370 in 1991 and decreased to 1,264 in 2000 with AAGR of -0.89% in the period. The declining growth in population in the period could be due to the changing pattern in the family structure from extended family to nucleus family. Another possible factor could be the migration of younger generation to other areas such as Kuala Lumpur and Bentong to seek better employment opportunities. The population is concentrated in the Bukit Tinggi New Village. WWF Malaysia 3-71

129 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Janda Baik The population in Janda Baik is estimated to be around 2,000 in the year The majority are Malays with some Orang Asli Kelantan The estimated population in the Kelantan section of the Main Range was 5,871 in 2000, the majority of whom are Orang Asli. Only one major Orang Asli settlement, Pos Sungai Rual, in Jeli District is in the Main Range while none is found in Kuala Kerai District. There are seven villages, about 75 households and 175 people in Pos Sungai Rual and its major ethnic group is Jahai. Agriculture, fish rearing and rubber tapping are the main socio economic activities. The total population in the Main Range within the district of Gua Musang was 5534 in the year 2000, most of whom were in Lojing. There are 138 Orang Asli villages in this district (Table 3-29). The main ethnic group is Temiar while only Pos Lebir has Bateq ethnic group. Altogether, there are a total of 111 minor settlements (villages) within these 14 posts. Pos Brooke has the highest number of villages and population. There are 20 villages with 967 people in Pos Brooke. Table 3-29 : Distribution of Orang Asli Villages and Population in the Gua Musang District, 2000 Sex Pos No. of Villages No. of H/H Total % M F Blau Hau Bihai Balar Belatim Tohoi Simpor Pasik Gob Gemalah Kuala Lah Brooke Hendrop Lebir Total ,653 2,401 5, Source: i. Data Klasifikasi Kampung: Perkampungan Orang Asli Semenanjung Malaysia, DOOAA, 1997 ii. DOOAA Office of Gua Musang District, 2000 WWF Malaysia 3-72

130 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Lojing is a new and fast developing area in Gua Musang District. The major settlement in Lojing is Pos Brooke, which is an Orang Asli settlement and Pos Hendroop. There has been a proposal to develop Pos Brooke as a town centre and another Orang Asli settlement, Pos Sigar as a tourism spot. The major settlements in Lojing are Pos Blau, Pos Hau, Pos Balar, Pos Bihai, Pos Belatim, Pos Tohor, Pos Simpor, Pos Pasik, Pos Gob, Pos Gemalah, Pos Kuala Lah, Pos Brooke and Pos Hendrop and they are all the Orang Asli settlements Perak The estimated population within the Main Range in Perak was 14,985 in The majority of them are in Kuala Kangsar with a population of 4,664, followed by Ulu Perak with 4,314, Kinta with 3,507 and Batang Padang with 2,500. The Daerah Kinta DOOAA estimated the total Orang Asli population in Kinta Highlands to be 805 as at 1997 and 820 in Except for the Temiar group that resides mainly at Pos Raya and Kampung Kerawat, all the other settlements are occupied by the Semai group. The whole Mukim Belum and Temenggor of Hulu Perak District are in the Main Range. While Mukim Belum is in a forest-covered area with a number of Orang Asli settlements, Mukim Temenggor consists of quite a number of Orang Asli settlements such as RPS Banun and RPS Kemar. RPS Banun population was 1,231 while RPS Kemar population was 1,908 in RPS Banun is a resettlement village where the population came from the remote Belum Forest and their original birthplace at the riverbank of Sungai Perak. They were also relocated because of the flooding of their villages during the construction of Temenggor Dam Negeri Sembilan In Jelebu District, Kampung Tohor, Kampung Jeram Lesung and Kampung Bertam are in the Main Range, while the other villages are close to the boundary. In the Seremban District, Kampung Sungai Ngoi-Ngoi and Kampung Kolam Air are believed to be in the Main Range. In Tampin District, Kampung Dusun Kendong and Kampung Dusun Paya are in the Main Range. For Kuala Pilah District, Kampung Langkap, Kampung Chergun and Kampung Guntur are in the Main Range. Investigations show that all the Orang Asli villages in Rembau are close to but not in the Main Range Selangor The total number of estimated population in the Main Range in Selangor was 3,031 in The majority of them are in Ulu Langat with a population of 1,530, followed by Ulu Selangor with 1,088 and Gombak with 413. Among the major villages in Ulu Langat are Kuala Pangsun with 351 residents, Sungai Lalang Baru with 328 WWF Malaysia 3-73

131 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT residents and Broga with 152 residents. The major villages in Ulu Selangor are Kampung Gerachi Baru with 190 residents and Kampung Tun Razak with 473 residents while the only major village in Gombak is Kampung Hulu Kuang with 252 residents. They are all the Orang Asli villages Orang Asli Communities The Orang Asli made up two-thirds of the population of the Main Range in 2000 (Table 3-30). In total, there were 366 Orang Asli villages with a population of about 36,000 in 2000 or 34% of the whole Orang Asli population of 105,979 in Peninsular Malaysia. As such, the Orang Asli communities a large component of the population in the Main Range. Most of the Orang Asli are in the states of Pahang and Perak. The districts of Gua Musang and Cameron Highlands have the largest population of Orang Asli. WWF Malaysia 3-74

132 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-30 : The Orang Asli Population Distribution by Selected Districts and in the Main Range, 2000 STATE DISTRICT Total In the Main Range Orang Asli Population % in Villages Population Villages Population the Main Range to District Total Gua Musang 134 6, , Kelantan Kuala Krai Jeli Sub Total 142 6, , Bentong 14 2, , Cameron Pahang Highlands 28 5, , Kuala Lipis 82 7, , Raub 25 3, , Sub Total , , Seremban 12 1, Negeri Sembilan Tampin Kuala Pilah 13 1, Jelebu 13 1, Rembau Sub Total 48 5, , Ulu Selangor 16 2, Selangor Gombak Ulu Langat , Sub Total 33 3, , Ulu Perak 44 4, , Kuala Kangsar 56 5, , Perak Kinta 27 4, , Batang Padang 70 10, a 2,500 b 23.4 Sub Total , , Total , , PENINSULAR MALAYSIA - 105,979 c - 35, Source i. DOOAA District, State and Federal Offices ii. Data Klasifikasi Kampung: Perkampungan Orang Asli Semenanjung Malaysia, DOOAA, 1997 Note a. Consultant's Estimate b Consultant's Estimate c. The 1997 figure Census did not cover Orang Asli residing in towns. d. Most of The 1997 population figure has been updated to year 2000 through discussion with the relevant DOOAA district and state offices. WWF Malaysia 3-75

133 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Employment The employment scenario in the Main Range is largely influenced by the importance of agriculture and tourism sectors. While employment in the agriculture sector is largely concentrated in Cameron Highlands, Janda Baik and Bukit Tinggi areas, the employment in the tourism sector is dominant in Genting Highlands and followed by the other hill stations such as Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill Cameron Highlands Cameron Highlands is one of the major employment generators in the Main Range with agriculture, wholesale and retail and government, social and personal services sectors being the main providers. Table 3-31 shows employment by economic sectors in the period in Cameron Highlands. The number of employment has increased to 12,429 in 2000 but posted a slow growth at 0.99% in period. The slower growth of employment in Cameron Highlands during that period is contributed by several factors such as the slow growth of population, the migration of agriculture workers and farmers to Lojing and policy adopted by the Cameron Highlands local authorities, especially with regards to the land utilisation for the agriculture sector. Table 3-31 : Distribution of Employment by Sector, Cameron Highlands, 1980, 1991 and 2000 Economic Sector AAGR No. % No. % (%) Agriculture 7, , Tourism Manufacturing Construction Transportation, Communication/Utilities Wholesale/Retail Finance/Insurance Government Services Other Services 1, , Total 11, , Source: Department of Statistics, Malaysia Note: 1. Consultant's Estimate WWF Malaysia 3-76

134 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Tourism, agriculture, wholesale and retail as well as service sectors were the main employment providers in Cameron Highlands, totaling some 86% during the period but declined to 85% in period. The decline mainly resulted from the slow growth of employment in agriculture sector. The tea plantations are among the main agricultural activities in Cameron Higlands. The major tea plantations include the Boh Plantations and Bharat Tea. Bharat Tea employs 52 workers while Boh Plantations has 1,300 employees. It is estimated that there were some 6,000 agricultural workers in Cameron Highlands in 2000, of which some 200 are Orang Asli, 600 Indians, 2,000 Chinese and 4,000 foreign workers, mostly from Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal and India. There are several farmers associations in Cameron Highlands. Among them are the Indian Farmers Association, the Chinese Farmers Association and the Pertubuhan Peladang Kawasan (PPK). There are 1,245 farmers registered under PPK, some 600 under the Indian Farmers Association and some 400 registered under the Chinese Farmers Association Lojing The agriculture sector is the dominant employment generator while the primary school in Pos Brooke and a few government institutions such as the DOOAA office, the DOA and a subsidiary of Kelantan SEDC, Darulnaim Agro Management Industries Sdn Bhd (DAMAI) offer the other employment opportunities. The migration of Cameron Highlands farmers to Lojing has seen some estimated 250 employments in agriculture. Some local Orang Asli communities also operate or work in the farms. A study on the Orang Asli communities revealed that about 72.2% of the Orang Asli in selected areas in Lojing in 1992 were still involved in collecting forest produce, while about 12.3% were in hunting, fishing and agriculture activities. About 12% were employed as labourers Kinta Highlands Most of the working population in the Orang Asli settlements are self-employed. The economy is a largely subsistence one with a low level of monetisation. According to the DOOAA, a few of the single male members of the community are, however, employed outside the area and work in factories and quarries in Simpang Pulai or as construction workers either at the on-going Simpang Pulai road construction or at Tapah. WWF Malaysia 3-77

135 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Fraser's Hill In 1980, there were 496 employed in Fraser's Hill. It is estimated that the number of employment increased to 587 in 2000 with AAGR of 1.9% in period. Table 3-32 shows employment by economic sector, in the period. Table 3-32 : Distribution of Employment by Sector, Fraser's Hill Industry * No. % No. % AAGR Agriculture (1.4) Mining and Quarry (3.2) Manufacturing Utilities Construction Wholesale and Retail Trade, Restaurants and Hotel Transport Finance Community and Social Services Others Total Source: Department of Statistics, (1991) Note: * Consultant's Estimate Consistent with the Fraser's Hill's image as one of the important hill resorts in Malaysia, the wholesale and retail, hotel and restaurant sector was the main contributor of employment in 1999 accounting for about 51% of the total employment Genting Highlands The main employer in Genting Highlands is Resort World Berhad. Resort World Berhad employed 8,183 workers in 1996 and the number increased to 8,481 workers in It is estimated that there were about 10,500 workers in The employed included 12 Orang Asli from Gombak and Batang Kali. Table 3-33 shows the employees distribution in period. It is apparent that, judging by the number of workers and the resident population, a large number of workers are actually commuting to their workplace. WWF Malaysia 3-78

136 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-33 : Number of Employees, Resorts World Berhad, Year Total , , , , ,500 i Source: Resort Worlds Berhad, 2001 Note: i. estimate given by Resort Worlds Berhad The newly built First World Hotel with 6,300 rooms will increase the required number of workers. The convention hall, which has a seating capacity of 3,200, will employ more workers. The newly constructed theme park and shopping boulevard, which will be the largest theme park in Malaysia, will also be recruiting new workers. It is to be noted that the job opportunities in Genting Highlands attract outside residents and students on holiday are regularly employed on a part time basis during peak seasons. The number of workers outside Resorts World Berhad is very marginal. It is estimated to be around 200. They are mostly in government institutions such as Genting/ Gohtong Jaya Police Station and Genting/ Gohtong Jaya Fire Station, educational institution such as Institute Aminuddin Baki and private developers and agencies such as Gohtong Jaya Township, Kemayan Development and Genting View Resort Bukit Tinggi The employment pattern in Bukit Tinggi is largely influenced by the agriculture, construction and wholesale and retail sectors. Table 3-34 shows the distribution of employment by sectors in Bukit Tinggi in It is apparent, in line with the decrease in the number of population, the number of employment followed similar pattern. The number of jobs was 632 in 1991, and this decreased to 622 in The decrease was contributed largely by the decrease of employment in the agriculture sector which posted 241 in 2000 compared to 253 in However, it is still the largest contributor of employment with 38.7% share in 2000, followed by the construction sector with 22.2%, though the number has declined and the wholesale and retail sector with 21.2%. WWF Malaysia 3-79

137 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-34: Distribution of Employment at Bukit Tinggi Economic Sector * No. % No. % AAGR (%) Agriculture (0.5) Manufacturing Construction (0.6) Transportation, Communication/Utilities Wholesale/Retail Finance/Insurance Other Services Total (0.18) Source: Department of Statistics, (1991) Note: * Consultant's Estimate Janda Baik Vegetable farming, collection of forest produce and fruit cultivation are significant activities in Janda Baik. The job opportunities derived from the agricultural sector have been beneficial to the local communities, inclusive of the Orang Asli. Some tourism-based organisations such as Tanah Rimba also provide job opportunities to local residents Belum Being a largely forest reserve area, Belum provides job opportunities in the form of forest produce related activities such as nature guides, collection of forest produce such as petai, gaharu, leaves, etc. The Orang Asli communities in Belum also practice vegetable farming Economic Activities The main socio economic generators in the Main Range are tourism and agriculture. While Genting Highlands is noted for its entertainment and leisure based tourism products, Cameron Highlands offer a more varied income generators, ranging from temperate agriculture produces such as vegetables and flowers to agro tourism activities and Fraser's Hill to a lesser extent provides nature tourism. Several modern townships are in the Main Range such as Genting Highlands, Fraser's Hill, Tanah Rata, Ringlet and Brinchang. Several government institutions offer working opportunities to many government servants and the commercial sector products and services are sufficiently available to local residents and visitors. WWF Malaysia 3-80

138 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT The Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands triangle is a major regional economic growth area in the Main Range. The Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik region is also another important economic growth generator while another small economic generation area is Fraser's Hill. Banding Island and Belum in Perak are beginning coming to offer tourism services, though not in a big and intensive scale Cameron Highlands The main economic activities in Cameron Highlands are temperate agriculture and tourism. Cameron Highlands contributes significantly to the total vegetable production in Malaysia, up to 60% of the local demand (WWF Malaysia, 1998). Cameron Highlands has four important urban centres, namely Tanah Rata, Brinchang, Ringlet and Kampung Raja. Tanah Rata Tanah Rata functions as the administrative centre of Cameron Highlands besides also serving as one of the main tourism destinations. About 60% of office establishments and 41% of financial establishments in Cameron Highlands are located in Tanah Rata. Tanah Rata has about 29% of commercial floor space in Cameron Highlands, due to its rapid development in the period. Brinchang Brinchang is the tourism centre and the main commercial area in Cameron Highlands. About 69% of hotel and lodging establishment and about one third of food and restaurants and social services in Cameron Highlands are located here. About 30% of commercial floor space in Cameron Highlands is located in Brinchang with 35% is used for hotel and lodging establishments, while another 46% is used for commercial services and retail establishments. Ringlet / Lembah Bertam Ringlet currently is the main gateway to Cameron Highlands. It functions as the third most significant commercial area in Cameron Highlands while Lembah Bertam acts as the main agricultural produce collection centre. About 21% of the commercial floor space in Cameron Highlands is found in this area. Another urban center in Cameron Highlands is Habu. Habu is limited in terms of commercial activities due to the low market demand from its small local population. The main commercial activities are retail and food and restaurants. WWF Malaysia 3-81

139 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Kg Raja/ Kuala Terla Commercial activities are concentrated on localised services and characterised by piecemeal development for the local populace. The retail sector represented about 50% of the commercial activities here from the total floor space of 8,522 m 2. Kampung Raja has the potential to develop further due to its status as the agriculture produce collection centre and a future tourism gateway to Cameron Highlands from Gua Musang and Simpang Pulai. Tringkap/ Kea Farm The Tringkap commercial area is densely concentrated due to its limited land area. Many of the commercial establishments are operated in wooden buildings. Its location, which is quite close to Kampung Raja, has decreased its potential to develop further in the future. Its commercial activities are concentrated on agricultural produce, retail sector for local populace consumption and food and restaurants. In 1998, the commercial activities occupied about 5,453 m 2 of floor space. The industrial activities in Cameron Highlands are more towards small and light industries. In general, in 1998, there were about 44 industrial establishments where 52% of them were categorized as general workshop establishments. It was also found that about 60% of the industries were support establishments for agriculture activities. The main industrial activities were concentrated on heavy machines and agriculture motor vehicles repair and maintenance Lojing Lojing comes under the jurisdiction of Majlis Daerah Gua Musang. Farming activities in Lojing started in the 1980's but has accelerated recently. Now, with the completion of the Simpang Pulai-Gua Musang highwayand the Kg. Raja-Lojing road, the vast Lojing area is now being earmarked for major development projects - in particular temperate agriculture and tourism. Lojing is seen by the Kelantan state as an important area to spur economic activities in the state. The mild climate that is similar to Cameron Highlands and the Simpang Pulai-Gua Musang highway are seen as great opportunities for Kelantan to emulate the successes of Cameron Highlands Genting Highlands The commercial sector is mushrooming due to the spillover of tourism industry. The Genting Hotel Complex, the Theme Park Hotel, the Highlands Hotels, the Awana Golf and Country Resort, in total were able to record an overall of 84% in The First World Hotel was built to cater to increasing demand. At Awana, more than 20 shoplots are operating and at the peak, there is a petrol station to serve the tourists. WWF Malaysia 3-82

140 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT A number of government offices are also available such as the post office and the fire department Bukit Tinggi Bukit Tinggi urban centre is relatively a small town with commercial activities such as hotels and wholesale and retail, being the dominant growth stimulant. The newly operational petrol station provides services to local residents and users of Kuala Lumpur - Karak Highway. Two rows of shoplots have recently been built to cater and provide services to local residents and road users. The steep topographic land structure to a certain extent, hinders possible future development of the town. The Bentong Structure Plan has indicated the need for a local plan to be prepared for Bukit Tinggi Centre in order to redevelop the land use of the centre Janda Baik There is no urban centre in Janda Baik. The development of commercial sector is on a piece-meal basis and caters mostly to the local residents. The R&R at the Kuala Lumpur - Karak Highway provides services mostly to users of the highway. An army camp and a few motivational camps are located here Fraser's Hill Fraser's Hill local economy is dependent upon the tourism sector especially nature tourism. As such, the supporting sectors important to boost the tourism industry are the hotel, restaurants, and retail sectors. Many of the residents are government servants and workers in tourism and related supporting sectors. The town of Fraser's Hill is the heart of activities, ranging from government institutions, such as Majlis Daerah Raub, Post Office, Police Office and several private firms. WWF has an office in the town. The commercial sector services the local residents as well as tourists. As indicated earlier, the commercial sector plays an important role in generating income as well as supporting the tourism sector for Fraser's Hill. There are at least eight registered hotels in 2000, such as Quest Resort Hotel, Fraser's Pine Hotel and Silverpark Holiday Resort. In addition, there are less than 50 commercial establishments, which provide services, mostly in retail and wholesale. Among the notable ones include 10 restaurants, a handicraft establishment and some retail premises. There was a petrol kiosk servicing Fraser's Hill residents as well as tourists but recently it was closed. WWF Malaysia 3-83

141 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Tourism Tourism is a major economic activity in the Main Range. Travel and tourism in Malaysia as a whole is expected to generate RM 60.9 billion of economic activity (total demand in year 2001), growing to RM 150 billion by Travel and tourism demand is forecast to grow by 5.8% per annum, in real terms, between 2001 and This sector is estimated to contribute 4.0% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2001 rising to 4.2% by 2011 *. As regards employment, the travel and tourism industry through direct and indirect employment provides some 1,059,770 jobs or 11% of total employment (357,700 being direct employment) and by 2011 this could grow to 1,466,680 jobs or 11.4% of total employment.* Kelantan Gunung Reng is situated in Batu Melintang, Jeli, some 10 km from Bandar Jeli, near the beginning of the East West Highway. It exercises strong eco-tourism interest particularly because of its caves, interesting rock formations and the historical legends that surround it. It was reputed that the legendary Puteri Saadong shoved a large rock from the Ayam Mountain and it fell on a village where the local residents were then watching a carnival and dogs and cats fighting. It was allegedly predetermined that only one villager would escape the disaster. This limestone hill and its caves is also believed to be one of the shelters used by Malenesoid men during the Hoabinhian Age in 10,000 to 3,000 BC. Gunung Reng contains specialised flora such as the Begonia curtisii and the Chirita sericea. Some recreational facilities have already been developed including a children s playground, stalls, and there are picnic grounds beside the Sg. Pergau that runs beside the Reng. At present, Gunung Reng attracts a few international visitors who utilise the East West highway and a more substantial number of local excursionists from the Jeli area. There is also hot spring at Bendang, Lawar, Batu Melintang which attracts mainly domestic excursionists from Jeli and neighbouring areas. Gunung Stong in Kuala Krai has the highest waterfall in Southeast Asia and the opening of road access from Jeli to Dabong has encouraged tourists to visit the waterfall and mountain. It is also frequently visited by nature lovers, club and school groups, hikers and mountain climbers and is well known to local guides. The Gunung Stong Resort was developed at the base of the mountain near the waterfall and there are also chalets and a camping ground managed by local residents. High on the mountain, there is a purple-flowered herb, Didymocarpus calcareous, which is not found anywhere else in the world, and the forest also contains a rare form of bamboo. Other major attractions include rock faces, large mammals such as elephants and rare flora and fauna whilst available activities include jungle trekking, mountain * World Travel and Tourism Council, Tourism Satellite Accounting Research, Malaysia, 2001 WWF Malaysia 3-84

142 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT climbing, rafting and cave visits (at Gua Ikan, Dabong). Gunung Stong is about 3 km from Dabong and is accessible by metalled road and train. The National Eco-Tourism Plan (NETP) identified Gunung Stong as having flagship potential and it is also proposed by the State Government to develop the area as a State Park. The combination of mountain, cascading waterfall, forest and wildlife generates an excellent basis for a eco-tourism park. Sungai Perias in Gua Musang is a tributary of Sg. Nenggiri. The area houses an Orang Asli settlement at Kampung Tohol and near the village are two archaeological sites (Gua Cha and Gua Peraling), extensive shifting cultivation, salt-licks, secondary forest and primary forest. Access to Sungai Perias is through Kuala Betis and along the Sg. Nenggiri. Kuala Betis has promising potential as a node for tourism activities. Tour packages could be developed utilising Kuala Betis as the base, for example, along the road from Cameron Highlands to Belau and Kuala Betis, and along the river Nenggiri from Kuala Betis to Sungai Perias, Sungai Jenera - a highly scenic area and Kg. Star on the Gua Musang Dabong road. The developments of such tour packages could help engender strong community participation and assist the Temiar Orang Asli to have a significant involvement in tourism. Activities such as bamboo rafting, canoeing and whitewater rafting could be developed. This destination was identified by the National Eco-Tourism Plan as a priority site with good potential for eco-tourism and a secondary cultural-heritage interest. Suitable homestay or hostel accommodation, boating and development of village amenities were proposed. Lojing Highlands in Gua Musang has similarities with the Cameron Highlands in terms of ecology, topography and climate, and is suitable for commercial agriculture/horticulture, highland tourism and recreation. The Gua Musang Structure Plan identified Lojing and Gunong Chamah as highland tourism centres. At present there is vegetable, fruit and flower cultivation in the area. The State Government plans to develop Pos Brooke as a service centre and leisure facility in a tourism township at Sigar. Both are strategically situated along the new highway which connects Cameron Highlands with Gua Musang. Pos Brooke and Sigar are at altitudes of between 540m and 800m and have hilly terrain, cool weather and are rich in flora and fauna. Pos Sigar is surrounded by a number of Orang Asli settlements such as Kg. Seing Sak, Kg. Bahung, Kg. Lojing, Kg. Singer and Kg. Chekon, with cultural lifestyle appeal to tourists. There is a hot spring at Pos Ber which is located about 20km from Pos Brooke and this has been identified as having good tourism potential. Pergau Dam, Jeli, has been identified as having potential for water sports and water based recreation. It has a strategic location and has been a major development in Jeli. Recreational fishing is a possible activity and among fresh-water fish species stocked are tilapia merah, patin and jelawat. Other activities identified in the National Eco-tourism Plan which may be permitted include canoeing, boating, birdwatching WWF Malaysia 3-85

143 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT and photography. Jet skiing and water skiing may be permitted on such artificial lakes, within carefully designed zones, but only where dangers to operators, other members of the public, and to wildlife can be avoided. The main challenge is to develop the potential without contaminating water, infringing security or causing despoliation of the landscapes. The location of the principal existing tourism destinations is presented in Figure profile of these attractions is summarised in Table WWF Malaysia 3-86

144 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-35 : Tourism Resource Profile, Main Range Cultural Heritage Scientific Nature Recreational District/Location Historical Cultural Natural History Archaeology Mountain Lake Waterfall Forest River Sports Shopping Entertainment KELANTAN Jeli Gunong Reng - Pergau Dam Kuala Krai - Gunong Stong Gua Musang Sungai Perias - Lojing Highlands PERAK Hulu Perak Temenggor Lake Belum Forest Reserve Kinta - Kinta Highlands PAHANG Cameron Highlands Cameron Highlands Raub Fraser s Hill 1) Bentong Genting Highlands 1) - Bukit Tinggi/Janda Baik SELANGOR Gombak Kanching Forest Reserve Hulu Langat Sg. Chongkak Waterfall - Gunung Nuang NEGERI SEMBILAN Jelebu Kenaboi Forest Reserve Note : 1) Some tourism destinations straddle several districts, the main district is indicated here, eg, more than 60% of Fraser s Hill is in Raub district. WWF Malaysia 3-87

145 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Perak Temenggor and Belum Forest Reserve in Hulu Perak are developing as important destinations for eco-tourism. Temenggor together with the Belum Forest Reserve, constitute a large forested area which contains many potential eco-tourism attractions. The National Eco-Tourism Plan suggests that the large lowland and hill forest area of Temenggor and Belum present an outstanding opportunity for ecotourism, involvement of local communities, and enhanced regional development. The area is exceedingly important for wildlife and all of Malaysia s large mammals are believed to occur there. Rafflesia is found here and rare montane herbs have been discovered. Other favourable factors include its size, the sheer range of its attractions and relatively easy access. The tourism hub is Gerik which is located at the junction of the East-West Highway. It functions as the district service centre and as a Gateway to the Lake District and base for wilderness excursions into the forests and lakes of Belum and Chenderoh. It is close to the western edge of the Belum Forest Reserve which is to be gazetted as a State Park. The Perak Tourism Master Plan has identified potential for an upland village and resort at about 1,000m on the East West Highway close to the border with Jeli. This facility is intended to provide specialised access to the upper levels of the Belum Forest to compliment the differing environments accessible in the lower valley zone. Belum Forest received 2,585 guests in the first seven month in Some 28% was claimed to be involved in adventure trips either personally or in tour packages. Tour packages involving hiking, trekking and fishing are organized in the Lower Belum and the Orang Asli and the Banding Island Resort guides have been constantly utilized. A visit to Orang Asli settlements is also arranged with emphasis given to traditional products such as way of life, blowpipe exhibition, dance, fishing, handicrafts and sales of agriculture products Several lakes have been developed for tourism including Tasik Chenderoh and Tasik Temenggor; the latter has the greatest potential for ecotourism. Banding Island was created through the damming of the Sungai Temenggor and enjoys a very strategic location centrally within Belum Forest where the East-West highway crosses Tasik Temenggor. The road spans the two arms of the lake on dramatic high level bridges which provide access to the water edge, fishing base facilities and lake shore accommodation at the Banding Island Resort. Several tour operators are active and rent out chalets or floating accommodation at the edge of the lake. Trekking and camping activities are also organised. Banding Island is well situated for development as a central access node for Belum. It is located some 35 km north east of Gerik and 40 km southwest from the border with Kelantan. There were plans proposed in the Perak Tourism Master Plan to develop a upmarket Health and Beauty Spa Resort at Pulau Tikus a small island close to Banding Island and other proposals include an adventure base case for special interest WWF Malaysia 3-88

146 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT tourism; lake shore boat landing and operations facilities; commercial and food outlet facilities; base complex and trail system for wilderness trekking. The Upper Belum portion, totalling 117,500ha, is to be designated as a State Park. It is currently in the process of gazettement. The National Eco-Tourism Plan identified Belum and Temenggor as a priority, flagship, site for eco-tourism and indicated that, if developed according to tourism demands in a sustainable manner, could attract as many visitors as Taman Negara and other major parks. The flow of travellers along the East-West Highway is clearly a potential market for both overnight stops and day visits. The Kinta Highlands, encompassing around 750 ha, with altitudes ranging from 580m to 1790m, is located northwest of Cameron Highlands, along the Simpang Pulai Kuala Berang road. Eco-tourism and temperate agriculture and horticulture are expected to be developed at Kinta Highlands. Feasibility studies identified horticulture development with floriculture, vegetables and fruit cultivation, health and sports tourism and soft and hard adventure as appropriate. The aim is to develop a Resort in Perpetual Bloom with its own specialised focus and avoidance of defects noted in older established hill resorts such as soil erosion, siltation and landslides. The visual appearance and architectural design would seek to accentuate the heritage and environment and facilitate efficiency and effectiveness in operation and visitor enjoyment. The new road developments offer potential for a triumvirate of hill resorts, Cameron Highlands, Kinta Highlands and Lojing, to be packaged as part of a tour circuit, if complementary tourism products and promotional themes are developed. There will be good linkages to the North South Expressway (NSE) and to origin markets such as Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Penang and Singapore. Road improvements in Kelantan and linkage from Gua Musang to Cameron Highlands would also open-up the possibility of capitalising on the substantial flows of visitors entering Kelantan through border points with Thailand, viz. Pengkalan Kubor, Rantau Panjang and Bukit Bunga. In the future, Kinta may provide an alternative and complementary attraction to Cameron Highlands in the Main Range for tourism. Gunung Korbu, located at its northern edge, has mainly attracted domestic tourists and recreation day visitors, and campers, climbers and trekkers. There is a campsite located at Gunung Korbu. Should activities such as climbing and trekking increase substantially, there could be concern over the question of damage to the peaks as well as visitors safety. There are two waterfalls in the Tapah area the Gateway to the Cameron Highlands viz., Lata Kinjang and Lata Iskandar. Lata Kinjang is 18 km from Tapah and there is an impressive series of cascades winding down to a 100m drop. There are parking bays and eating stalls for visitors who are mostly local excursionists. Lata Iskandar on the way up to Cameron Highlands from Tapah is a favourite stop over and picnic area for domestic visitors. A traditional earthenware pottery is located at Kampung Kerayung. WWF Malaysia 3-89

147 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Pahang Cameron Highlands, a long-established hill station, is one of the major tourist destinations in the Main Range with attractions such as waterfalls, mountains, jungle trails, extensive accommodation facilities, and organised tours to tea plantations, the Rose Garden, Kea Farm, Nurseries and the Sam Poh Buddhist Temple. In addition to eco-tourism and agro tourism products, this hill station also has a range of recreational facilities including golfing. Agricultural development has provided opportunities for agro-tourism and linking nature to agriculture and the agrarian lifestyle. The well known peaks include Gunung Beremban 1841 m, Gunung Jasar 1696 m and Gunung Brinchang 2032 m. The two popular waterfalls are the Robinson Falls and the Parit Falls. The development of nature-based activities at Cameron Highlands has further potential. Kampung Sungai Ubi an Orang Asli village near the Bharat Tea estate is suitable for jungle trekking. There are also proposals for an Orang Asli Park, exhibiting traditional houses, blowpipes, Orang Asli culture, with a Museum. Cameron Highlands attributes, including its temperate like climate, verdant greenery exemplified by the sight of tea plantations and flower orchards have been traditional pull factors. Unlike most of the other tourist destinations in the Main Range, this hill station also has townships and a sizeable resident population in Brinchang, Tanah Rata and Ringlet. This hill station is accessible via Tapah on the Federal route between Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh. It is about four hours journey time from Kuala Lumpur and there are daily express bus services to this destination. Fraser s Hill, Raub, is a well-established destination in Pahang s mountainous western region and has developed as a prime nature site with a positioning strategy of Come Back to Nature. It is an internationally known site for birdwatching, which is on the itineraries of a number of foreign nature tour companies. Its temperate-like climate, with average temperatures of around 22ºC, constitutes an attractive pull factor for visitors from the lowlands and the scenic, rustic and relatively tranquil natural environment is another attraction. There are a range of sports/recreational facilities including two golf-courses, tennis courts, squash courts, a heated swimming pool and sauna, ponies, jungle trails, a lake, a park and a children s playground. The Fraser s Hill Nature Education Centre (FHNEC) serves as a information and resource centre and helps raise public awareness of highland forests. Fraser s Hill also has a diverse accommodation base including hotels, bungalows, chalets, self-catering apartments and condominiums. Genting Highlands is an intensively developed, mass-tourism site, highly commercialised with its main tourist product centering on entertainment. Its cool climate, proximity to the densely populated Klang Valley, good accessibility, and vigorous promotions by the prime developer, Resorts World Bhd (RWB), have all enabled it to emerge as one of Malaysia s leading tourism destinations. WWF Malaysia 3-90

148 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Its principal tourism product, entertainment, includes facilities such as Malaysia s only casino, theme parks, theatres, ballrooms, artificial lake, backed-up by a high quality golf-course, indoor stadium, bowling alley, horse breeding station, and an extensive visitor accommodation base with a good mix of hotels ranging from 5 star deluxe and budget hotels to self-catering apartments. The mono cable-car system is another attraction and provides visitors panoramic vistas of the highland eco-system. There are also numerous fast food outlets, coffee houses, restaurants, and shopping facilities with market appeal to families. There are good MICE facilities at this hill resort and these are being expanded and Genting Highlands is already an important MICE destination. Janda Baik/Bukit Tinggi in Bentong, Pahang was identified in the Bentong Structure Plan as having potential to be developed as tourism / recreation centres for both domestic and foreign tourists. Cultural lifestyle interest in Orang Asli settlements and handicrafts were other products noted. At Bukit Tinggi, various private sector developments have taken place including Selesa Hillhomes with 188 rooms and other components include a Wellness Centre providing healthcare facilities, and recreational facilities such as a swimming pool, children s wading pool, gymnasium, golf course and driving range, laser disc, karaoke lounge, video arcade, aerobics, telematch and campfire, jogging field and local guided tours. The Bukit Tinggi Resort, covering an area of 16,000 acres, has been developed by the Berjaya Group. Developments include Colmar Tropicale, a French-themed resort, a Japanese Village, and the 18-hole Bukit Tinggi Golf and Country Club. Further developments planned for the Bukit Tinggi Resort include a theme park and a picnic site. A reception area, more Tatami suites, an Outdoor Spa and a restaurant are planned for the Japanese Village. At Janda Baik, Tanarimba has developed homesteads, cluster homes and two campsites, one being family oriented and near to basic amenities, the other designed for adventure seekers and set in the rainforest. A Visitors Centre with a seating capacity for 300 has been developed as an event venue for product launches, conferences, meetings and cultural events and exhibitions related to nature and nature conservation. A hiking trail at the Rockfill has been developed and research and training programme have been organised. Planned activities at Tanarimba include rainforest trekking, river fishing, visits to the nursery, herbal garden and forest crafts at an Orang Asli Village. Night walks for sighting of a small animals and luminous fungi are also being planned. Other facilities will include tennis courts with clubhouse facilities, a riding centre and a game lodge with hides and viewing platforms for bird watchers, game and wildlife enthusiasts. WWF Malaysia 3-91

149 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Selangor The Kanching Amenity Forest in Gombak has been developed for tourism by the DOF, has good accessibility and a limited range of recreational facilities have been developed. These include a covered parking space, playground, public toilets and a restaurant. A walking trail to the waterfall has also been provided. It is of interest mainly to day excursionists largely on account of its waterfall and opportunities for fishing, picnicking and passive recreation. The total area of the Kanching Forest Reserve is 472 ha and it is near Templer Park, but outside the Park boundary. The National Eco-Tourism Plan recommended the integration of Kanching, Templer Park and Gunung Bunga Buah into a concerted land use plan. The rationale for integration was increasing development pressure and to develop tourism and recreational potential. The area proposed was from Batu Dam and Templer Park east to Gunung Bunga Buah and Gunung Ulu Kali, and north to Ulu Yam. Sungai Chongkak Amenity Forest in Hulu Langat has good accessibility, has a limited range of facilities and has become an important recreational destination for residents of the Klang Valley largely on account of its waterfall and opportunities for passive recreation. Gunung Nuang, in Hulu Langat is a mountain much visited by Malaysian recreation groups including youths in programmes organised by the Ministry of Youth and Sports such as the Rakan Muda programme. The Selangor DOF plans to focus its recreational development on Gunung Nuang Negeri Sembilan The Kenaboi Forest Reserve in Jelebu is an important eco-tourism destination with activities such as camping, jungle trekking, hiking and mountain biking. Along the border of compartments 188 and 189 of Kenaboi Forest Reserve is the Lata Kijang Waterfall, which is only accessible with the use of a 4 wheel drive vehicle and a 40 minute walk down steep slopes. The waterfall is formed from the overflow of water from the Kering River a tributary of the Kenaboi River and the Hill Dipterocarp Forest, at an altitude of between 400 and 500m, is spectacular with its wild orchids, herbaceous plants, ferns and palms. Along the journey, there are Orang Asli settlements, Gunung Besar Hantu (1462m), the highest peak in Negeri Sembilan, and several caves in the vicinity such as Gua Semong and Gua Harimau. The forest areas around Gunung Besar Hantu are used by trekkers and 4-wheel drive enthusiasts. The NETP identified this as a priority site for development and noted that it could be further developed to provide education about forest management. Hiking and carefully controlled camping were considered as likely to have low impact. At present accessibility is moderate whilst only limited facilities have been developed. WWF Malaysia 3-92

150 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT The journey time to Kenaboi is about 1½ hours from Kuala Klawang. UPEN Negeri Sembilan estimated that tourists to Jelebu in 1999 totalled around 1,133 of whom some 94% were domestic tourists. Other recreational forests in the highland areas of Negeri Sembilan include Gunung Tampin, located in compartment 31 of Gunung Tampin Forest Reserve, and about 1/+ hour journey time from Tampin. The Hill Dipterocarp Forest here is rich with a wide range of forest trees and palms and its outcrop scenic beauty is enhanced by an outcrop of rocks which form a natural landscape. Facilities such as resting huts, bathing pools and jungle tracks have been provided. Ulu Bendol is situated in compartments 45 and 52 of Angsi Forest Reserve. Gunung Angsi, 825m, is one of the prime attractions, and there are also camping grounds and chalets at Ulu Bendol which is accessible by both private vehicles and public transport. Activities include climbing, jungle trekking, camping and picnics. Ulu Bendol was also identified in the NETP as having potential for nature education Tourist Arrivals Tourist arrival data is available for Genting Highlands, Cameron Highlands, Fraser s Hill, Bukit Tinggi and Belum Forest Park. There are also specific arrival data for Gunung Reng, Sungai Perias, Temenggor Lake, Kanching, Sungai Chongkak and Kenaboi, although preliminary indications are that they primarily attract domestic visitors, many of whom are day excursionists. Tourist arrivals to these destinations have risen from 1.01 million in 1990 to 2.29 million in 2000 (see Table 3-36). In 2000, Genting Highlands attracted about 1.92 million tourists. What is apparent is that growth in tourist arrivals to Genting has been very robust rising from 761,884 in 1990 and reaching 1.92 million in Cameron Highlands has experienced a more erratic growth from 193,955 (1991) to 305,995 (2000) whilst arrivals to Fraser s Hill have declined from 57,504 in 1991 to 47,963 in Data for Bukit Tinggi shows tourist arrivals amounted to 25,330 and tourists to Belum Forest Park totalled 1,205 in that year. Table 3-37 provides data on the origin of tourist arrivals in 2000 to Genting Highlands, Cameron Highlands and Fraser s Hill. WWF Malaysia 3-93

151 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-36 : Tourist Arrivals in Cameron Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Genting Highlands ( ) Destination Cameron Highlands 193, , , , , , , , , , ,995 Fraser s Hill 57,504 77,594 86,351 54,915 58,987 59,062 60,807 61,441 38,538 32,154 47,963 Genting Highlands 761, , ,314 1,134,327 1,288,562 1,402,131 1,592,555 1,676,534 1,846,350 1,888,159 1,916,678 Bukit Tinggi ,330 Belum Forest , ,205 Total 1,013,343 1,107,776 1,279,470 1,458,969 1,638,531 1,727,234 1,929,688 2,023,077 2,138,883 2,199,924 2,297,171 Source: 1) Fraser's Hill Development Corporation 2) DWNP Perak WWF Malaysia 3-94

152 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-37: Distribution of Tourists to Genting Highlands, Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill by Country of Origin, 2000 To Genting Highlands Country Tourist Arrival % International Singapore 457, Taiwan 83, Hong Kong 60, Thailand 36, Indonesia 32, Japan 5, Brunei 1, Korea 1, U.S. America 1, United Kingdom Others 185, Total 867, Domestic Malaysia 1,051, GRAND TOTAL 1,918,678 0 Source: Fraser's Hill Development Corporation To Cameron Highlands Country International Tourist Arrival % United 24, Kingdom Singapore 14, Germany 8, Netherlands 6, Australia 5, Canada 3, Sweden 3, Japan 3, Denmark 3, U.S. America 3, Others 38, Total 115, Domestic Malaysia 190, GRAND TOTAL 305, Source: Fraser's Hill Development Corporation To Fraser s Hill Country International Tourist Arrival % Singapore 1, Japan Australia U.S. America United Kingdom Germany Netherlands France Taiwan Denmark Others 2, Total 5, Domestic Malaysia 42, GRAND TOTAL 47, Source: Fraser's Hill Development Corporation WWF Malaysia 3-95

153 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Average Length of Stay The average length of stay (ALS) in Malaysia has steadily risen from 4.8 nights (1995) to 5.5 nights (2000). At the national level, there are significant disparities with a short ALS of visitors from Singapore (2.7 nights) and much higher ALS for long haul tourists from origin markets such as India, the United Kingdom, Netherlands and Germany. In the Main Range (see Table 3-38) the ALS is well below the pan-malaysia figure. ALS in Cameron Highlands has declined from 4.0 nights (1992) to 1.75 nights (2000), in Fraser s Hill from 3.2 nights (1992) to 1.70 nights (2000) and in Genting Highlands from 3.2 nights (1992) to 1.99 nights (2000). Table 3-38 : Average Length of Stay at Cameron Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Genting Highlands ( ) Destination Cameron Highlands Fraser s Hill Genting Highlands Source: Fraser's Hill Development Corporation Purpose of Visit Table 3-39 provides data from MTPB on tourist s purpose of visit and nationally around 66% of tourists could be regarded as leisure tourists (holiday, visiting friends and relatives), about 10% are business tourists (business and conference) and over 11% regard themselves as in transit. Table 3-39 : Tourists Purpose of Visit, 1999 Purpose No % Holiday 3,627, Business 573, Visit Friends and Relatives 1,300, Transit 846, Conference 139, Others 996, Total 7,483, Source: MTPB WWF Malaysia 3-96 April 2002

154 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Tourist Expenditure Total tourist receipts for Malaysia increased from RM 9.17 billion in 1995 to total RM billion in 2000 (Table 3-40). Major expenditure components (in 2000) comprised accommodation 32.8%, shopping 23.1%, expenditure on food and beverages 19.5% and local transportation 7.1%. More minor components included domestic airfares, organised sightseeing and entertainment. The pattern of expenditure in the Main Range is not expected to deviate very much from that at the national level. Table 3-40 : Composition of Tourist Expenditure, 1995 and 2000, (%) Component Accommodation Shopping Food & Beverages Local Transportation Domestic Airfares Organised Sightseeing Entertainment Miscellaneous Total Total (RM million) 9, ,335.4 Note: Tourist expenditure excludes excursionist expenditure Land Use Existing Land use The land use in the Main Range has been classified as forest, agriculture, unused/ cleared land, urban/ mining and water bodies. The spatial distribution of existing land use within the Main Range is shown in Table The list of committed projects in the highlands is shown in Appendix 7. Inland forest is the largest single land use, covering an area of approximately 1,411,245 ha or 95.3%. Most of the forest area is found in Perak (664,160 ha), Pahang and Kelantan. Agricultural land use accounts for only 1.11% of the Main Range or ha. Agriculture land use includes non-tree crop, horticulture and tree crop. Unused/ cleared land accounted for 4,088ha. Water bodies such as impounded lakes are found in Temenggor, Ampang, Selangor (Klang Gates Dam) and Hulu Langat (Langat Dam). The total area of water bodies is 46,037 ha (3.11%). WWF Malaysia 3-97 April 2002

155 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Urbanized and built up area only constitute 0.15 % of the total area of the Main Range. These are found mainly in Cameron Highlands, Frasers Hill and Genting Highlands. Table 3-41 : Land Use in the Main Range Landuse 1991 (ha) % 1997 (ha) % Percentage Change Forest Agriculture Unused/ Cleared Land Urban/ Mining Water Bodies Total Source: Adapted from land use maps of the Dept. of Agriculture In general, the overall land use pattern within the Main Range has not changed significantly except for some changes to the spatial land use pattern brought about by the conversion of forest areas for agriculture and urban activities such as vegetable farming, tea plantations, housing and road construction activities. The proportion of land under agriculture and urban use showed a significant increase between 1991 and Settlement Pattern The settlement pattern constitutes urban development zones, traditional villages and orang asli settlements. Urban development activities are basically concentrated at the hill stations of Cameron Highlands, Frasers Hill and Genting Highlands. Potential new growth areas are at Sigar Pos Brooke (Lojing), the Kinta Highlands, and Bukit Tinggi. The traditional villages are also found at the foothill areas and along existing roads.the construction of new roads will also have a major effect in spreading urban development to the highlands. Some of the major east west road links include the East West Highway connecting Grik and Jeli, the Kuala Kubu Baru Raub road, the Karak Highway, the Ulu Langat Kuala Klawang road and the Seremban Kuala Pilah road. New road proposals that will have an impact on the future settlement pattern will include the Simpang Pulai Cameron Highlands Gua Musang Highway, the proposed Lembah Bertam to Kuala Lipis road, the Slim River Raub road link and the controversial Hill Resort Road. The Orang Asli settlements are basically scattered but located close to the hill stations Committed Development The information on committed development was obtained from the various State TCPDs and Local Authorities. Committed development projects are defined as those, which have obtained development approval from the Local Authority or the WWF Malaysia 3-98 April 2002

156 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT State Planning Department. The development status of these projects are categorized as follows: i. Approval in Principle ii. Approved Layout Plan iii. Under Construction iv. Approval has Lapsed v. Abandoned Projects The location and size of committed projects generally indicate the trend of development in spatial terms as well as the number of properties that will come on stream into the market in the near term. However, it is envisaged that some of these projects though approved, may be postponed indefinitely due to market uncertainties and sluggish market demand. Most of the committed projects were in the category of approved in principle (56%) while about 41 % were at the approved layout plan stage. It is also noted that the location of these projects did not follow any particular development corridor. The data collected only covered committed projects over 3 acres (1.2 ha). There are a total of 34 committed development projects (over 3 acres) within the five states covering a total area of 4,815 ha. The largest area under committed development projects are in the state of Pahang (1,256ha) followed by State of Negeri Sembilan (1,419ha), Perak (754ha), Kelantan (1,262ha) and Selangor (121ha). Most of the projects were found concentrated in the state of Pahang (19 projects) and Perak (9 projects). The popular locations are near Tanjung Malim (Mukim of Hulu Bernam Timur), Lojing (District of Gua Musang), Cameron Highlands and Bukit Tinggi (District of Bentong). Most of the projects are for tourism-related mixed development. Others are for housing, commercial use, agriculture and industrial uses. The relatively high number of projects in the Tanjong Malim area could be attributed to the location of Proton City in that area. The total number of approved housing units within the Main Range is estimated at 4,966 (Kelantan), 12,871 (Perak), 2,437 (Selangor), 1,460 (Negeri Sembilan) and 10,030 (Pahang). The total estimate for the Main Range is 31,764 units with a potential population impact of about 66,704 assuming a density of 3 persons per unit and an average occupancy of 70%. The increased population in the highlands will have to be supported by additional social facilities and physical infrastructure Agriculture Agriculture is a major economic activity in some areas in the Main Range. In Cameron Highlands, where it is most extensively developed, agriculture occupied some 7340 ha in 1999 (Bahagian Pengurusan Tanah, 2000). This is some 10.8% of the land area of the district and is exceeded only by the area occupied by forest. Elsewhere in the highlands, agricultural development has been rather modest. WWF Malaysia 3-99 April 2002

157 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Perhaps as a result of improved access, agricultural activity has recently picked up in the Lojing area of Kelantan, just across the border from Cameron Highlands and in the Bukit Tinggi area. Access provided by the construction of the Simpang Pulai Gua Musang highway is expected to stimulate agricultural activity in the area Cameron Highlands a) Tea Tea is the oldest crop to be commercially planted in the highlands. To date, it is only planted in Cameron Highlands within the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia except for a recent planting of 28 ha in Lojing. At present tea occupies some 2309 ha. The tea plantations in Cameron Highlands are owned by four companies, one of which is currently idle. The tea industry in Cameron Highlands provides employment for some 1,300 workers and produces about 5,000 tons of tea annually. Most of the tea produced is sold within the country. All the tea plantations have been long established. b) Vegetables Vegetables are the next most widely cultivated crop in Cameron Highlands. The most extensively grown vegetables are cabbage, Chinese cabbage, tomato, French beans, sweet pea, leek and lettuce. The areas planted with each crop vary considerably from year to year as shown in Table The areas shown for the year 2000 are tentative and subject to revision and should be treated with caution in view of the massive apparent increase from previous years. FAMA has been monitoring plantings of cabbage and Chinese cabbage in the district and their figures, though more modest, also show a substantial increase over previous years. However, these figures are much larger than those quoted by FAMA and the Cameron Highlands Vegetable Growers Association (Radzwan and Chay respectively, personal communication) which place the area under vegetables at just above 1000ha. The cause of these discrepancies is probably the bases on which the different agencies collect the data. WWF Malaysia April 2002

158 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-42 : Areas Planted with Vegetables in Cameron Highlands CROP Area Planted (ha) * Asparagus Brinjal Broccoli Cabbage , Carrot Cauliflower Celery Chilli Chinese Cabbage , Chinese Celery Chinese Mustard Chinese Parsley Chinese Radish Chinese White Cabbage Dwarf Mustard French Bean Garland Chrysanthemum Green Ceylon Spinach Head Lettuce Indian Lettuce Kaukei Leaf Mustard Lettuce Sawi Kerinting Snow Pea Spinach Spring Onion Sweet Leek Sweet Pea Sweet Pepper Tomato Watercress TOTAL 5,121 2,867 2,546 2,792 2,792 5,057 Source: Bahagian Perangkaan, Jabatan Pertanian Data for 2000 are preliminary and subject to revision 2000* Data from FAMA survey, see text WWF Malaysia April 2002

159 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT In Cameron Highlands, vegetables are grown two to four times a year, on about 1000 ha. The total number of vegetable growers is around 2,000 giving an average farm size of 0.5 ha. Average annual income per farmer was estimated at RM10,719 in 1993, with less than 5% having off-farm income averaging RM6,700 (Pihak Berkuasa Perancang Tempatan Cameron Highlands, 1996). Increasingly, farmers are growing the higher value crops (tomatoes, capsicum, French beans, cauliflower, broccoli) under rain shelter. The shelter costs about RM180,000 to construct. This system gives higher yields of better quality produce that fetch better price in the market (MARDI, 2001). Combined with drip irrigation and fertigation, this system could lead to substantial reduction in inputs. An important additional benefit is the considerable reduction in erosion. Comparable figures, in ton soil/ha/yr, are: exposed area >80, vegetables in the open 40 80, vegetables in rain shelter 1.2, undisturbed forest 0.5 (Wan Abdullah et al., 1999). Cost of production for most highland vegetables is high due to the high level of inputs. Mean annual prices at the farm gate, monitored by FAMA (Table 3-43), have also been satisfactory for the last three years ( ). But prices fluctuate and often dip below cost of production. Most of the vegetables produced in Cameron Highlands are consumed within the country. Only some 20% is exported to Singapore. Stringent requirements need to be met to export to Singapore and deals are negotiated directly between individual farmers and importers in Singapore. Exporters to Singapore are not affected by the price swings at the KL market. Similarly, growers of organic produce are buffered against the market fluctuations. The value of the total annual vegetable production in Cameron Highlands has been estimated at RM 135 million (MARDI-TECH, 1998). Table 3-43 : Cost of Production and Price For Selected Vegetables Prodn. Farm Gate Price (sen/kg) Vegetable Cost sen/kg Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Cabbage Ch.Cabbage Spinach Lettuce Tomato Source: FAMA, Cameron Highlands Vegetable Growers Association c) Temperate Flowers The temperate or cut flower industry grew substantially in the nineties and appears to be stagnating by the end of the decade. In 1995 FAMA estimated the production value of the industry at RM67.7 million. In 1998 the value had grown to RM198.9 million (MARDI-TECH, 1998) but shrunk to RM93 million in year 2000 (Cameron Highlands Flower Growers Association). The area under flower production has fluctuated between 250 and 450 ha in Cameron Highlands and is virtually insignificant elsewhere. Chrysanthemum, carnation and roses dominate the WWF Malaysia April 2002

160 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT industry with a dozen other species making up the rest. About 70% of the flowers produced are exported, mostly to Singapore and Hong Kong. The industry is now facing intense competition from India, China, Thailand and Vietnam that have relatively cheaper production costs. Production systems combine ideas from temperate growers with a strong influence from the vegetable growing experience complete with heavy use of agrochemicals. On the plus side, flower growers have been quicker to adopt the rain shelter technology with the consequent reduction in erosion risk. On the other hand, the on-site degradation resulting from excessive use of agrochemicals has not been avoided. d) Fruits The sub-tropical fruit industry in Cameron Highlands is anchored by the citrus (mandarin) crop. This has recently been ravaged by virus infection (especially) greening. Table 3-44 shows how completely the citrus industry has declined. There has been a painfully slow build up of areas under strawberry and persimmon. In the Lojing and Bukit Tinggi areas, there is much greater enthusiasm for fruits in general, and citrus in particular. Table 3-44 : Areas Planted with Fruits in Cameron Highlands Area Planted (ha) Crop Tangerine Sweet Orange Persimmon Strawberry Total Source: Bahagian Perangkaan, Jabatan Pertanian Data for 2000 are preliminary and subject to revision Lojing Lojing, which consists mostly of logged-over land, had been slated for temperate fruit and vegetable production in addition to tourism development. Most of the agricultural activities in the area are undertaken by state-owned corporations which lease small parcels of land to individual farmers. There are plans for the state to venture into the agricultural sector in a more intensive way by collaborating with the Ministry of Agriculture. The State Government of Kelantan has envisioned that the area be turned into a permanent food production district known as 'Green Valley'. In this respect, some 6,000 acres of land and RM 8 million has been allocated to KESEDAR to develop Lojing based on the estimated average cost basis of RM 78,000 per acre. WWF Malaysia April 2002

161 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-45 shows the distribution of agriculture development in Lojing. A total of 468ha of land was used for agriculture in Lojing in As an indication of the rapid increase of the agricultural activities, while only less than 35 ha was utilized for vegetable farming in 1995, more than 250 ha was reported to be used in It has been estimated that about 250 farmers are currently operating in Lojing, the majority of them come from Cameron Highlands. It is to be noted that, given by the rapid increase in agricultural activities, environmental problems are rising sharply, similar to what is being experienced in Cameron Highlands. The notable crops cultivated in Lojing include fruits (mandarin) with about 113 ha and vegetables with 266 ha. Tea was planted with an area of 28 ha by Yakin Tea while some of the land is operated by the Orang Asli communities, especially cultivating short term crops and fruits. Darulnaim Agro Management Industries (Damai) Sdn Bhd, a subsidiary of Perbadanan Kemajuan Iktisad Negeri Kelantan Ladang, operates an agriculture concept called 'Ladang Rakyat'. It planted 46 ha of limau madu from Australia in phase 1 and another 52 ha in phase 2. This Ladang Rakyat will be sold at the price of RM28,000 to RM35,000 for 0.8 ha each. Damai also plants durians and dokong as well as vegetables with an area of 20 ha. The DOA also plays a role in agriculture development in Lojing through a scheme called Taman Kekal Pengeluaran Makanan (TKPM) Lojing. It has identified some 65 ha for vegetable in Lojing and currently operating some 10 ha of land, with each participant in the scheme manages about 0.44 ha. The major crops cultivated are tomato, chillies and cabbage. In year 2000, some 94.8 metric tonnes of vegetable has been produced through this scheme with an estimated value of RM105,510. This has given an average of RM721 monthly income to each participant. Table 3-45 : Agricultural Development in Lojing, 2001 Crop Area (Ha) Agency Vegetables 266 Private Sector Vegetables & Fruits 11 TKPM Tea 28 Yakin Tea Flowers 5 Private Sector Fruits (Mandarin) 113 SEDC Short Term Crops 15 Orang Asli, Pos Brooke Fruits 30 Orang Asli, Pos Brooke Total 468 Source: DOA, Kelantan, May 2001 TKPM: Taman Kekal Penguluaran Makanan SEDC: State Economic Development Corporation WWF Malaysia April 2002

162 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Kinta Highlands The agriculture sector in Kinta Highlands is basically on sub-sistence basis and practised by the Orang Asli communities. The main crops cultivated or sourced from the jungle are fruits, petai and corn and other produce utilised or traded include rattan and bamboo. Petai is obtained from the jungle and also cultivated. Tapioca was planted but is not cultivated now and no hill paddy is planted because of the difficulty in obtaining seed. Hunting and gathering occurs as well as riverine fishing. There are rubber trees in the area (about 2% of land-use in Mukim Sungai Raia is under rubber) but these are not being tapped since they are largely senile Genting Highlands Agriculture activity is almost non-existent in Genting Highlands. However, there are claims and evidence that ginger farming is practiced and it is scattered. The Bentong Structure Plan reported that the total land use for agriculture for both Bukit Tinggi and Genting Highlands was ha in Bukit Tinggi The Bentong Structure Plan reported that the total land use for agriculture for both Bukit Tinggi and Genting Highlands was ha in The major agriculture activities are vegetable farming and fruit cultivation. The land area for vegetable in 2000 was 36.5 ha while the production was 182 metric tonne. The fruit cultivated land area was 125 ha and the production was 20 metric tonne, which was larger than that of vegetable. The DOA estimated that some 100 ha of government land is being utilised by individuals for vegetable plantations and it includes ginger farming. Basically, agriculture activities in Janda Baik could be divided into three main components; i.e. the traditional village area where there are many mixed fruits orchards, modern housing area with orchards and government land area at the foothill with vegetable being the dominant agriculture activities. The vegetables farm at the foothill are thought to be operated by non-residents and cover an estimated ha Janda Baik The Bentong Structure Plan reported that the agriculture activity in Janda Baik utilised some 70.5% of the land use in The dominant agriculture activities include vegetable farming and fruit cultivation. A cluster programme is implemented in this area, which covers an area of 136 ha of fruit cultivation, especially durian and dokong and it involves 81 participants. A vegetable farm of five ha is also in the area and it involves five participants. WWF Malaysia April 2002

163 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT The Orang Asli are also involved in the agriculture sector, ranging from operating and working in vegetable farms, to collecting forest produce, leaves and herbs such as petai, pucuk paku, banana leaves, serai and others. The collection is sold to road users as well to middlemen, who in turn send the produce to Kuala Lumpur Belum The DOA has identified some 100 acres of land at Puncak Baring, along the East West Highway, to be an agriculture area, serving the northern region market. The proposed vegetables include cabbage, flowers, fruits and persimmon. The DOOAA also plays an important role in the agricultural activities in Belum. There have already been agricultural programmes for the Orang Asli communities Belum, especially in RPS Kemar and RPS Banun. In RPS Air Banun, the economic development programmes include 10 acres of land for cash crops cultivation to be allocated to each village, 85 acres of land for rubber cultivation and 117 acres of land for traditional orchards. In RPS Kemar, several programmes such as cultivation of cash crops, fruits and sheep and cattle rearings have already been implemented by DOOAA with the cooperation of other government agencies such as DOA and FELCRA. A 1,198 ha of rubber trees have been in place since 1985 and about 85% of the trees in the area has already matured, providing job opportunities to the Orang Asli. 220 of them are working as rubber tappers while another 30 work as general labourers. In Belum Baru, some 20 individuals are planting dokong, banana and vegetables Road system Existing roads The distribution and alignment of roads in the highlands are heavily influenced by the terrain. Roads are located mainly along valleys and passes and are constrained by the steep slopes. Roads have been built primarily to provide access to the hill stations and to traverse the mountain ranges for east-west linkages between the West and East Coasts of Peninsular Malaysia. There are more roads in the southern half of the Main Range due to the presence of hill stations, the narrower width of the Main Range and greater concentration of development on the flanks of Main Range in the south. a) Federal Route 51 (Seremban to Kuala Pilah) FR51 originates from Seremban, traverses through the hilly area of Bukit Putus (within the southern tip of the Main Range) and ends at Kuala Pilah. This section is the most highly used trunk road which links Negeri Sembilan to Pahang. About 8000 vehicles use this road daily. The road is a two lane single carriageway with WWF Malaysia April 2002

164 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT soft shoulders. Congestion is often reported at signalised T-junction at Kuala Pilah where this road ends. b) Federal Route 86 (Seremban to Kuala Kelawang) This road originates from Seremban and traverses northeast through Kuala Kelawang and ends at FR 9. Most of the section is a single carriageway road. Majority of the area along FR 86 is still forested while some areas particularly around the Kuala Kelawang area (200 to 300m) has been developed for settlements and agriculture areas. The highest elevation within 3 km north of FR 86 is about 600m within the Lenggeng Forest Reserve. c) East-West Highway (First Phase) The East-West Highway, connecting Grik in Perak and Jeli in Kelantan, was completed in This highway shortened the distance between Ipoh and the East Coast towns by as much as 900 km. It has contributed tremendously towards economic growth and social development in the North East of Perak. d) Federal Route 3 (Karak highway) The Karak highway, which links Kuala Lumpur and Karak, traverses the Main Range. This road covers a length 60 km and was completed in There are two toll plazas along this highway, one located at Gombak and the other at Bentong. Karak Highway is the main road from Kuala Lumpur to Kuantan and other districts in Pahang. e) Federal Route 59 (Tapah to Cameron Highlands) Cameron Highlands, though located in Pahang, is currently only accessible via Tapah in Perak. Access to FR 59 is from FR 1 and the North-South Highway at the Tapah Interchange No 132. FR 59 is estimated to have an average of 9.5 bends/km. The 60 km route from Tapah to Tanah Rata is interesting, passing aboriginal dwellings, scenic mountain views and a changing mountain forest as one climbs up. At the 22 km point is the Lata Iskandar Waterfall, a popular stopover for tourists. The five urban centers in Cameron Highlands, namely Ringlet, Tanah Rata, Brinchang, Kuala Terla and Kampung Raja, are linked with good roads. f) Genting Highlands Genting Highlands is located approximately 58 km from Kuala Lumpur. After the Karak toll, the road heads to the Genting Sempah tunnel and immediately after the tunnel, there is an exit to Genting Highlands. Total length of the Genting Access Road from Genting Sempah up to the hilltop is about 19 km. The upgrading of WWF Malaysia April 2002

165 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT these roads was done in two phases. Phase 1 involved upgrading of the Genting Access Road from Genting Sempah to Gohtong Jaya Roundabout to a two-lane dual carriageway and this was completed in August Whereas, phase 2 involved the upgrading of the Genting Access Road from Gohtong Jaya Roundabout to hilltop which is expected to be completed by the end of Genting Highlands can also be accessed from the Batang Kali town. Just after the town there is a left turning to Genting Highlands and this state road B113 links to the Goh Tong Jaya. The distance between Batang Kali and Genting Highlands is about 25 km. g) Fraser s Hill Fraser s Hill is approximately 102 km from Kuala Lumpur. There are two alternative roads to this hill station. The first is through the Kuala Lumpur Karak highway, turning left at Bentong going towards Raub and then turning left again at Tranum to arrive at the Gap. The other route is through the Federal Route 1, branching off at Kuala Kubu Bharu. At the Gap, a new traffic system has replaced the previous system of alternating one-way traffic up and down. The new system allows 24-hour access to Fraser s Hill. The new access road is used for ascending traffic whereas the old road is used for descending traffic. The new road is about two kilometers longer than the old road and emerges at Fraser s Hill near the Pine Resort. As a result of the improved access tourism-related businesses have been reported to improve Roads under construction a) Simpang Pulai-Lojing-Gua Musang- Kuala Berang The Simpang Pulai Kuala Berang highway, some 333 km long and climbing to an altitude of nearly 1,500m, will become the country s third road connecting the east and west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. This road will traverse through four states namely Perak, Pahang, Kelantan and Terengganu. The road begins at Simpang Pulai, passes through Lojing and Gua Musang and finally ends at Kuala Berang. This road also connects to Cameron Highlands and Blue Valley estate. It is divided into 10 packages but only 3 packages involve construction on the Main Range. Table 3-46 gives the detail of the packages 2, 2C, 3 and 4 which will be built on the Main Range. b) East West Highway (second phase) This road, which is still under construction, begins in Upper Perak, passes through valley regions and interior plains in Kedah before reaching the coastal plain and coast of Penang. The road originates from the Perak town of Grik in Hulu Perak and proceeds in a northwest direction for about 30 km to the Kedah Perak border and this section of the road falls within the Main Range. From the Kedah-Perak border, WWF Malaysia April 2002

166 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT the road stretches another 20km to Kupang town in the Baling district of Kedah. From Kupang, the road is directed along a southwest direction to Butterworth about 50 km to the Penang-Kedah border, passing from Baling district to Butterworth port. c) Kuala Lipis to Cameron Highlands This road was planned under the 6 th Malaysia Plan and is currently under construction. Upon completion, this road will link Sg. Koyan in Kuala Lipis to Lembah Bertam in Ringlet, thus shortening the distant between Kuantan and Cameron Highlands. The construction of this road is being done in 5 phases and the total length is approximately 110km. This road is seen as a very important road by the Pahang State Government which will make Cameron Highlands as part of Pahang because the only access to Cameron Highlands now is through Tapah, Perak. WWF Malaysia April 2002

167 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Table 3-46 : Sections of the Simpang Pulai Kuala Berang Highway within the Main Range Package 2 Package 2C Package 3 Package 3/1A Package 3/1B Package 3/2 Package 4 Package 4A Package 4B Pos Slim to Blue Valley estate (35km) Cost : RM 282 million Contractor : MTD Construction Sdn Bhd Status : Under construction Blue Valley estate to Lojing (3km) Cost: RM 5.9 million Contractor : Bridgecon Engineering Sdn Bhd Status: Under construction Lojing to Pos Blau (56.3km) Lojing to km 10 (10km) Cost: RM 82.7 million Contractor: Pretech Sdn Bhd Status: Under construction Km 10 to km (19.25km) Cost : RM 76.2 million Contractor : WCT Engineering Sdn Bhd Status : Under construction Km to Pos Blau Cost : RM million Contractor : Pembinaan Mitrajaya Sdn Bhd Status : Under construction Pos Blau to Kg Kuala Betis (20km) Pos Blau to Km 10.0 Cost: RM 47.2 million Contractor : Trans Resources Corporation Status : Under construction Km 10 to Kg Kuala Betis Cost: RM 50 million Contractor : Trans Resources Corporation Status : Under Construction WWF Malaysia April 2002

168 CHAPTER 3 : MAIN RANGE ENVIRONMENT Proposed roads a) Kajang Seremban highway This proposed highway links Kajang and Seremban and passes through Bangi, Semenyih, Beranang, Pajam, Nilai and Mantin. It starts from a clover-leaf interchange which meets Kajang interchange and Kajang bypass, and heads southward which eventually ends at Federal Route 51 about 5 km from Seremban town. The length of this stretch is approximately 46 km. b) Hill Resort Road (HRR) The Government of Malaysia proposed to construct a high altitude road that would directly link the three hill resorts of Genting Highlands, Fraser s Hill and Cameron Highlands. The intention being to enhance tourism activity in the hill regions and to improve accessibility to previously isolated regions. The proposed road project, commonly referred to as the Hill Resort Road (HRR), represents a linear corridor development over a distance of 222 km. The total area of virtually pristine forest which shall be encroached on is approximately 1100 ha. The total construction cost of the HRR is estimated at approximately RM 2.2 billion. The HRR is proposed to be located between elevation 830m to 1400m along the Main Range. The proposed HRR will be aligned just below the hillcrests. The road passes through three states, namely, Selangor, Pahang and Perak. Approximately 62% of its total distance lies in Pahang, 22% in Perak while the remaining 16% is located in Selangor State. c) Durian Tipus to Kemayan The proposed Durian Tipus to Kemayan Road is listed as one the main road projects under the 8MP and will cover 18 km in length. This road will traverse the southern tip of the Main Range. The original alignment, which was designed, was found to cut across the Pasoh Forest Reserve which is rich in biodiversity. However the alignment has been altered to avoid the Forest Reserve. WWF Malaysia April 2002

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182 4 PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS

183 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS 4.1 Introduction Development in the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia has, prior to the 1980s, been small-scale. However, the last decade saw intensive development in the highlands, particularly for commercial agriculture and tourism. The changes are especially noticeable at the hill stations such as Genting Highlands, Cameron Highlands and Fraser Hills. Development activities in other highland areas are also fast intensifying. No longer limited to small projects, development in the highlands is now witnessing increasingly large projects which range from resort development and golf courses to new townships. Along with these developments, the numerous incidents of flash floods, landslides and other natural disasters have raised concerns that such activities in the highlands are causing, or at least, contributing to these incidents. In the past decade, four major landslides, involving fatalities, have occurred. The collapse of the Highland Towers condominium block, in which 44 people died, highlighted the tragic consequences of hill land clearing and landslides. Since the tragedy, there has been a series of landslides and slope failures which raised public concern. The Cameron Highlands landslide in December 1994, in which two persons were killed and five reported missing, was followed in 1995 by the Genting Highlands landslide, where at least 21 died and 22 were injured. In the wake of such incidents, the massive slope failure at Gua Tempurong in January 1996 hit the headlines. Whilst not in the highlands, this incident served to highlight the fragility of steep slopes. Many more landslide incidents probably go unreported, because they are small or do not involve deaths or injuries. The litany of landslide incidents served to raise the question of whether these incidents were indicators of unsustainable development in the highland areas, and whether further development in the highland areas would result in similar catastrophes and the loss of more lives. This chapter discusses the problems and opportunities in the highlands, with focus on the Main Range. The key issues, problems and opportunities elaborated in this chapter form the building blocks for the highlands management and conservation strategy discussed in Chapter Urban Development Urban development in the highlands has often been blamed for the plethora of environmental problems. The construction of houses, hotels and commercial centers in some parts of the highlands, have in the past, been poorly planned in terms of location, density and architecture. This has led to a series of problems such as traffic congestion, soil erosion and landslides, ugly landscapes and has often been blamed for the rise in temperature. There is a lack of clear policy as to where urban development may be permitted on the highlands. In order to manage urban development on a sustainable basis, it is imperative that urban development is only permitted in designated areas where there is sufficient infrastructure in place and where potential environmental hazards due to erosion and landslides could be avoided. The highlands and in particular the WWF Malaysia 4-1

184 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS hill stations, offer good potential for the further development of resort and residential facilities taking advantage of the cool climate found in these areas Lack of Local Authority Jurisdiction Except for some hill stations, most of the highlands are not under the jurisdiction of Local Authorities. This makes it difficult for the Local Authorities to enforce the provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act (TCPA), the Streets, Drainage and Building Act (SDBA) and the Local Government Act (LGA). In the case of Cameron Highlands, the Local Authority jurisdiction only covers the township areas which is less than 4% of the district. Most of the farming activities in Cameron Highlands are outside the jurisdiction of the Local Authority Absence Of Statutory Local Plans There is a general absence of statutory local plans for most of the highland areas. The legal basis of controlling land use development in the country is through the application of the Local Plans. Hence it is important that the Local Plans are prepared for the entire district and not just limited to the township areas. This is provided for in the recent amendments to the TCPA. Stakeholder participation in the preparation of all forms of development plans including Local Plans is important in formulating effective implementation plans. These stakeholders should include government agencies, NGO s and local residents association. Without the statutory locals plans, it is difficult for the Local Authorities to control land development Effectiveness of the Structure and Local Plans Most of the Structure Plans covering the highlands were consistent in their recommendations in protecting and conserving the highland areas except for some proposals on road connections and new urban centers. Most of these plans also recommended the adoption of existing guidelines especially those issued by the TCPD. The Government has adopted the Structure and Local Plans as the Statutory Plan system for guiding and controlling development. However, there remain problems with respect to the implementation of the policies: (i) (ii) (iii) Most of the highlands do not come within the jurisdiction of the Local Authority which is the lead agency entrusted to implement the Structure Plan. Many government agencies do not see themselves as stakeholders in implementing the policies of the Structure Plans, leaving the responsibility to the Local Authority. Not many areas in the highlands are covered by a Local Plan. In fact only the township areas in Cameron Highlands are covered by a Local Plan and this does not include the whole district or even the areas where there is pressure for development. Genting Highlands and Bukit Fraser do not have Local Plans or any other statutory plans. WWF Malaysia 4-2

185 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS (iv) (v) (vi) There is a general inertia on the part of the State Authority to gazette Local Plans. There have also been situations where Federal and State Government agencies have undertaken development projects without due approval from the State or Local Authorities. There have also been situations where the State Authority has approved conversion of land and the alienation of state land using the provisions of the National Land Code without first ensuring that it conformed to the Local Plan or whether planning permission was first obtained. Many of these issues have been rectified in the Town and Country Planning Amendment Act 2001 (Act A1129). (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Structure Plans will now be prepared for the whole state and the custodian will be the State Planning Committee and the State Director of Town and Country Planning and not the Local Planning Authority. Local Plans will now be prepared for the whole district. The State Director of Town and Country Planning will be the Local Planning Authority for areas outside the local authority boundary. The State Planning Committee is given additional powers to regulate, control, plan and coordinate all development activities in the State. The SPC has now powers on development control to complement those of the Local Planning Authority. There is now a duty on Federal and State Government departments and agencies to consult the SPC on any development activity that it proposes to carry out within the State. This would also cover road and dam construction, mining activities and other infrastructure development. There is now a duty on the SPC to refer to the National Physical Planning Council (NPPC) on any application involving development affecting hill tops or hill slopes and areas designated as environmentally sensitive. This would suggest that the prior advice of the NPPC must be obtained before any new development is approved in the highlands Lack Of Comprehensive Guidelines And Regulations While there are comprehensive enabling laws for the development and conservation of land, there is a dearth of comprehensive subordinate legislations in the form of bylaws, rules, regulations and guidelines. These instruments are necessary for enforcing legal provisions provided in the enabling law. Although many Local Authorities have adopted the earthworks bylaws under the Streets, Drainage and Building Act, very often the provisions relating to the control of silt and the construction of sedimentation ponds are not strictly adhered to. Sometimes development sites are left bare after formation levels are carried especially if the project is abandoned. Hawker centers are often badly sited leading to a loss of amenity to the area. Many of these structures are unattractive and lack proper facilities for garbage disposal and public facilities WWF Malaysia 4-3

186 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Pressures Of Urban Encroachment Potential threats from urban encroachment into the highlands is noticeable in several areas in the Main Range, notably in the Cameron Highlands, Genting Highlands, Ulu Bernam Tg Malim area (Perak) and in several districts in Selangor such as Hulu Selangor, Gombak and Ulu Langat. Such pressure affects the fragile ecosystem of the highlands, leading to species migration, habitat fragmentation and eventually loss of habitat. There should be effective control mechanisms in place to prevent urban encroachment into the highlands. These may require concerted efforts in monitoring development and establishing controls so that where development can be managed in a sustainable manner. Appendix 7 lists the committed projects in and near the Main Range Incongruent Development Incongruent development development, which are not in harmony with the ambience of the highlands, are rampant in the Main Range. High-rise buildings and a wide array of architecture and form that are more suited for urban centres in the lowlands can be found at all the hill stations. For example, the high-rise high-density apartment in Fraser s Hill, the Silverpark Holiday Apartments, is located on one of the highest parts of the hill and has created a visual impact that diminishes the image of the resort. The building height exceeds the tree line and impairs the natural beauty. The absence of development plans and guideline controls has contributed to this type of negative image for Fraser s Hill. The concrete jungle at the Genting Hill top and the numerous service apartments at Cameron Highlands are obvious examples of incongruent development. The nature tourism potential of Frasers Hill has also been compromised by some recent developments including construction of buildings on one of the highest hills and this has led to environmental damage including soil erosion and landslides (WWF, 1995). Tree felling and land clearing for the new road to Fraser s Hill also caused environmental damage and the construction of the 18 hole golf course at Jeriau removed forest including some very rare plants from steep slopes and caused erosion which damaged the Jeriau waterfall (WWF, 1996) Kampung Raja as A New Gateway With the completion of the Simpang Pulai Kuala Berang road, it is anticipated that Kampung Raja will become a new gateway to Cameron Highlands. There would be increased demand for new development areas in terms of settlements and economic activities. The Simpang Pulai - Lojing link will strengthen Kg Raja as the new gateway to Cameron Highlands and thereby the potential to transform as service centre with rest and recreational facilities. The new corridor provides new areas for the agriculture sector on the outskirts of the built-up areas. The new corridor will also provide Lojing the catalyst for development, as access has been one of the major drawbacks to its development potential. WWF Malaysia 4-4

187 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS New Urban Development Projects in the Highlands There are several committed urban development projects in the highlands. There are proposals by the Kelantan Government to develop a service centre and a township in Pos Brooke (847ha) and Pos Sigar (414ha) respectively. There is also a proposal to develop the Kinta Highlands close to Cameron Highlands on the Perak side of the border. The scale of development proposed is much larger than Tanah Rata, the largest settlement in Cameron Highlands which is only 515ha. Similarly in the Genting and Bukit Tinggi, the total concession area is 8204 ha and 6323 ha respectively. Under the existing development plans, more than 95% of the area is to be developed for urban and related uses. This is obviously not a sustainable proposition and there may be a need to review the masterplan in line with the proposed guidelines for the highlands. 4.3 Agriculture Agriculture is a major economic activity in some areas of the highlands in Peninsular Malaysia. In Cameron Highlands, where it is most extensively developed, agriculture occupied some 7340 ha in 1999 (Bahagian Pengurusan Tanah, 2000). This is some 10.8% of the land area of the district and is exceeded only by the area occupied by forest. Elsewhere in the highlands, agricultural development has been rather modest. Perhaps as a result of improved access, agricultural activity has recently picked up in the Lojing area of Kelantan, just across the border from Cameron Highlands and in the Bukit Tinggi area. Access provided by the construction of the Simpang Pulai Gua Musang road is expected to stimulate agricultural activity in the Kinta Highlands Constraints to Agriculture Development There are several problems that confront agricultural development in the highlands. These include : Climatic conditions Terrain and soils Access Market Soil erosion Agrochemical pollution Land tenure Climatic conditions The low average temperatures make these areas unsuitable for the major Malaysian plantation crops except tea and some types of coffee. On the other hand, conditions especially at elevations from 1200m to 1800m, suit temperate vegetables, flowers and subtropical fruits. Development of these crops is, however, limited by various other factors. WWF Malaysia 4-5

188 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Terrain and soils The hilly and steep terrain poses further limitations to agricultural development. Table 4-1 shows the area and percentage of land area in Cameron Highlands in the various terrain classes. It can be seen that only about 17% of the area is below 15 0, 23% between 15 0 to 20 0 and a further 32% between 20 0 and The extent of areas of gentler slopes is proportionately smaller at the higher elevations suitable for temperate vegetables and subtropical fruits. Table 4-1: Terrain Classes in Cameron Highlands Terrain Class Hectares Percentage 0 5 slope slope slope slope slope slope Above 30 slope No data TOTAL Source: Bahagian Pengurusan Tanah, DOA, 2000 The soils in Cameron Highlands are generally sedentary and of granitic origin. These soils are also highly erodible. The combination of the terrain, the nature of the soils and the generally high rainfall increases the risk of erosion in the highlands, especially when the forest is cleared. Table 4-2 shows the area and percentage of land area in Cameron Highlands in various erosion risk classes. It can be seen that a large part of the district falls within the high risk classes. This is likely to be highly representative of the highland areas of Peninsular Malaysia. Although not very fertile, the soils are capable of supporting good crop growth when of adequate depth (>25cm) and supplemented with suitable fertilizer inputs. The soil depth requirement restricts cropping to the valleys and lower slopes. In Cameron Highlands, this has been supplemented with low hilltops that have been leveled by machinery (Wong & Jaafar, 1993). The reshaping of land in this way increases further the risk of erosion at the time of the operation and immediately following it. But the artificially improved terrain combined with appropriate management practices could well help to reduce erosion in later years. However, such operations tend to be expensive. WWF Malaysia 4-6

189 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Table 4-2: Areas In Erosion Risk Classes Cameron Highlands Erosion Risk Class Hectares Percentage Below 10 ton/ha/yr ton/ha/yr ton/ha/yr ton/ha/yr Above 150 ton/ha/yr No data TOTAL Source : Bahagian Pengurusan Tanah, DOA, Access Poor accessibility of potential farm sites is often a serious deterrent to development. This led to the concentration of agricultural development around Ringlet and Tanah Rata and later Brinchang in Cameron Highlands. For the same reasons, recent expansion into Bertam valley and Lojing has taken place following the construction of roads there. Poorly constructed roads and road cuts exposing large areas of hill slopes have been known to be one of the main sources of sediment supply which in time leads to the siltation in the rivers. These roads are also prone to landslides Market Tea produced is largely consumed within the country, with limited export to Singapore. Production and market demand have remained more or less stable and scope for expansion of highland tea, given the various constraints of suitable land and labour, appears to be limited. Although the market for subtropical fruits is good, production has declined due to agronomic difficulties (see section ). Temperate flower production expanded rapidly in response to strong export demand during the last decade. However, competition from cheaper producers has cut deep into the market and production has declined sharply over the turn of the century. The bulk of the temperate vegetables produced in the highlands (mainly Cameron Highlands) is marketed within the country. Some 20% is exported to Singapore. While overall production matches demand, there are fluctuations in both demand and production - creating periods of shortage and excess. This, in turn, causes considerable variation in farm gate prices which sometimes fall well below production costs. The demand for temperate vegetables is expected to grow in keeping with increasing population and rising living standards; FAMA projects an increase of 31.5% in the demand for selected highland vegetables over the next five years (Table 4-3). On the other hand, with the implementation of AFTA, local growers will need to compete with low cost producers from neighbouring countries. WWF Malaysia 4-7

190 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Table 4-3 : Projected Demand For Selected Highland Vegetables Crop Institution Household Total Institution Household Total Kobis Bulat Kobis Bunga Kobis Cina Lobak Merah Lobak Putih Salad Tomato TOTAL Source: FAMA Land Tenure A large proportion of farmers in Cameron Highlands operate on Temporary Occupancy Licences (TOL). Such licences are renewed annually and there is therefore no security of tenure. Insecurity of agricultural land tenure may have resulted in poor agricultural practices in Cameron Highlands, which have caused soil erosion and in turn lead to the siltation of rivers. The cultivation on steep slopes and the need to clear the adjacent areas for maximum sunlight for their crops have contributed to the environmental degradation of the hill stations. It has been noted that as most of these vegetable farmers do not own their land, there are few incentives to invest in good agricultural practices. The short term lease on which land is offered to farmers is a disincentive to long term investment on the farms. For example, the cultivation of vegetables and ornamentals under rain shelter, combined with appropriate agronomic practices, could lead considerable reduction in erosion and agrochemical pollution. But rain shelters call for heavy investment (around RM180,000 per ha) which most farmers are reluctant to risk against an uncertain future. Some farmers have taken heart from the near automatic renewal of leases to risk the heavy investment since they see the potential returns. However, land on short term lease does not provide suitable collateral for loans from banks. The above constraints have to be borne in mind when assessing the present development and future prospects of highland agriculture Environmental Problems Agricultural development in the highlands entails serious risk of soil erosion and consequent siltation of the river systems. A recent report in the press (The Sun, ) referred to a massive increase in siltation of the Sultan Abu Bakar Dam (in Cameron Highlands) rising from 400,000 m 3 in 1975 to 3,500,000 m 3 in While the contribution from road construction and urban development to the siltation of the lake as well as other streams in the area cannot be ignored, most of the damage has been attributed to agricultural activities. Soil erosion resulting from agricultural activities has been well studied (Wan Abdullah, Jamaludin & Osman, 1999). WWF Malaysia 4-8

191 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Comparable figures, in ton soil/ha/yr, are: exposed area > 80, vegetables in the open 40 80, tea areas 10, vegetables in rain shelter 1.2, undisturbed forest 0.5. The continuous application of large amounts of fertilizers has led to on-site and offsite degradation of the environment. On the farms, the accumulation of phosphorus and cations (potassium, magnesium and calcium), or salination, threatens to limit productivity (Wong & Jaafar, 1993). The heavy rains and excessive irrigation tend to wash off nutrients which are carried into the surface water systems causing pollution there (Ghulam & Wan Abdullah, 1999), and further downstream. This can alter and affect the ecosystems of streams and rivers downstream and eventually the habitats in the entire river basin Problems Pertaining to Specific Crops Tea Tea is the oldest crop to be commercially planted in the highlands and all the tea plantations have been long established. All rejuvenation is by stimulating new growth through pruning. The only new plantings are infilling to replace dead or weak plants. A well-established tea planting offers considerable protection from erosion especially if the steeper areas not plantable with tea are planted with other appropriate plants. Studies have placed soil loss from erosion from tea areas in Cameron Highlands at 10 ton/ha/yr up from 0.5 ton from undisturbed forest areas (Wan Abdullah, Jamaludin & Osman, 1999). Current agronomic practice, for largely economic reasons, is quite conservative in the use of agrochemicals. Thus the tea industry s contribution to environmental degradation is somewhat limited Vegetables In Cameron Highlands vegetables are grown, two to four times a year, on about 1,000 ha. The total number of vegetable farmers is around 2,000, giving an average farm size of 0.5ha. Given the low soil fertility, steep terrain and heavy rain, rather high levels of manuring are used for the vegetables. While precise amounts used vary with crop, they are generally in the range of 5 10 tons of organic manure (usually chicken dung) and 0.75 to 1.5 ton of chemical fertilizers per ha per season (Pusat Penyelidikan Hortikultur, 2000). There could be up to four crop cycles per year resulting in the application of up to 40 tons of organic manure and 6 tons of chemical fertilizers per ha per year. Some farmers tend to apply even more than the above amounts in order to maximize production. The continuous application of such large amounts of fertilizers has led to on site and off site degradation of the environment in addition to inflating production costs. On the farms, the accumulation of phosphorus and cations (potassium, magnesium and calcium), or salination, threatens to limit productivity (Wong & Jaafar, 1993). Farmers often resort to soil renewal (by bringing in fresh soil from the forest) to overcome this problem and to prevent build up of soil borne diseases. The heavy rains and WWF Malaysia 4-9

192 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS excessive irrigation tend to wash off nutrients which are carried into the surface water systems causing pollution (Ghulam & Wan Abdullah, 1999). The continuous cultivation of vegetables and the high humidity for much of the time as well as the high (even excessive) plane of nutrition render the crops prone to infection by a range of diseases and infestation by several pests. The crops are of high value and the market demand is for high cosmetic standards. To meet this demand and to protect the crop, the farmer relies on large inputs of pesticides: leafy vegetables are sometimes sprayed every three days and crops like tomatoes and sweet peas may receive up to 35 sprayings within one crop cycle (Ding, Vimala & Salleh, 1981). Monitoring by the DOA has shown that residues from permitted pesticides are beyond the maximum limit. Sometimes residues of banned pesticides are also recorded (Yeoh, N.S.2000). Integrated pest management packages, which are more economical but which are less impressive in terms of visual assessment, and biological pesticides (like neem products and Bacillus thuringiensis) which are more environment friendly, are available but have found only limited acceptance except among farmers practising organic farming Fruits The sub-tropical fruit industry in Cameron Highlands was anchored by the citrus (mandarin) crop. This has been ravaged by virus infection (especially) greening. There has been a painfully slow build up of areas under strawberry and persimmon. In the Lojing area, there is much greater enthusiasm for fruits in general and citrus in particular (see Table 4-5). Extreme care should be exercised in the choice of planting material and the adoption of local quarantine measures and related agronomic practices if outbreak of diseases is to be avoided Inadequate Enforcement Capacity There is not adequate capacity at the local levels, particularly at Cameron Highlands and Lojing, to monitor and enforce regulations and guidelines. Indiscriminate clearing of agricultural land has resulted in severe environmental problems. The TOL applications are renewed on a yearly basis and mostly in areas outside the PFE. The main problem is that the applicants carry out the clearing and earthworks randomly without any surveyed plans. This results in farmers encroaching to areas more than the allocated areas they applied for. Only recently, a large area was illegally cleared in G. Brinchang, exposing large sections of the hill to soil erosion. The MDCH, District Office, PTG and District Land Administrator are all simply not able to carry out monitoring and enforcement. The Lojing area is presently under the jurisdiction of Pejabat Daerah Gua Musang, whose office is located more than 80 km away in Gua Musang town. Until the Lojing-Gua Musang stretch of road is completed, the only link to this area is via a muddy logging trail. The lack of monitoring from the local authority meant that many of the land clearing activities in Lojing have been done without the proper permits and application. Most of the farms in Lojing are also considered illegal, as in they do WWF Malaysia 4-10

193 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS not possess the proper development permits. It is understandable that enforcement has been difficult due to the great distance and terrain. 4.4 Tourism Tourism in the highlands is an important economic sector. The cool climate, fresh air and breathtaking landscapes and lush vegetation serve as major attractions for tourists. The temperate climate provides an ideal setting for a variety of crops, especially vegetables and flowers. The thrill of driving up hill roads and the sights and sounds along the route provide an exhilarating experience to holiday-makers, particularly those from crowded places such as the Klang Valley and Singapore Problems in the Tourism Sector Marketing (a) Lack of Focus Tourism in the highlands lacks focus and specialization. Hill resorts are in competition which each other, offering nearly the same products. Many of the destinations, e.g., are in large measure in competition for nature tourists and there are dangers of a market split. Several hill stations have seen development that are directly in conflict with their core strength. For example, Fraser s Hill, which has world-class nature tourism potential, has seen the development of a golf course at a great price to the natural environment. One of Cameron Highlands unique products, agro-tourism, has not been fully tapped. Until the various tourist spots in the highlands rationalize their main target tourist and specialize, there could be a lot of unnecessary competition amongst the hill stations. (b) Competitive tourist destinations in Malaysia and elsewhere There is also competition from other eco and nature tourism destinations both in the lowlands of Malaysia and in neighbouring countries; countries close to Malaysia such as Indonesia have similar climates, cultures and eco and nature tourism attractions. Vietnam, the Philippines, Myanmar and Thailand also attract growing numbers of eco and nature tourists and represent a potentially competing group of destinations. (c) Lack of targeted and effective marketing of tourism destinations Targeted and effective marketing of tourist destinations in the highlands, with the exceptions of Genting Highlands and Bukit Tinggi, is lacking. There is a need to more sharply identify product specialization for the different destinations and marketing and WWF Malaysia 4-11

194 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS publicity methods devised appropriate to the products on offer and the capacity of the site. (d) Poor promotion and showcasing of local handicrafts Currently the promotion and showcasing of local handicrafts and souvenirs in the highlands is inadequate. There is a need to improve the quality, range and availability of handicrafts. In Indian hill resorts such as Ooty, Shimla and Dalhousie, a very wide range of handicrafts and souvenir items are produced and marketed to visitors. In the Main Range, there is a need to more fully explore the potential for handicrafts and to develop sales outlets. There are existing programmes operated by the DOA involving the production of arts and crafts by women s groups. Among problems experienced are the lack of infrastructure and market accessibility. The market also tends to be seasonal in nature Attractions and tourism infrastructure (a) Lack of quality tourist attractions In several of the existing hill resorts, there is a lack of quality tourist attractions and deficiencies in the available amenities. Despite possessing the natural environment, heritage and setting as a popular resort, Cameron Highlands had a very short Average Length of Stay (ALS) of 1.75 days in 2000 and this is well below the national ALS. The inference that may be deduced is that there are at present insufficient attractions to sustain visitor interest. Fraser s Hill has a short ALS (1.70 days in 2000) due to the lack of attractions and amenities to entice visitors to stay longer. Visitors complain of a lack of activities for their participation including educationally stimulating experiences. Several possible attractions including the Mini Zoo and the Museum Corner (Sudut Muzium) are at present closed. Discussions with the FHDC, hoteliers and tour guides indicated that inappropriate artefacts were presented in the Sudut Muzium. There is a belief that there are sufficient local materials and artefacts that could depict the fascinating history of this hill station. (b) Weak tourism infrastructure Tourism infrastructure and support services are generally weak in the highlands. These range from inadequate accommodation base, poor tourist information, inefficient marketing, ill-maintained facilities and inadequately trained tourist guides. Cameron Highlands, the largest hill station, has all the above inadequacies. The accommodation base does not appear to be meeting the needs and preferences of visitors and the average occupancy rate of hotels in this hill station was only 33.8% in There is also a lack of interpretative and informative signage on the tourist attractions, the trails and nature environment. As noted in the Structure Plan, there is also a paucity of tourism information, which is mainly limited to a brochure and a WWF Malaysia 4-12

195 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS map and there is a lack of promotion. Shops sell a sketch-map with information on hotels, golf and agriculture but not about nature. As noted by the National Ecotourism Plan, for some areas with natural attractions, most of the information available is not about nature and there is a general shortage of accurate maps. Indeed the shortage of maps, guidebooks and other information services is one of the critical areas perceived by eco tourists as lacking. In Fraser s Hill, whilst the accommodation base is reasonably diverse, standards, in the perception of visitors, are poor. The average occupancy rate is very low: only 27.6% in the year The facilities provided at Fraser s Hill cater mainly for the local population needs and requirements but not for the visitors or tourists. In the more minor tourism destinations in the highlands, the standards of construction and maintenance of sanitary facilities for visitor use is often quite poor. (c) Poor maintenance of nature trails The majority of the nature trails in established tourist destinations such as Cameron Highlands and Fraser s Hill are poorly maintained. Some have become inappropriate and unsafe for use due to presence of rubbish and tall undergrowth as well as absence of trail signs. Among the reasons for the poor condition of the trails are limited manpower and funds and misuse of trails by irresponsible users who dispose rubbish along the trails. Maintenance of the trails is usually the responsibility of the DOF but the level of maintenance is inadequate because of limited funds. If allocations were increased it would be possible to contract-out maintenance operations. A majority of the nature trails in Fraser s Hill are under-utilized and inadequately maintained. The Kindersley trail is overgrown by undergrowth and is unfit for use. There is also a general lack of publicity for the jungle trails. Some level of maintenance is carried out for the Hemmant, Abu Suradi and Bishop s trails, which are frequently used by the FHNEC for nature interpretation activities. A few of the trails have signage and information boards. For some of them, efforts have been made to label the trees along the trails. (d) Lack of synergy between agriculture and tourism In Cameron Highlands and Lojing, the agriculture sector is often in direct conflict with the tourism industry. Agriculture, in acquiring forest land and expanding the farms, is indirectly destroying the resources that attract the tourists. The clearing of land leads to sedimentation of the streams, rivers and lakes which are also important tourist attractions. On the other hand, tourists provide revenue and publicity to the agriculture sector and the economy of Cameron Highlands is very dependent on tourism revenue. Agro-tourism, including agro-environmental tourism, in which visitors stay at farms and take part in agricultural activities, is of growing importance and a significant WWF Malaysia 4-13

196 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS element of sustainable tourism development. In Cameron Highlands the synergy between agriculture and tourism requires strengthening. The tea estates have forged commendable links and many tourists visit the tea gardens and undertake tours of the processing units. For the other crops, the links need to be enhanced and innovative home stay programmes developed. The provision of accommodation to visitors who pay for staying on farms, helps improve farmers incomes and for urban residents the contact with nature and with the people who live there is a vital experience. In other areas such as Lojing Highlands and Kinta Highlands, where there is potential for both tourism and temperate agricultural production, efforts need to be made to also strengthen the synergy between these two activities Sustainability and the environment (a) Lack of awareness of sustainable tourism development There is still generally a lack of awareness on the part of the local community, visitors, and even tourism frontliners as to the importance of sustainable tourism development. The level of environmental awareness needs to be raised significantly and the problem of adverse effects on the environment such as litter, picking of wild flowers and poaching caused by this lack of awareness rectified. There is a need to educate visitors, the local community and tourism frontliners regarding responsible tourism and sustainable development. The APEC/PATA Code for Sustainable Tourism has three guidelines in this regard. They are: Support the inclusion of environmental and cultural values in tourism education, training and planning Enhance the appreciation and understanding by tourists of natural environments and cultural sensitivities through the provision of accurate information and appropriate interpretation Encourage and support research on the environmental and cultural impacts of tourism. (b) Shortage of competent nature guides Very few tour companies employ specialised nature guides. Most guides are either general guides with a guiding licence, or self-taught in forest guiding and culture tours. There is a lack of nature guides who are familiar with the biodiversity aspects of the nature trails. Presently, in Fraser s Hill, there are four local guides whose services are used by tourist groups who either approach them directly or through the bungalows/resorts operators for birdwatching and guided walks. Each of the local nature guides differs in their level of knowledge on the biodiversity aspects. To a certain extent, information on the biodiversity aspects associated to the jungle trails WWF Malaysia 4-14

197 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS is also disseminated by the FHNEC through its activities particularly through organised guided trail walks. In Cameron Highlands while nature guides are available through the local tour agencies and resorts, the nature guiding service provided is often unsatisfactory. This relates particularly to the biodiversity aspects associated with the nature trails and surrounding forests. Some industry insiders also consider that MOCAT regulations on nature guides are restrictive: guides trained in one area are not permitted to guide in another area. However, in some instances, nature tour guides brought in by tour companies are permitted. There is also a need now for more specialized training opportunities (e.g., in caving techniques, forest ecology) which would enable guides to provide more professional services to eco-tourism visitors. (c) Damage to mountain peaks and visitor safety A number of mountain peaks in the highlands attract significant numbers of climbers and trekkers. Tourists visit the mountains not only because of the different flora and fauna but also because it is often easier to view birds and other creatures than in the lowlands. The cool weather too is a major asset, whilst the abundance of mosses and tree ferns and of some well-known plant groups such as rhododendrons can also constitute an attraction. There is, however, growing concern over damage to peaks and related issues of visitors safety. Tourism activities such as mountain hiking and trekking can represent a stress to fragile ecosystems. Outside the Main Range the top of Gunung Ledang has already been degraded by large number of camping parties and there have been reports of inexperienced climbers losing their way on mountains such as Gunung Nuang, Gunung Korbu, Gunung Batu Putih and in the Cameron Highlands. In this regard, the APEC/PATA Code for Sustainable Tourism has three guidelines for conserving the natural environment, ecosystem and biodiversity: Contribute to the conservation of any habitat of flora and fauna affected by tourism. Encourage relevant authorities to identify areas worthy of conservation and to determine the level of development, if any, which would ensure those areas are conserved. Include enhancement and corrective actions at tourism sites to conserve wildlife and natural ecosystems. (d) Four-wheel drive activities Several sites in the Main Range including Kenaboi Forest Reserve and Jerangkang Forest Reserve are currently used by four-wheel drive enthusiasts. Although they mostly drive on old logging tracks, there are evidence that new paths are WWF Malaysia 4-15

198 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS sometimes cleared when old paths are blocked or degraded. This has been found to be damaging to soil structure and a source of forest degradation. (e) Special sensitivity of caves and limestone outcrops Caves and their limestone outcrops, although offering potential for eco-tourism, require special care in their development because of a range of factors such as: physical safety of visitors; disease potential (e.g., histoplasmosis) risk of damage to archaeological and historical features; risk of damage to rare plants; disturbance to rare or endemic cave life such as bats, spiders and centipedes; and longlasting nature of graffiti and littering If caves in the highlands are to be developed for eco-tourism, special care will be required in all phases of planning, development and operation Prospects There are good prospects for enhancement of sustainable tourism in the Main Range Area particularly if there is a greater degree of tourist product and market specialisation backed up by development and promotion of new activities, and improved tourism infrastructure and services. There are potential sites that offer the opportunity to disperse hill resort development along the Main Range and provide new scenic attractions to give a spur to the development of tourism-based facilities and amenities. In the case of Lojing and Kinta Highlands, there is the possibility of highland agriculture/ horticultural development and linkages to agro-tourism being established. This could reduce pressure on areas such as the Cameron Highlands and enable adverse environmental impacts to be lessened both at a local level as well as in downstream areas. Development in the Cameron-Lojing-Kinta triangle should enable the inherent features and attributes to be taken advantage of and synergy generated. This should not only aim to ensure the maximum possible degree of complementarity between the three sites but also adequate consideration be given to protecting the fragile highland environment. Agro-environmental tourism involving the provision of homestay facilities would assist in enhancing farm incomes through the provision of hospitality services and participation in activities arising from the use of farm resources. This type of tourism not only provides an opportunity for product diversification but also for regeneration of the rural economy. A homestay programme has been developed at Taman Setia, Tanah Rata in the Cameron Highlands. Four of the villager s houses are used to provide WWF Malaysia 4-16

199 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS accommodation for up to 100 visitors. Among agro-tourism activities provided are jungle trekking, visits to orchards, fruit stalls, handicraft outlets and a workshop on agro-tourism is held. The project is under the auspices of the Women s Movement (Kumpulan Pergerakan Wanita). Cultural heritage tourism has a promising potential for development in the Main Range. There are opportunities for showcasing the heritage of Cameron Highlands and for highlighting the rich cultural traditions of the Orang Asli community in areas such as Belum in Perak and Lojing Highlands in Kelantan. In Temenggor, Perak attempts have been made to incorporate the cultural features of the Temiar into eco tourism. In the development of cultural heritage tourism however, it is important that local traditions, cultures and communities are respected. There needs, for instance, to be greater sensitivity by tour operators into local cultures. The APEC/PATA Code for Sustainable Tourism suggests the following: Ensure that community attitudes, local customs and cultural values, and the role of women and children, are understood in the planning and implementation of all tourism related projects. Provide opportunities for the wider community to take part in discussions on tourism planning issues where these affect the tourism industry and the community. Encourage relevant authorities to identify cultural heritage worthy of conservation and to determine the level of development if any which would be compatible in or adjacent to those areas. Contribute to the identity and pride of local communities through providing quality tourism products and services sensitive to those communities. For the more minor tourist destinations such as Tasik Chenderoh, Tasik Temenggor and the Klang Gates dam, the major objective should be to enlarge visitation levels by domestic day visitors. In the case of the Klang Gate ridge it is likely to be designated as a geological monument; water-based recreation including recreational fishing are the main attractions of Tasik Chenderoh and Tasik Temenggor. Banding Island, which enjoys a strategic location where the East West highway crosses Tasik Temenggor, is well situated for development as a central access node for Belum. Activities with potential for development and expansion in the Main Range include caving, camping, 4-wheel drive expedition and recreational fishing Caving There are a number of caves existing in limestone outcrops in the Main Range which have the potential for attracting special interest tourists including Gunung Reng, Gua Cha, Gua Peraling and Gua Ikan in Kelantan, and in Gerik in Perak. They offer eco-tourism potential but several are archaeological sites of national significance that must not be damaged. WWF Malaysia 4-17

200 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Camping As eco and nature tourism evolves in the Main Range, the provision of camp sites would constitute a very useful addition to the visitor accommodation inventory. The cool, temperate style climate to be experienced in many parts of the highlands provides excellent opportunities for attracting not only foreign tourists but urbanbased youths, school children and others such as scouts, girl guides, members of Rakan Muda to participate in camping and related nature education field trips. Some camp sites have already been established at highland locations including Gunung Jerai, Kedah, Gunung Korbu, Perak, Gunung Tapis and Gunung Tahan in Pahang. More recently two campsites have been established at Tanarimba, Janda Baik. There is potential for further development in such locations as Cameron Highlands, Kinta Highlands and Lojing in the Main Range. However, it is imperative that the planning and establishment of campsites have a low impact on the environment and guidelines designed to ensure this have been proposed Recreational fishing There are a number of locations in the highlands which offer potential for recreational fishing including Pergau Dam and the Sungai Perias area, Kelantan and Banding Island, Tasik Chenderoh and Tasik Temenggor in Perak. The main challenge in developing this tourism potential will be to do so with the minimum possible impact upon water quality, the minimisation of litter and graffiti, avoiding the destruction of vegetation and ensuring visitor safety wheel drive tours and excursions Ancillary tourism developments in the highlands include 4-wheel drive tours and expeditions. A number of specialised tour companies in Malaysia operate 4-wheel drive excursions, adventure travel and outdoor team building programmes, some of which traverse the Main Range. Goway s Malaysia, for example, in the 8 days Malaysian Explorer package include a 4-wheel drive tour in the Cameron Highlands to Gunung Berinchang, a tea plantation and tea factory and the Cactus Valley. Passion Asia in their 2 day Rainforest Escapade involve journeys to villages, a tea plantation, an Orang Asli Village, a hot spring, and the rainforest in Cameron Highlands whilst Mudtrekker operates 4-wheel drive vehicle excursions to the foothills of Fraser s Hill. This company also runs outdoor team building programmes and conducts 4-wheel drive training courses involving vehicle knowledge, care and preparation, equipment required; off-road driving skills: Handling obstacles and recovery techniques and expedition preparations. Areas of forest around Jelebu, including Gunung Besar Hantu are also frequently used by trekkers and 4-wheel drive enthusiasts. The National Eco-Tourism Plan notes, however, that the 4-wheel drive activities on old logging tracks can be damaging to soil structure and can be a source of forest degradation. WWF Malaysia 4-18

201 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Whilst Cameron Highlands and Fraser s Hill at present appear to the main sites favoured for 4-wheel drive tours in the Main Range, the opening up of the Kinta and Lojing Highlands, among others, will provide additional venues for 4-wheel drive tours and off roading trips, which are expected to grow in importance. 4.5 Socio-Economy The estimated population in the Main Range is about 62,000 and mostly concentrated in Cameron Highlands, Genting Highlands and Fraser's Hill. Pockets of Orang Asli settlements straddle the Main Range, especially in Lojing in Kelantan, Raub, Kuala Lipis, in Pahang, Kinta Highlands and Belum in Perak and Jelebu in Negeri Sembilan. While the resident population in major areas are well settled, some Orang Asli communities have undergone resettlement programmes or regroupment schemes. An example is the resettlement programme in 'Rancangan Pengumpulan Semula' (RPS) Kuala Betis and Pasik in Gua Musang where several villages were grouped and provided with infrastructure and social facilities Dichotomy Between Urban and Rural Areas Dichotomy between urban and rural areas in the highlands is an issue which needs corrective measures. While the urban population in Cameron Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Genting Highlands enjoy better social and economic status, the Orang Asli, especially in rural areas, still lack the affordable and equal access to basic infrastructural necessities and services. For example, about 33% of the Orang Asli villages in Raub still do not have electricity supply, about 5% do not have clean water supply and about 84.3% of planned tarred roads have not been built. Another example is the Orang Asli community in Gua Musang where only 34% of the houses are supplied with electricity and about 629 households are still dependent on gravity system for clean water supply. In Kuala Kangsar, only seven villages have the access to electricity and only two villages receive clean treated pipe water. There are also Orang Asli villages which still use river as the main transportation mode. This is especially true in northern areas, such as in RPS Kemar and RPS Dala in Hulu Perak District. The issue of equitable distribution of development may need to be looked into, while recognising the clear need to retain the distinction of the physical environments for urban and rural areas. In other words, the abolishment of social and economic dichotomy should become an important agenda Out-Migration of Residents The Cameron Highlands Structure Plan noted that many of the younger generation have migrated to other places to seek better employment opportunities. The net out-migration in 1991 was 14%. The Pahang Barat Operational Regional Master Plan showed that about 57.8% of the Cameron Highlands' population in 1988 migrated to other districts due to working opportunities. WWF Malaysia 4-19

202 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS While Genting Highlands generally offers better employment and remuneration opportunities through its leisure and entertainment products, other areas such as Cameron Highlands and Lojing are still dependent to some extent on the primary sector especially agriculture. The Cameron Highlands Local Plan pointed out that there have been several cases where the agriculture sector has engaged foreigners as employees, as a result of the labour force constraint. Generally, agriculture based employment offers less competitive remuneration packages, though there have been instances where, when a more systematic practice is in place, better yields result. Though tourism is synonymous with the hill areas, the synergy with the agricultural sector is still lacking. The younger generation are now more equipped with modern skills and are more suited to knowledge based activities and vice versa, the application of technology requires multi skilled and knowledge intensive workers. Continued urbanisation equipped with modern facilities and infrastructure would mean continued ruralurban migration and continued disadvantage to the Main Range in terms of offering labour force required to generate economic wealth and this scenario should be given due recognition Poor Quality of Health Care Amongst the Orang Asli The incidence of infectious diseases among the Orang Asli is much higher than the non-orang Asli population. For example, the incidence of tuberculosis (TB) among the Orang Asli in Perak is about 240 per 100,000 or 5.5 times that of the Perak population overall. The main contributing factors for death as reported in the JHEOA Gombak are advance stage of pulmonary tuberculosis, terminal stage of nasopharyngeal carcinoma, bronchopneumonia with septicemia, tuberculosis meningitis with hydrocephalus and severe anemia in failure. Not only is their incidence of TB higher, it is also more severe as they often present late, and they also have a much higher incidence of TB spine and meningeal TB. Malaria is common amongst the Orang Asli and they account for half to three quarters of all cases of malaria in Peninsular Malaysia. Malaria and tuberculosis are cited here as indicator illnesses. A host of other infectious illnesses, notably upper respiratory tract infections, and acute diarrhoeal illnesses in children are also much more common amongst the Orang Asli as compared to the general Malaysian population Inadequate Educational Facilities for the Orang Asli In terms of access to education, 21,000 Orang Asli students received formal education in primary, secondary and higher institutions up to year Orang Asli students have already received or completed their courses in higher learning institutions. However, cases of illiteracy, high failure rates and school drop-outs are still high among the Orang Asli students. For example, in Seremban, 59% of Orang Asli students failed in their UPSR examination, in Jelebu, about 74% and in Kuala Pilah, about 71%. In Raub, it was claimed that only about 10% of the Orang Asli students continue their further education in secondary schools. A study carried out WWF Malaysia 4-20

203 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS in 1997 by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia revealed that from the sample of 159 drop-put Orang Asli students, 60% dropped out at primary school level. The main reasons cited by the students were shyness of schooling at urban school, lack of interest, laziness and frequently scolded by teachers. The reasons cited by the parents were financial problems and the children s reluctance to attend school Orang Asli Relocation Problems Several measures have been taken by the Government to improve the welfare and economic well-being of the Orang Asli. Programmes, such as 'Rancangan Pengumpulan Semula' (RPS), Rancangan Penyusunan Semula (RPS), Penyusunan Semula Kampung (PSK) and development schemes in RISDA and FELCRA have been carried out. For example, the PSK at Kampung Cemperoh in Pahang allocated a 0.25 acre housing lot and 2 acres of land for each participant. In addition, the community also received a hall, a rural clinic, a cemetery, a tadika, public recreation area, public field and rural village as well as farm roads. There are also areas reserved for future housing and economic development for the younger generation. In Perak, programmes such as Tanaman Semula Berkelompok (TSB), Tanaman Semula Komersil (TSK) and Pembangunan Manusia Asas Kampung (PMAK) have already been implemented in several villages such as Sungai Tonggang and Ulu Groh in the district of Kinta. Some of these resettlement programmes have shown positive results. This is evident from a study carried out by Lim Hin Fui of FRIM in his publication Orang Asli, Forest and Development. He showed an example in Bukit Serok, Pahang. Before regroupment, the average monthly household income of the local villagers in 1986 was RM178. In 1992, following the regroupment, the income level was RM 530. He also cited another example where, in 1992, the average monthly household income was RM 139 for Kampung Musuh, Perak, where subsistence farming was dominant, whereas the average monthly household income for Orang Asli was RM 661 in Felda Keratong 3, Pahang, where modern agriculture is engaged. These evidences indicate that regroupment or resettlement programmes could enhance the socio-economic status of the Orang Asli. However, there have also been cases where the programmes did not work or could not be implemented. There have been cases where the Orang Aslis have moved back to their former settlements due to adaptation problems. Obvious examples of such cases in the Main Range could be the RPS Kemar and RPS Air Banun in Belum. Until now, they have not been successful in relocating all the targeted Orang Asli communities to the resettlement villages, although the programme has been implemented more than 10 years Gazettment of Orang Asli Land In 1996, there were some 137,522 ha of land used by the Orang Asli communities, of which 13% was gazetted, 22% was approved, 61% was applied and the rest was resided but not applied. Until 1999, some 19,507 ha (an increase of 920 ha from 1996) of the Orang Asli land have been gazetted, 28,932 ha approved for gazetting WWF Malaysia 4-21

204 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS but not yet gazetted and some 78,795 ha applied for gazetting but not approved yet. The issue of the Orang Asli land gazzetment has been raised several times, not just confined to the highland areas but also to other areas. It has been claimed that the gazettment process takes a long time to process. For example, some of the land has been approved some time in 1960's and 1970's but has still not been gazetted. The problem with not gazetting land is that there have been cases where some development agencies have been hesitant with the excuse that the land status is not clear. As a result, development programmes could not be carried out effectively, thus hampering the efforts to uplift the economic status of the Orang Asli Impacts of Existing and New Proposed Developments Currently, several township and road projects are being actively implemented. These include the Simpang Pulai Kuala Berang highway and the extensions of the East - West Highway. The Kelantan State Government plans to develop Lojing into a major temperate agriculture area. Pos Brooke has been identified to be a township and Pos Sigar as a tourism area. Kinta Highlands has been identified to be another major hill station. In the north, the Belum Forest Reserve, especially the Upper Belum, which covers some ha, is to be gazetted as a State Park and jetties, connecting roads and a small R & D complex have been proposed. At Jelebu, there have been proposals to develop some parts of the highland for tourism. All these developments would have both adverse and beneficial impacts to the socio economic and human environment. In the case of Cameron Highlands, Kampung Raja is poised to be a new gateway. Lojing in Gua Musang District will complement Cameron Highlands in terms of producing temperate agriculture produces and being an agro-tourism area. Janda Baik and Bukit Tinggi have seen many major activities taking place such as resorts and agriculture farms and are expected to absorb more development. In Belum, where there are 14 Orang Asli settlements, The DWNP has organized tour guide courses for 41 Orang Asli participants in 2000 and In Banding Island, tourists have regularly been using the Orang Asli services in boating, fishing and forest guide. There are already 4 Orang Asli who have been licensed as local guides. These scenarios would definitely allow more stable income generation for the Orang Asli Potentials and Prospects The Orang Asli have long been known to be a unique community with a wealth of cultural and social diversity. The Orang Asli have also long been known to have acquired the knowledge of securing forest produce such as bamboo, rattan and herbs. The Orang Asli also have vast knowledge of medicinal forest produce such as Anacardiaceae (Malay - Buah Macang) and Cyatheaceae (Malay - Pokok Paku). These potentials can be tapped towards boosting the tourism and agriculture sectors. WWF Malaysia 4-22

205 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS The potential Orang Asli community areas, which could be tapped to boost, both the tourism and agriculture sectors are as follows; Orang Asli along the Tapah - Cameron Highlands road Orang Asli along this road has already embarked on small scale business, selling forest produce such as durian, petai, etc. Orang Asli in Lojing There has been a proposal to develop an Orang Asli settlement for tourism industry and Pos Brooke as a new town centre. Orang Asli also work in and run agricultural farms. Orang Asli in Janda Baik/Bukit Tinggi Cultural lifestyle interest in the settlements and handicrafts are among the products which could be exploited. The Orang Asli here are also involved in the agricultural sector, running agriculture farms and collecting and selling forest produce. Orang Asli along the Gerik Jeli East West Highway The Orang Asli here already operate farms. Interaction with the local Orang Asli with specific reference to the cultural and biological qualities of Belum Forest could be developed. 4 Orang Asli from RPS Air Banun have already been licensed as local guides in Tasik Banding while another 41 Orang Asli have participated in local guide courses for the Belum Forest Reserve. 4.6 Forests and Biodiversity Weaknesses in forest management practices The anti-tropical hardwood timber campaign, which reached its peak in the late 1980s and the early 1990s, was a reflection of global concern on the alarming rate of tropical deforestation worldwide. Faced with mounting pressure from environmental NGOs, several governments in developed countries took unilateral measures to restrict or ban the import of tropical timber and timber products. An evolution of the campaign has been eco-labelling of timber products. In the wake of the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, this phenomenon has gained prominence and is becoming part and parcel of the concept of sustainable forest management. Timber certification consists of two parts, forest management certification and chain of custody, also known as product certification, and involves several stakeholders. In forest management certification, the activities of the forest owner, the forest manager and the harvester are closely scrutinized. Product certification involves a tracking system from the forest floor to the consumer and that attempts to ensure that the timber product concerned originated from a forest whose management has been certified. Stakeholders in this process are the manufacturer of forest products, shipper, distributor, retailer, and finally the consumer. The monitoring process of the production and distribution channel from forest to end-product is referred to as the chain of custody. WWF Malaysia 4-23

206 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS In forest management certification, a forest unit is attested to be sustainably managed in accordance with internationally agreed and locally adapted rules, or criteria and indicators, by an independent body, and results in a written statement (a certificate) to that effect. Forest management certification therefore takes place in the country where the forest is located. Product certification encompasses the subsequent chain that can cover both domestic and export markets. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) has formulated guidelines and criteria for sustainable forest management that include 5 criteria and 27 indicators at the national level and 6 criteria and 23 indicators at the Forest Management Unit (FMU) level. Malaysia has developed its own criteria and indicators (MC&I) based on the ITTO process. The MC & I, published in December 1999, has a total of 50 indicators. Separately, through the Malaysia-Netherlands cooperation programme on timber certification involving the Keurhout Foundation, an MC&I with 29 of the 50 indicators common to Malaysia and the Netherlands was agreed upon on 23 December This set of MC&I for forest management certification was used to assess the states of Pahang, Selangor and Terengganu in 2000, the forestry landscape for the whole state considered to be the FMU in the MC&I, and the assessment report submitted to the Keurhout Foundation for a certificate to be issued. At present another five states are currently being assessed. There have been weaknesses with regard to the implementation of forestry activities. Identification of biodiversity hotspots, endangered, threatened and vulnerable species based on IUCN categories are also major weaknesses in the present forest management activities. In the audit of forest management in the Pahang, Selangor and Terengganu FMUs, major Corrective Action Requests (CARs) as well as minor ones were issued to the states concerned to comply with requirements in the standards specified in the MC&I before a certificate could be issued. In the Selangor FMU, forest management audit was carried out with respect to logging concessions in four forest reserves, namely Sungai Karang, Bukit Lagong, Raja Musa and Gading. The forest reserves of Bukit Lagong and Gading are located on the Main Range. In the Pahang FMU, forestry operations were audited in logging concessions in 10 forest reserves (Tekai Tembeling, Terenggun, Ulu Jelai, Tersang, Kemasul, Bukit Ibam, Lesong, Pekan, Remen Chereh and Balok). Of these, only one forest reserve, Ulu Jelai, is located on the Main Range. Terengganu is not a Main Range state but is featured here to highlight the CARs issued. It is highly likely that the further five states that are presently being assessed will show similar weaknesses in forestry practices on the ground. It was learnt from DOF Headquarters that Perak, one of the five states that is being assessed, is being issued several major CARs. 1 Selangor has stated that it is only operating at about 65% capacity at the staffing level and hence is finding it difficult to adequately address all the provisions of the MC&I to ensure that its forests are being managed sustainably. 2 Hopefully this problem will be highlighted in its State Forest Management Plan , which is yet to be finalised, and steps taken to address it. Perak has a similar under-capacity problem and the situation is likely to be similar in 1 (pers. Comm.: Datuk Zul Mukhshar bin Dato Md. Shaari, Director General of Forestry, Peninsular Malaysia) 2 (pers. Comm.: Razani bin Ujang, State Director of Forestry, Selangor) WWF Malaysia 4-24

207 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS the other states as well. 3 Notwithstanding this, the Forest Management Certification process has placed the onus on the state DOF to seriously address shortcomings in forestry practices on the ground and to take adequate steps to rectify weaknesses. As it stands, and as shown by the forest management audits undertaken so far, the weakness in forestry practices in Peninsular Malaysia is the unsatisfactory implementation of the various measures that are required for sustainable forest management. Because of the FMU audits that have and are being carried out in response to the forest management certification initiative, steps are being taken to comply with forestry practices outlined in the MC&I. This is evident in the steps being taken to comply with major CARs issued by the independent assessor. Eventually, audits will be carried out at regular intervals, annually for forest management certification and half yearly for chain-of custody certificates. The intention to eventually make the MC&I be in compliance with the FSC P&C is for the purpose of obtaining certification that is internationally recognized. At the moment the forest management certification process is in an evolving state The need for protected areas The protective role of forests in the highlands is highlighted in the National Forest Policy 1978 and given due recognition in the National Forestry Act Nevertheless, forests with protective functions, and especially those functioning as water catchments, are almost invariably not demarcated on the ground nor afforded legal protection through gazettement, or through regulations governing development in the highlands, other than through protection pertaining to the status as permanent reserved forest. Most of the forests on the Main Range between 300m and 1,000m elevation are production forests but there is no contiguous block of forest here (ranging from hill dipterocarp forest to possibly the upper montane forest) that is under legal protection from timber harvesting. With more primary forest remaining on the Main Range in Perak than in any of the other four states (Figure 3-13), there is a great opportunity now to afford protection for posterity to such a contiguous block of pristine forest. The protection of a contiguous block of forest mentioned above need not be restricted to pristine forest. Even if logging had taken place previously, protection instituted now from logging and other activities would allow the forest to revert back to a near pristine situation over time. This is provided, the forest has not been very badly degraded, and juveniles and adults of the floral components of the original forest remain. Thus, there is opportunity for all the Main Range states to collaborate in protecting contiguous blocks of forest traversing the various forest types in an altitudinal sequence. 3 (pers. Comm.: Dato Azahar bin Muda, State Director of Forestry, Perak) WWF Malaysia 4-25

208 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Water catchment forest The process of identifying and gazetting water catchment forests was begun by the DOF only during the last few years. Nevertheless, this is a laudable move and the DOF should be supported by all stakeholders to ensure that the process is accelerated as much as possible. It is critical to accelerate the process because the highlands, by virtue of their location in the headwaters of streams and rivers, play an extremely important role as water catchments. Selangor, in 1999, became the first state to gazette water catchment forest in accordance with section 10(1) of the National Forestry Act Of the total area of PFE of 246,673 ha, 42,940 ha or over 17%, covering 11 forest reserves, including five that cover the Main Range, have been gazetted as such (Table 4-4). The catchment areas that have been gazetted are a mix of primary and logged forests, probably more of the logged forests, but further logging will be prohibited in the area. This step was emulated by Negeri Sembilan in 2001 which gazetted a total of 46,948 ha of forest as water catchment forests (Table 4-5). As in Selangor, the catchment areas that have been gazetted are a mix of primary and logged forests, probably more of the logged forests. No logging will be permitted in the gazetted areas. In Pahang, 262,592 ha of forest in the districts of Kuantan, Rompin, Temerloh, Bentong and Raub/Cameron Highlands have already been identified as water catchment forests. This includes 27,155 ha of stateland forest that would be gazetted as PFE prior to being gazetted as water catchment forest. Water catchment forests would amount to just over 17 % of the PFE of 1,517,594 ha in the state. They include 11 forest reserves that cover the Main Range in the Bentong and Raub/Cameron Highlands districts, out of a total of 24 forest reserves encompassing the entire designated water catchment areas (Source: DOF Pahang). By the end of 2001, gazettement plans for most of these areas had already been prepared and this will lead to the actual gazettement itself. Table 4-4 : Forest Reserves In Selangor Gazetted As Water Catchment Forests Forest Reserve Location Area gazetted (ha) Bukit Cerakah 1005 Semangkok Main Range 1525 Hulu Langat Main Range Ampang 1993 Hulu Gombak Main Range Bukit Tarek 818 Bukit Belata 968 Bukit Belata Tambahan 1919 Rantau Panjang Hulu Langat Main Range 3640 Sungai Lalang Main Range 2023 Hulu Selangor Main Range Total Source: DOF, Selangor, 1999 WWF Malaysia 4-26

209 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Table 4-5 : Forest Reserves In Negeri Sembilan Gazetted As Water Catchment Forests Forest Reserve Location Timber production Area gazetted (ha) area (ha) Kenaboi Main Range Triang Main Range Berembun Main Range Angsi Main Range Gallah Main Range Tampin Main Range Tebong Sungai Menyala* - - Pasir Panjang Lenggeng Main Range Setul Main Range Gapau Main Range Sepang Gemas Selatan Pelangai Main Range Serting Main Range Pasoh Senaling Inas Main Range Jeram Padang Utara Jeram Padang Sel Johol Main Range Jelai Gemas * Entire area of 1244 ha of the forest reserve is designated as research forest + The 216 ha is designated as soil protection forest Source: DOF, Negeri Sembilan, 2001 Perak, the state with the largest forest cover on the Main Range, has gazetted six areas as water catchment forests. Five other water catchment areas are in the process of application to State Executive Council for gazettement. All the areas that have been gazetted and that are being gazetted are in the highlands. Eleven other water catchment areas are being considered for gazettement by the Perak Water Board (Lembaga Air Perak). Kelantan has not yet gazetted water catchment forests in the state. Virgin jungle reserve Virgin Jungle Reserves (VJRs) of 80 ha or more in size were established during a period from the late 1940s to serve as permanent nature reserves and natural arboreta and as controls for comparison with harvested and silviculturally treated forests. These are poorly represented in the Main Range and other highlands. Of the Main Range states, only Negeri Sembilan and Pahang established VJRs in the last decade, but only one in Negeri Sembilan is in the Main Range. Considering all the states in Peninsular Malaysia, it is incredible that Perak, whose total forested area is second only to Pahang, but which has 78% of its forests in highlands above 300m, has not constituted a single VJR in the last 30 years, and has no plans to do so in the near future either. There are objectives and rules governing VJR WWF Malaysia 4-27

210 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS establishment in place and it only requires initiative on the part of the state DOF to establish a network in strategic locations on the Main Range. Besides VJRs, other classes such as amenity forest (recreation forest), education forest and research forest are also demarcated on the map as well as on the ground by the state DOFs. Some of these forests may overlap in their functions but in general they are small in extent. Stateland forest Stateland forests that could be easily converted to other land uses are still located in the fragile terrain of the Main Range. Development in such fragile areas would definitely impact adversely on the environment. There is a case therefore for stateland forests on the Main Range and other highlands to be brought into the fold of the PFE, the sooner the better. In 1999 alone, the total area of stateland forest and alienated forest land in Peninsular Malaysia (neither are governed by any forest management regime) which was harvested for timber far exceeded that from the PFE. The area logged in the PFE was 41,527 ha whereas the figure for stateland forest was 61,634 ha and that for alienated land 36,294 ha, the last two together being almost 64% of the total area of 153,725 ha logged (DOF, 1999). The situation was similar in Although the total area of forest harvested for timber in 2000, of 119,864 ha, was lower by 22% compared to that in 1999, the total areas of stateland forest and alienated forest harvested were 47,200 ha and 35,800 ha respectively. These together comprise 69% of the total for 2000 (DOF, 2000). If the above situation for 1999 and 2000 is the norm, there is great cause for concern. Timber harvesting from alienated land would almost invariably be clearfelling of the area preceding a change in land use. In the case of stateland forest, there is no forest management regime in place. If after timber harvest, there is a change in land use, the forest is lost forever. If after timber harvest there is no change in land use, then the residual forest would be badly logged forest in extreme danger of degenerating into secondary forest or belukar of no economic value. Thus the case for bringing stateland forests into the fold of the PFE, particularly those located on the highlands. Sustainable forest management practices require a more conservationist approach than is being practised at the moment. Tracts of forest protected for their various functions, and consequently affording protection to, for example, medicinal plants with high commercial potential in the future, will in the long run ensure the sustainability of the timber industry. This approach will ensure long-term sustainability more effectively than the mere management of forests for timber alone would. In practice this is already happening considering the PFE only. The declining annual coupes under the Malaysia Plans and the steps that have so far been taken towards protection are evidence of this. What is required is for the pace to be accelerated dramatically, and in particular, to target contiguous tracts of the remaining pristine forests of the hill and Upper Dipterocarp Forests in the production forests of the PFE for protection. This has to be done before there is no WWF Malaysia 4-28

211 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS area of pristine forest any significant size left in the Main Range and other highlands, with the exception of Taman Negara. There is already a process underway in Perak to establish a state park in the Belum Forest Reserve adjacent to the Thai border, encompassing hill and upper dipterocarp forests. The Perak State Government has already approved 117,500 ha (north of the East-West Highway from Gerik to Jeli) of the 132,133 ha of Belum Forest Reserve as a state park. A state Act, the Akta Perbadanan Taman Negeri Perak, is already in place and the process is underway to establish a statutory body that would undertake the tasks of gazetting and managing this state park. A provisional management plan has also been prepared. In the meanwhile, the proposed state park remains a forest reserve and no logging is permitted therein. However, poaching of wildlife in the reserve by people from Thailand across the border continues, despite patrols by staff of the DWNP Impacts of development on flora There have been studies that have quantified the impact of logging activities on the residual trees, and other studies have investigated the effect on fauna such as mammals and birds. However, there is virtually no quantitative information on the impact of such activities on other flora diversity. A FRIM-GEF project on Conservation of Biological Diversity Through Sustainable Forest Management Practices in Malaysia that is being initiated in Perak will attempt to provide some such information. Besides poor logging practices that include over-intensive harvesting in the hill dipterocarp and upper dipterocarp forests, habitat destruction from human activities such as road building, hill resort development and agriculture, and over-collecting, pose serious threats to flora in the highlands, particularly to those that are known to be endemic. The level of endemism in flora of the montane forests, for example, is high, and in the lower montane forest of Fraser s Hill, for example, it is estimated that almost 20% of the flora could be classified as endangered. There is a need for legislation pertaining to the management of species and populations identified as threatened or endangered. But objective methodologies also need to be developed to assist in identifying such threatened or endangered species Wildlife Protection Development activities should be made to ensure the survival of highland fauna over the long term. However, the definition of survival needs to be further examined. If the aim is sustaining not just species but their original numbers, then clearly we have gone well beyond that point as a consequence of the decades of logging, agricultural development, and accompanying road building that has taken place. If the focus is on species survival, do we also consider the issue of subspecies and types that are unique to one area or another? How do we deal with the issue of endemics in restricted habitat patches? A moot example is the montane ericaceous habitat that exists as widely separated generally small patches along the spine of the Main Range. The possibility exists that each patch may contain WWF Malaysia 4-29

212 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS some unique invertebrate species endemic to one such patch only. We must note here that the most southern area of the Main Range suitable for this vegetation is on Gunung Ulu Kali. This patch of montane ericaceous vegetation has probably been eliminated by the Genting Highland development. As recently as year 2001, a species of snake new to science was found in the Hill Forest of Genting area (Lim Boo Liat pers. comm.). The paucity of information regarding virtually the entire invertebrate fauna (butterflies excepted) places a limit on the number and kind of parameters that can be drawn up to ensure their continued survival. However, because invertebrates are small in size and likely to utilise small areas of habitat, it is hoped that conditions drawn up to sustain the larger species will also serve to preserve these small animals. However there must be a general emphasis on keeping the original environment as intact and undisturbed as far as possible. For larger species two general principles form the basis of recommendations. 1. Maintaining sufficient areas of habitat to support viable populations of montane species 2. Ensuring that these areas are physically linked (reducing habitat fragmentation) so that the animal populations are effectively as large as possible to prevent and reduce the tendency towards inbreeding. Minimum viable population Sustaining the fauna (and to a lesser extent) the flora of the Main Range requires that the two conditions above are met. First, a sufficient area of natural habitat needs to be kept free of disturbances. Secondly these areas of natural habitat need to be linked up ecologically so that each species that they harbour is effectively linked into as large a breeding population as possible. The importance of this second condition cannot be sufficiently emphasized. Small isolated populations of animals (and plants) can eventually suffer from inbreeding and this may lead to their local extinction. Long term survival of animal species can be affected if the number of individuals that are part of the breeding population fall below a certain number. This is popularly called the minimum viable population (MVP). The effect of being below this level is inbreeding, loss of species vigour and possible extinction. However, this concept of a minimum viable population remains conceptual with many scientific advances still needed (perhaps even at the genetic level of individual species) before definite MVP figures can be set for any species. Any MVP figures that have been suggested in scientific literature must be regarded as guesses, particularly where supporting data on actual breeding are not presented. Habitat and altitude There is also a need to be cautious about linking habitats strictly with altitude as a means of predicting the possible species present. The approach should be to ascertain what species are present and typify the habitat accordingly. The presence WWF Malaysia 4-30

213 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS of animals in any site is primarily a function of habitat. One example where altitude becomes meaningless concerns developed areas in the highlands. Here strictly lowland species like wild boar and the tiger have been observed. This is a case of human activity opening a niche for the wild boar with the tiger moving in to take advantage of its major prey species. For this reason presence of the wild boar and tiger in Cameron Highlands and Fraser s Hill does not make them montane species. Certain lowland wildlife species may utilize highland areas occasionally when crossing from one lowland area to another. The tiger and to a lesser degree the elephant are species that may cross montane areas. Thus in considering the value of highland areas for fauna, how they link major lowland sites (especially if separated by low lying passes) should be assessed. In addition these links may be part of, or linked to, wildlife identified corridors. This would greatly increase the value of any highland areas involved. Such a linkage (with the Krau Wildlife Reserve) is one of the reasons for identifying an area north of Fraser s Hill as a High Conservation Value Area Highlands and large mammals The highland areas of the country do not play a major role as habitat for most of the megafauna. The tiger, seladang, elephant, tapir, sambur deer and sun bear basically live and breed in lowland habitats. However highlands may play a small role in their survival. The changes in highland habitat are a good example. Another scenario is seen with the Malayan elephant in the forests of Belum (Section ). This area has been designated as a release site for elephants being translocated from areas where they are agricultural pests. Today nearly 50 animals have been released into the watershed of the Temenggor lake. Little information is available on how they are fairing in their new and atypical habitat. However as the species is fairly adaptable, including to food plants, there is little concern for their survival. There have been indications that some male animals have been shot, presumably by poachers from Thailand. This highlights one of the conservational difficulties of the Belum area. Previously it is believed that resident rhino population was decimated in the same way Impacts of development Development in the highlands may be classified into two categories, linear and patch. Linear development are activities like roads and major transmission lines that effectively cut a corridor through a habitat that may effectively separate animal populations. Where such development interrupts the north-south continuity of habitat along the Main Range, impact may be considered very serious for the species that are affected. Patch development describes development that removes patches of a habitat. In the case of minor patch development, the area developed remains surrounded by undisturbed habitat of the same kind. This kind of development does not normally cause a break in the continuity of the habitat or the animals it harbours. Major patch development, while being similar, is sufficiently large to actually cut across a whole habitat type and effectively cause an WWF Malaysia 4-31

214 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS interruption in its continuity. This major effect can even be in circumstances where the patch is small but other historical activity or natural phenomenon such as landslides have reduced the remnant habitat to a narrow band that is broken by the development Impacts of logging While some studies on the impact of logging on fauna have been carried out they have been approached from the point of view of limited taxonomic groups, primarily certain vertebrates. Many of these studies are decades old and, as often happens, tend to be overlooked by present day scientists. Sometimes the impact of logging may be derived indirectly by comparing data from different forest habitats. For example the extensive small mammal collections by the IMR in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s contain careful habitat notations for the specimens. These do show that certain small mammals require good standing forest, while others are found in scrub or gardens in valleys or on hillsides. Both Harrison (1974) and Medway (1983) give glimpses of such information in their books on the mammals of Peninsular Malaysia. Similarly, bird texts generally typify the habitats to which any given species may be linked. However, there are examples of work that looked at animals in a forest system before and after logging. One example is the work on primates in the late 1970s. Johns (1981) reported on the response of primates to selective logging. It was found that the Lar Gibbon (Hylobates lar) was more fixed to its natural territories than the leaf monkeys. The Lar Gibbon tended to stay in the area being logged. Marsh and Wilson (1981) found that populations were slow to respond to the logging disturbance and were still showing decline ten years after the logging. Similar observations have not been made for the Siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) but the response is expected to be similar. With the Banded Langur (Presbytes melalophos) the group moves away from the site of active logging. Johns (1981) observed that the infants were immediately lost. Marsh and Wilson (1981) estimated in their study site that 2 years after logging, about 50% of the primate population were lost but began to make recovery only 10 years after logging. Direct studies of the impacts of logging on other taxa are somewhat inadequate. Stevens (1969) reported that 48% of mammals leave an area that is being logged. In another decades-old study, Burgess (1971) showed that in a selective logging operation in a hill forest where 10% of the standing trees were removed, the impacts of the operation damaged a further 55% of the vegetation leaving only 35% in an undamaged state. This statistic must mean a high level of impact on small mammals, reptiles and amphibia in addition to the many invertebrates that inhabit the montane forests. Unfortunately this has not been quantified for either lowland or montane forests. It should also be noted that the most wide spread habitats for fauna in the highland are the Hill Dipterocarp Forests. It is also in these two forest types that the main logging activity of the Peninsular Malaysia is carried out. This, combined with the fact that logging economies make it convenient for adjacent compartments to be logged in sequence, results in serious fragmentation of wildlife habitat. In general it may be WWF Malaysia 4-32

215 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS stated that forestry practices do not take into consideration the needs of the fauna and of the non-tree flora Habitat fragmentation Observations have shown that when forests are fragmented, the animal species are impoverished. An example of such an impact can be seen in the disappearances of some species in the Ayer Itam Forest Reserve (an isolated forest patch of about 7,000 ha) in south Selangor by the late 1980 s. A number of species could normally be expected in this habitat but there was no evidence of their presence, although a team spent 50 days and nights spread over 7 months in the area. The absent species at that time include the leopard, the sun bear, the elephant, the sambar deer, the tapir, the white-handed gibbon, the asian wild dog and the hornbills. The tiger however still survived in that small patch of forest that was adjacent to the Universiti Putra Malaysia. Laidlaw (1996) reported on a study comparing the populations of primates, squirrels, tree shrews and other mammals in different forest patches of varying sizes. Her results showed that while a 70 ha forest patch contained 13 small mammal species, and a 164 ha patch had 17 small mammal species, three larger fragments (each greater than 10,000 ha) contained 24, 31 and 34 small, medium and large mammal species respectively. These results are only indicative of what will take place in montane forests for no equivalent studies on forest fragmentation in the higher elevations or on the Main Range have been conducted so far. For many of the larger species whose habitat ranges from the lowlands or foothills into the montane area (e.g. the panther Panthera pardus and rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) even the whole Main Range may not contain a large enough population of individuals to ensure their long-term survival in the wild. Many of the small montane animals will survive in the long term provided their populations are not seriously fragmented. Thus the guiding base principle of maintaining sustainable development for fauna of montane areas is to avoid isolating and fragmenting populations. The policy that must underlie this principle is that all development and economic activities must ensure that good usable and continuous habitats are maintained. Today, agricultural and other development in the Main Range has already resulted in a significant discontinuity in the north-south integrity of these habitats. This has had serious consequences. Roads that cut across the Main Range are also factors that cause discontinuity, due to the total removal of vegetative cover. Their impact, however, depends very much on the width and use of the roads. The old Gombak to Bentong road (now largely disused) and the road from Kuala Kubu Baru to Tranum (Fraser s Hill) would have much less impact on species habitat continuity than the broad and busy Karak Highway or the East-West Highway and also the upcoming Simpang Pulai Gua Musang Highway. WWF Malaysia 4-33

216 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Problems faced by the highland fauna in survival There is a real possibility that logging and highland development activities on the Main Range have already seriously reduced the usable habitat of many species and worse, fragmented populations of many species to the point that they no longer exist as long-term viable populations. Concern must be expressed for the Siamang (Synphangulus syndactylus) which in this country is primarily a Main Range species. The extensive development in the Cameron Highlands area and the existing roads like the Karak Highway have resulted in the separation of populations so that today, gene flow amongst populations of this species inhabiting the Main Range has been prevented. The problems faced by highland fauna in survival may be divided into three groups: The fauna have no effective protection against development and habitat destruction There is poor and inadequate scientific knowledge of the highland fauna and their ecological needs Habitat fragmentation Highland fauna appear to have no defence against the process of development and habitat destruction. This stems from a low level of awareness of the fragility of these species and the habitats that support them. To this may be added the general proviso that wildlife, their needs and survival are generally viewed with little sympathy by those who wish to benefit economically from the resources of the mountains. In fact wildlife may even be generally considered an unnecessary impediment to these endeavours of development and exploitation. There is also the perceived low level of influence that the State Wildlife authorities appear to have in most states. Poor and inadequate scientific knowledge presents another facet of the problem faced by the montane fauna. At the species level, little is known of the impact of logging and other montane development on the many montane species, particularly with respect to local extinction and fragmentation of populations. Data on those species that are totally dependent on pristine habitats for survival is lacking, although generally speaking one may assume that most of the forest species need pristine habitats to survive. The extent of pristine habitats on the Main Range is far from certain. This report includes a map showing the chrono-sequence of logging in the area (Figure 4-1). This map does indicate areas that have not been logged. However as this is based on logging compartments histories it may not represent the actual situation on the ground Illegal logging In the 1980s, illegal logging was of major concern in Peninsular Malaysia. It involved: logging by the licensee of areas immediately outside of the concession awarded to him, harvesting within the concession of trees below the approved cutting limits, and WWF Malaysia 4-34

217 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS logging by those who did not have a license to do so. Amendments in 1993 to the National Forestry Act 1984, in particular that which increased the fine for illegal logging from RM 20,000 to RM 500,000, has reduced this activity significantly such that it is not considered a problem now to the state DOFs. Although not significant, encroachment into PFE by villagers is what the state DOF face now. In Perak, for example, while encroachment into the PRE on the Main Range is rare, this has occurred in the highlands of the Bintang Range surrounding the Taiping area where village settlements are common. The state government has tackled this problem by awarding land titles to the encroached area of past incursions but prosecuting those involved in fresh encroachments. In Kelantan, encroachment into forested land by village people occurs in certain areas, especially along the Gua Musang-Jeli highway 4. In the forests of the Main Range of Perak and Kelantan, in particular, there is illegal felling of trees of Aquilaria mallacensis, certain adult individuals of which produce from pathological causes a dense, dark brown, resin-stained heartwood known as gaharu. Gaharu yields oil used for incense, and commands high prices, especially in the Middle Eastern countries. It is difficult to apprehend those who fell these trees, and many of these offending individuals are Thais from across the border. Nevertheless, when apprehended, the offenders are usually prosecuted Forest degradation Forest degradation on the Main Range occurs mainly through poor logging practices as well as through over-exploitation of timber. This leads to severe top soil erosion and the proliferation of pioneer tree species of no economic value. Degradation also occurs on the Main Range through shifting cultivation practiced by the Orang Asli living in scattered settlements. Based on the Third National Forest Inventory of 1992, the DOF has identified shifting cultivation areas in the Main Range. Perak, Kelantan and Pahang are thought to have large shifting cultivation areas, totalling some 135,288 ha. This would translate to 9.6% of the Main Range. There is no classification for degraded forests and neither is there a mechanism in place that could determine which of the forests shown as having been logged over different periods could qualify to be labeled as degraded forest. It had always been, and still is, the contention of the DOF that shifting cultivation is not a significant problem on the Main Range. In Perak, the DOF officials are absolutely certain that shifting cultivation areas on the Main Range in Perak do not occur on the ground to that extent as shown on the map. As the Fourth National Forest Inventory is due in 2002, it is imperative that DOF critically reviews the methodologies of this inventory so that more accurate data sets and maps are developed. 4 pers. Comm.: Tuan Haji Dahlan bin Haji Taha, State Director of Forestry, Kelantan WWF Malaysia 4-35

218 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Despite these shortcomings, however, an opportunity is presenting itself for forest rehabilitation. Enrichment planting trials with timber species were carried out in Bukit Tapah on the Main Range in Perak in the early 1970s, although without much success. But lessons were learned from that episode. The technology for raising seedlings of timber species in nurseries and out-planting them already exist as does that for commercial rattan and bamboo species, and fruit species such as durian and petai. Presently, an ITTO-funded project to develop silvicultural practices for rehabilitation of devastated/ poor forests back to sustainable productivity levels is being undertaken jointly by the DOF and Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) at G. Korbu on the Main Range in Perak. There is an opportunity, therefore, to organize Orang Asli communities to plant an assortment of timber, non-timber, fruit tree species and medicinal plants in degraded areas adjacent to their settlements. There is also an opportunity to do the same in other degraded areas with private sector involvement, despite the constraints of the difficult terrain and accessibility. In these instances it would be wise to plant the common timber species that occur naturally in the selected areas. If this does not happen, the temptation to plant only easily adaptable timber species such as Acacia mangium and Hopea odorata could lead, in the long run, to a drastic change in the composition of the forest in that area Law Enforcement Only 128 of the 714 staff in the DWNP are assigned to carry out law enforcement duties (DWNP-DANCED, 1996). In addition, 14 officers are assigned at Taman Negara. These 128 people are distributed throughout Peninsular Malaysia, resulting in a very thin spread of law enforcement officers on the ground. Only one officer is assigned to a montane area on a permanent basis, and that is at Cameron Highlands. There is no other permanent presence of DWNP in any of the other hill stations. Here law enforcement depends on random patrols or visits in response to definite information. One of the hill station problems is the poaching of serow, an activity that can be fairly lucrative. The DWNP 1989 Annual report states that the value of a single large female serow could exceed RM 10,000. Very often the DWNP is only able to respond to information of some poaching activity after the event and arrive at the scene of the crime long after its perpetrators have left Forestry and Tourism : The Need for Direction Apart from stabilizing the environment, the forests in the Main Range are a valuable source of recreation. Natural resources such as waterfalls, clear rivers, unique rock formations, flora, fauna, productive wetlands, beautiful beaches and scenic panorama have provided numerous highly popular sites for nature-based tourism. In accordance with the requirements of the National Forestry Act 1984, the DOF has identified strategic sites in the forest reserves for recreation and ecotourism. To date a total of 84 forest recreation areas have been developed in Peninsular Malaysia and are managed by the various state DOF. The majority of the forest recreational areas have special features that attract many local people to visit the site. Demand for forest recreational areas is expected to increase in the future. Identification of new areas for recreation development in the future is important as such activities require a large sum of fund for managing forest recreational areas. WWF Malaysia 4-36

219 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Forest recreation and nature-based tourism in Malaysia has become one of the most important industries to the local and national economy. Many of the forest recreational areas have been developed in the past two decades. The ecotourism development is currently guided by the NETP. The plan outlined 25 guidelines and identified 21 plans and 52 projects for the growth and development of ecotourism industry (Ganaser Kaliapan, 1999). In addition, the Plan also provided an official definition on ecotourism, based on IUCN, as environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promotes conservation, has low visitor impact, and provides for beneficial active socio-economic involvement of local populations. Although the National Forestry Policy contains a statement that deals with ecotourism, it does not provide a clear direction on how ecotourism should be promoted and implemented in the overall context of sustainable forest management and development. However, forest recreation has been given high emphasis since 1960s. A total of 84 forest recreational areas have been developed and are located strategically throughout the country. The objective of this is to provide outdoor recreational facilities to city dwellers. In this regard, the NETP is indeed complementary to the objective of the National Forestry Policy. Another aspect that warrants consideration is the enhancement of the National Forestry Act to better protect important, unique and scenic recreational and archeological sites such as caves, big trees and waterfalls, including the setting up of buffer zones of forested area of sufficient size Loss of revenue to states An important consideration, from the perspective of the states, is that of loss of revenue where any area of the existing productive forest of the PFE is identified and gazetted as protective forest. This would be specific to PFE areas up to the 1,000m elevation and below 40 degrees slope at lower elevations as areas above these levels are already protective forests though not yet gazetted as such under the National Forestry Act As states have jurisdiction over their forest resources, and accrue royalty from these resources, these represent a significant loss of revenue for the states. In 1999, for example, the total forest revenue collected in Peninsular Malaysia amounted to RM million, and of this RM million, or 80.4%, came from the five Main Range states. Similarly, in 2000, these five states obtained a total revenue of RM million, or 69.3%, of the total for Peninsular Malaysia (Table 4-6). WWF Malaysia 4-37

220 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Table 4-6 : Revenue From Forests in Peninsular Malaysia State Revenue From Forest (RM million) Royalty On Saw Logs and Cess (RM million) Pahang Kelantan Perak Selangor N.Sembilan Total (80.4%) (69.3%) (80.7%) (68.3%) Other States (19.6%) (30.7%) (19.3%) (31.7%) Grand Total (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (source: Annual Reports 1999 & 2000, DOF, Peninsular Malaysia) Compensation should be based on the standing volume of timber irrespective of whether the area of productive forest being gazetted as protective forest is primary or had been logged previously. States would thus have an economic incentive for legislating for areas as protective forests under Section 10(1) of the National Forestry Act However, it needs to be pointed out that this economic incentive argument does not consider the environmental advantages (translating into economic gains) to the states through protection of forests in the highlands. Such protection in the highlands greatly increases the longevity of existing dams through minimal soil erosion in the upper reaches of the catchments, and reduces flooding downstream of other catchments thereby not disrupting economic activities, and in the process saving millions of ringgits that would otherwise have to be spent on flood control measures. Clearly a holistic approach needs to be taken on this issue of compensation and all parameters included in the equation. Cost incurred in managing a unit area of forest in the PFE that is earmarked for timber harvesting would likely be similar to that in managing a unit area of protective forest. In practice, this would be restricted to monitoring the sanctity of the forest reserves concerned. It is only when logging licenses are issued and harvesting operations initiated that the unit area of productive forest incurs additional cost, but there is of course timber revenue accruing. Thus, there does not appear to be any significant incremental cost involved when a unit area of productive forest is gazetted and managed subsequently as protective forest. Despite their numerous essential functions, forests in almost all countries, whether temperate or tropical, have been utilized primarily for the production of timber. This is mainly because it has been considered the only option for economic growth. Thus international statistics on forest products are concerned mainly with timber and timber products. Statistics on fuelwood and charcoal are also available but incomplete. Other non-timber goods like rattan and bamboo that are traded in markets are also often incompletely reported in national and international statistics. Medicines developed from wild products are estimated to be worth some USD 40 billion a year (McNeely et al., 1991) although only less than 1% of the flowering WWF Malaysia 4-38

221 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS plants in the world have been tested for useful biological activity. Other non-timber goods either have no monetized markets or have not been fully monetized. Services provided by tropical forests are not monetized either. Valuing non-timber goods that do not have monetized markets has always been a problem. Even more problematic has been the valuing of forest services that are not traded at all. In recent years, shadow pricing has been used as a tool in costbenefit analysis to not only value goods and services for which there are no monetized markets but also to price non-timber goods and timber having monetized markets, on their true value. Panayotou & Ashton (1992) dwell on this subject in some detail and draw extensively on material from Sfeir-Younis (1987). In various methods of shadow pricing which have their own imperfections, environmental services are assessed by determining how changes in them are related to the supply or productivity of goods and services traded in the market. Estimates of implicit values are obtained based on prices paid for other marketed goods, or values of benefits are obtained based on data directly elicited from different users of a given resource. 4.7 Hydrology and Water Resources Highlands as Water Supply Source to Lowlands Mountains and highlands function as water catchments and reservoirs for clean and reliable water supply. A significant source of the water supply in lowlands originates from the headwaters of rivers in the highlands in Peninsular Malaysia. The highlands are thus important water catchments providing water for domestic, agricultural and industrial demands of the more densely populated lowlands. The forests on the highlands control soil erosion, thus ensuring that the water is clean and free from sediment. The Main Range is the headwater area for the major river basins in Peninsular Malaysia, namely the Sg. Perak, Sg. Bernam, Sg. Selangor, Sg. Kelang, Sg. Langat, Sg. Linggi, Sg. Muar, Sg. Pahang and Sg. Kelantan (Figure 3-11 & 3-12). As these rivers supply raw water to water treatment plants for major cities in the lowlands, their economic contribution is tremendous. The Klang Valley s water supply is entirely dependent on water from various rivers in the Sg. Selangor, Sg. Buloh, Sg. Klang and Sg. Langat basins originating from the Main Range. The water resources of the Main Range are tapped mainly for domestic and industrial uses. There are 153 water intakes within the catchments of rivers originating from the Main Range. Although the vast majority of the water intakes are not located within the highlands, the headwaters of the rivers are in the Main Range. These water intakes are in the states of Perak, Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka and Johor. Appendix 8 lists the water intake points that are located in river catchments originating the Main Range. These water intakes comprise about 46% of the total number of surface water intakes in Peninsular Malaysia. WWF Malaysia 4-39

222 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS According to the National Water Resources Study (EPU, 1999), 24 water supply dams have been planned in the vicinity of the Main Range (see section ). Many of these dams are located in the foothills of the Main Range and their catchments extend right up slopes of the Main Range. Protection of the dam catchments is vital to ensure good water quality of the reservoirs and to achieve the projected lifespan of the dams. Most of these dams are located within Pahang, Perak and Negeri Sembilan. Besides being important for water supply, the Main Range also contains the catchments for six of Tenaga Nasional s hydroelectric schemes, namely the Temenggor, Kenering, Piah, Cameron Highlands, Batang Padang and Pergau hydroelectric schemes. The Bersia and Chenderoh hydroelectric schemes are downstream of Temenggor and are thus indirectly within the Main Range catchment. Only the Kenyir hydroelectric scheme is not related to the Main Range Hydrological Consequences of Land Use Change in the Highlands The question of hydrological changes upon forest removal or land use change has been extensively assessed and reviewed in many parts of the world, both in temperate and tropical countries (Bosch & Hewlett, 1982; Bruijnzeel, 1990, Bonell & Balek, 1993). Forest removal affects many components of the hydrological cycle, some more than the others. Forest clearing and selective logging disturb catchment areas in several ways. Although selective logging only involves the removal of about 10% of the timber and only emergent trees with large crowns are removed, the felling and off-site haulage cause considerable soil disturbance and damage to the understorey vegetation, probably affecting up to 55% of the forest biomass (Douglas, 1992). One aspect of disturbance is the exposure of the forest soils to rainfall and compaction. Vegetation and litter removal expose the soil surface to the direct impact of raindrops, increasing splash detachment and reducing interception. The main cause of physical damage to soils during land clearing and logging operations is the use of heavy machinery which leads to an increase in the extent of compacted soils in logged-over forests. Significant damage occurs on farm roads, log landings and skid trails used by skidders, bulldozers or other heavy machinery. Much of the damage caused by machinery occurs on the first one or two passes so that even lightly used tracks may suffer severe compaction. Compaction occurs mainly in the upper cm of the soil profile. Once compacted, recovery is slow. Kamarulzaman Jusoff (1988) reported that bulk densities of soils on skid trails were very high even 2 years after logging while in Sipitang, Sabah, Malmer & Grip (1990) found that six-year old skid trails were only slightly less compacted compared to newly made ones. Nussbaum (1995), working in the Ulu Segama area, has also reported similar findings. Compaction of soil leads to numerous other problems such as reduced infiltration and increased surface runoff volume and velocity which directly influence the rates of soil erosion and sediment delivery. The following sections discuss the impact of forest removal (partial and complete) on the various components of the hydrological cycle. Because there is very little WWF Malaysia 4-40

223 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS data available on the highlands, we have to rely heavily on findings in catchments elsewhere Streamflow Almost all catchment experiments throughout the world have demonstrated increases in annual streamflow following partial or complete deforestation. Forest cover generally utilizes much more water than other types of vegetation such as agricultural crops and grass, mainly due to its canopy structure and species composition. Consequently, the conversion of forest to other types of land use is usually accompanied by increases in streamflow discharge as a result of a reduction in transpiration demands. Catchment disturbance during land use change, particularly soil compaction, leads to reduced infiltration and therefore also contributes to greater streamflow. The effects of logging in reducing infiltration rates greatly increase surface runoff. Malmer & Grip (1990) found that infiltration rates were reduced from 154 mm/hr in undisturbed forest to 36.7 mm/hr in manually cleared forest and 0.63 mm/hr on skid trails. In addition, saturated hydraulic conductivities decrease as a function of increasing compaction. In the Ulu Segama area in Sabah (Brooks et al., 1994), compaction of top soil by heavy machinery reduces saturated hydraulic conductivity by several orders of magnitude from 1 x 10-5 m/s in undisturbed forest to 1 x 10-8 m/s on log-landings. The combination of reduced infiltration rates with a large decrease in hydraulic conductivity generally results in increased surface water runoff and accelerated erosion. In the Berembun catchment in Peninsular Malaysia it has been shown that logging can cause up to 85% increase in water yield and the increases can persist up to seven years after logging (Abdul Rahim & Zulkifli, 1994). Catchment experiments in Malaysia have also clearly demonstrated the increase in streamflow following partial or complete forest removal. Table 4-7 present results from experimental sites in Malaysia where increases in streamflow are sustained for at least four years after forest removal. While there is no doubt that total water yield will increase, the key question is whether the increase will be reflected in stormflows or baseflows. WWF Malaysia 4-41

224 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Table 4-7 : Changes in water yield following forest removal Catchment name & type Sg. Tekam, Pahang Secondary forest to cocoa plantation(a) Sg. Tekam, Pahang Secondary forest to cocoa (40%) and oil palm (60%) plantation(a) Mendulong, Sabah Clearfelling of rainforest to A. mangium (b) Mendulong, Sabah Clearfelling of rainforest to A. mangium (b) Bukit Berembun, Negeri Sembilan - Selective logging (40%) of primary forest (c) Bukit Berembun, Negeri Sembilan - Selective logging (33% with conservation Catchment area km 2 Annual rainfall Changes in water yield mm/yr (mm) Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year * measure) of primary forest (c) (a) after Law et al (1989) (b) after Malmer (1991) (c) after Rahim Nik & Zulkifli (1994) * This large increase was due to the clear-felling of the upper part of the catchment Low flows In many parts of the country, dry-season flow is an important issue to water supply management particularly when demands are high due to protracted period of no rains. During this period, the baseflow become the only source of water. In addition, a low-flow period is also critical from the water quality aspect in terms of pollutant concentrations. Hence the impact of forest removal on dry-flow conditions becomes a major concern not only to hydrologists and foresters but also to water supply engineers. Evidence with respect to the effects of forest clearing on dry season flow in the tropics seems, at first, contradictory and ambiguous. On one hand, there have been reports on greatly diminished flows whilst on the other hand, significant increases have been observed as well. This is so because forest conversion or removal has two opposite effects on the water flow. Firstly it tends to increase runoff and decrease infiltration of water into the ground mainly due to ground compaction which would lower the water table. On the other hand, replacement of forest with other vegetation with lower transpiration rate tends to reduce groundwater loss and hence raise the water table. Bruijnzeel (1990) cautions that, in interpreting the above contrasting results, one has to take into account the prevailing climatic, soil and hydrological setting of the area as well as the way in which conversion and subsequent land use were carried out. Abdul Rahim & Zulkifli (1999) state that hydrological studies on selective logging in Peninsular Malaysia clearly enforced the latter observations, in that, increases in WWF Malaysia 4-42

225 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS water yield following forest removal are largely associated with baseflow augmentation. This is so mainly because of minimal disturbance occurred to the ground and stream channels except along forest roads and skid tracks. This in turn lead to surface infiltration remained unaffected. Eventually a greater recharge to groundwater may occur resulting from reduced evapotranspiration and ultimately be able to sustain a larger baseflow Flooding There have always been debates and popular beliefs regarding the role of forests cover in preventing floods downstream. Quite often forest logging has been blamed for causing disastrous flooding downstream. Controversies arise mainly due to misunderstanding on biophysical relationships involved. A pertinent question here is whether the increased in flooding following forest removal is due to the removal of tree cover itself or is due to abusive land use. Another question is whether both upstream and downstream are affected. Uncontrolled development in Cameron Highlands have brought with it problems of soil erosion, sedimentation, reduction of river s drainage capacity, shortening of lag time and eventual increase in flooding. Flooding which occurred in Kg Sg Ringlet in April 2001 affected 3,300 residents living in this village. This was the worst ever recorded flood where the water level rose nearly a metre from the river level. The main cause was found to be earth levelling and clearing to upgrade the 2.15 km of the Jalan Ulu Merah Sediment transport One of the most obvious impacts from land use change is sedimentation. Catchment experiments worldwide have shown that forest clearance always leads to increase in sediment output. Examples of reported increase in sediment output following land use change is shown in Table 4-8. Table 4-8 : Impacts of Forest Land Use Change to Sediment Yields Location Bukit Berembun, Negeri Sembilan Ulu Semenyih, Selangor Ulu Segama, Sabah Sipitang, Sabah Sg. Tekam, Pahang Sg. Tekam, Pahang Nature of land use change Forest to selective (40%) logging Forest to selective logging Forest to selective (logging Forest to selective logging Forest to cocoa plantation Forest to cocoa & oil palm plantation Catchment area Sediment yield (t/km 2 /yr) Reference km 2 Before After Zulkifli et al. (1990) Lai (1992) Douglas et al. (1992) Malmer (1990) Law et al. (1989) Law et al. (1989) WWF Malaysia 4-43

226 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Skid trails were the main sources of a 6 to 12 fold increase in sediment losses from an Australian rain forest after logging (Gilmour, 1971) while in Ulu Segama logging road construction and clearance of roadside forest led to peak suspended solids concentrations 3-8 times greater than peak concentrations recorded under natural forest (Greer et al. 1989). In Indonesia, newly made skid trails eroded at a rate of 10.8 t/ha increasing to 12.9 t/ha with use, and still 3.2 t/ha three years after being abandoned, while erosion was too low to detect in undisturbed forest (Ruslan & Manan, 1980). In Ulu Segama in Sabah, Nussbaum (1995) identified critical differences between litter cover, soil compaction and soil erosion. Although litter or debris cover on compacted soil did reduce erosion to some extent, rates were still an order of magnitude greater than in undisturbed forest. Logging operations, which disturb the canopy but leave the soil uncompacted and litter layer undisturbed, are unlikely to increase erosion rates. This was confirmed for debris piles and disturbed forest in Ulu Segama where the rates of erosion were no greater than those in undisturbed forest. Similar findings were also reported by Sinun (1991) who worked in the same geographical area. Northcliff et al. (1990) and Wiersum (1985) have also shown that the understorey and more particularly the litter layer are the most important factors protecting forest soils. Suspended solids are the main pollutants in waters of the streams and rivers in the Main Range. Water quality records of Cameron Highlands reveal that suspended solids levels have increased over the years as more land has been cleared for various types of development, including agriculture. At Sg. Habu, the total suspended solids levels increased from 10 mg/l in 1996 to 22 mg/l in 1997 and mg/l in The current water quality data shows that Sg Ringlet, Sg Tringkap and Sg Telom are heavily silted up. Sg. Ringlet and Sg. Telom were found to contain total suspended solids levels of 4056 mg/l and 1469 mg/l respectively. The main concern is these rivers form the headwater catchment for water supply. Most of the water intake points are located downstream for example Sg Jelai in Pahang and Sg Batang Padang in Perak which originate from Sg Bertam-Telom and Sg Jor in Cameron Highlands. Nevertheless, despite the presence of various pollution sources in the upper catchment, the water quality at some monitoring stations is still considered probably due to the assimilative capacity of the river. Soil erosion in Cameron Highlands has also seriously silted up the Ringlet reservoir and reduced the efficiency of the Cameron Highlands and Batang Padang hydroelectric schemes. According to Choy (1991), development of the Upper Bertam Catchment, which consists mainly of building construction, has not significantly affected the water yield of the catchment. However, the development of the Telom catchment, which consists mainly of agricultural development, has resulted in a loss of 13% - 15% of the water yield. In addition, due to increases in sediment load in the rivers, the Habu and Robinson Falls power stations have had to be shut down frequently, especially after heavy rain, in order to protect the machinery from excessive scouring by the suspended solids in the water and to prevent sedimentation of intake tunnels. It has been reported that the average concentration of sediment in the Sg. Telom had increased by 6-8 times between 1965 and 1989 (Choy, 1989). Over the same WWF Malaysia 4-44

227 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS period the average sediment load in the Sg. Bertam and Sg. Telom increased by about sixfold and tenfold respectively. Over the same period the agricultural land area increased 400% while forest coverage decreased by about 25%. Since its operation in 1963, the Ringlet reservoir has lost nearly 53% of its gross storage to sedimentation, which is presently estimated to reach a volume of about million m 3 (Choy and Hamzah, 2001). In the early 1990 s, the sediment deposition rate was estimated to be as much as 250,000 m 3 per year, which is about 8.5 times the rate in the 1960 s and fifteen times the rate (17,000 m 3 /year) anticipated during the project feasibility study in the mid-fifties. The rate of sediment deposition at the Ringlet reservoir in 1989 was about 3.5 times higher than the rate in the 1960 s and as much as 80,000 m 3 annually, despite desilting works that prevent about 20% of the sediment from entering the reservoir. The amount of sediment accumulated in the Ringlet reservoir increased from about 33,000 m 3 in February 1965 to about 440,000 m 3 in June 1975 and to about 930,000 m 3 in July 1986 (Choy, 1987). This deposition rate is much higher than the originally estimated rate of 16,860 m 3 /year in the mid 1950 s and 22,720 m 3 /year in the mid 1970 s. The reservoir sedimentation in the last few years has been observed to have taken place at an accelerated pace and to have reached an alarmingly high deposition rate. This occurs despite desilting works being carried out at several locations in the reservoir catchment area such as on Sg. Bertam upstream of Robinson Falls intake, Sg. Telom upstream of Telom intake and Sg. Ringlet upstream of the Ringlet reservoir. An estimated 80, ,000 m 3 of sediment have been removed from these three locations in the several desilting operations carried out. Siltation has also reduced the capacity of the Telom Tunnel that channels water from the Telom, Kial, Kodol and Plau ur catchments to the Ringlet reservoir. In 1986 the volume of sediment accumulated inside the Telom Tunnel was estimated to be 35,000 40,000 m 3, resulting in the loss of nearly 40% of the normal flow capacity of the tunnel. In another study, the energy output of the Robinson Falls, Upper Telom, Cameron Highlands and Batang Padang hydroelectric schemes were found to be 8% lower than the estimated total, due partly to the siltation and the frequent closing of water intakes due to excessive sediment load (Choy, 1987). Agriculture on the steep terrain of the Main Range sharply increases the soil erosion risk erosion due to factors such as increased surface runoff and lack of vegetative cover. The steep slopes of the Main Range, which are above 25, greatly increase the soil erosion risk. In fact, the entire Main Range has been classified as a zone of high erosion risk. In Cameron Highlands, 81% of the land has a high erosion risk (see Table 4-1). The scarcity of flat ground has forced farmers to clear and cultivate slopes along river valleys. Improper land clearing and terracing coupled with insufficient soil conservation and erosion control measures has resulted in widespread soil erosion by surface runoff during periods of rainfall. The steep slopes increase the velocity and hence the erosivity of water flowing down the slopes. Soil erosion also increases with slope length as a result of increased runoff volume. Steep slopes are often susceptible to landslides and erosion even under natural forest conditions and such slopes become more susceptible to erosion once disturbed. WWF Malaysia 4-45

228 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Due to loss of topsoil from farmlands, some farmers have cut into undisturbed hillsides to gain additional soil, thereby aggravating the erosion problem. Increased cultivation of steeper slopes as land in the lower and gentler river valleys are used up increases the risk of erosion. The clearing of land on the steep slopes exposes the soil to direct rainfall and causes soil erosion and siltation of streams. Although the indiscriminate clearing by farmers on the hill slopes is a major concern to the authorities, the absence of surveyed plans and engineering works on land clearance has hindered proper land use management. Illegal clearing of land for agriculture is a recurring problem in the highlands, especially in Cameron Highlands and Bukit Tinggi. Some farmers have encroached into forest reserves and state land to expand their farms. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that much of the land in the highlands is steep. A lot of the farms are located in remote areas away from the main roads and urban centres. This has hampered monitoring and enforcement efforts by the authorities Water pollution The use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers by the farming community is a source of water pollution of the river systems in the highlands. The location of some of the farms upstream of water intake points raises the potential of chemical contamination of drinking water supplies. Nevertheless, monitoring of the water quality of the top layer of the Ringlet reservoir since the 1970 s has shown that the water quality is generally good, and no worse than Class III of the Interim National Water Quality Standards (Table 4-9). Table 4-9 : Water Quality of Ringlet Reservoir Parameters Unit Value Range Class Temperature C 22 (average) - Conductivity µs/cm I PH I Total Hardness ppm 6-14 I Total Alkalinity ppm 8-16 I Salinity mg/ 1-2 IIA, III, IV Ammonia mg/l I Dissolved Oxygen mg/l IIA, IIB Oxygen Consumed (4 hours) mg/l IIA, IIB, III Biological Oxygen Demand mg/l III Source: Choy and Hamzah (1997) The quality of the water in the Ringlet reservoir has been affected by agricultural practices and by the fertilizers and pesticides used by farmers in the catchment. The proliferation of water hyacinths in the Ringlet reservoir in the past has been attributed to animal waste from pig farms in the inflow from the Sg Ringlet catchment. The water in the reservoir may have also been enriched with nutrients from fertilizers washed into the catchment. There have also been incidences in the early and mid eighties where many fish were suddenly found dead and floating on WWF Malaysia 4-46

229 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS the reservoir surface. Preliminary investigations indicate that high levels of chemicals, most likely pesticides, in the water were the main probable cause. The current catchment control arrangement confines Tenaga Nasional Bhd to an advisory role while the Pahang state government is the authority to approve development applications and proposals and to enforce soil protection works. This arrangement often creates conflicts between conservation and development, resulting in continual sedimentation problems Water Shortages In Hill Stations Settlements in the Main Range are served mainly by small local water supplies from mountain streams and rivers. Until recently, there was only one water treatment plant in Cameron Highlands located at Sg. Burung (capacity 2.6 MLD) that catered to domestic water users in parts of Brinchang and Tanah Rata. Other areas such as Kuala Terla, Kampung Raja, Ringlet and Habu are supplied with semi-treated water sourced from mountain streams (Table 4-10). The quality of the water sources is generally good and requires only semi-treatment. Table 4-10 : Existing Water Supply In Cameron Highlands Existing Water Supply Capacity (MLD) Kg Raja 0.23 Kuala Terla (existing scheme) 0.23 Kea Farm 0.23 Tringkap 0.23 Brinchang 1. 5 Habu (existing scheme) 0.02 Lubok Tamang Ringlet 0.57 Lembah Bertam 0.23 As the demand for domestic water supply in Cameron Highlands has increased over the years due to the development of new residential and tourism facilities whereas water supplies have remained constant, problems of water shortage have cropped up. The increasing water demand is reflected in the projected demand from 2000 to The water shortage worsens during peak holiday seasons due to the influx of tourists. Two new water supply schemes, namely the Habu and Kuala Terla schemes, have been designed to overcome the water shortage problems in Cameron Highlands. The first stage of the Habu water treatment plant with a capacity of 9 MLD has been built to supply water to Ringlet, Tanah Rata and Brinchang. Provision will be made for a second stage to be added in 2015 to increase the yield to MLD and for a third stage to be added in 2035 to increase the yield to MLD. It would also cater for the increased water demand and to replace the existing semi-treatment water supplies. Another water treatment plant at Kuala Terla is proposed to supply water to areas from Kuala Terla to Kg Raja. The upper Sg. Terla scheme Stage I WWF Malaysia 4-47

230 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS will yield a possible MLD, while Stage II in 2005 would increase the yield to about MLD. Stages 3 and 4 yield MLD in 2020 and MLD 2030 respectively. At Genting Highlands and Fraser s Hill, water is supplied by treatment plants that draw water from mountain streams. The Genting Highlands water supply is sourced from six intakes and treated before being pumped to the hotels, resorts and other users in the area. At Fraser s Hill, water is pumped from Sg. Hijau to a treatment about 2 km from the town centre. The treatment plant is currently being expanded and a new reservoir is being built to double the treated water storage capacity. In the Lojing Highlands, there are no water intake points along Sg Berok or its tributaries. Mountain streams are used by most of the Orang Asli communities for drinking, washing and bathing. Many Orang Asli villages, with the help of the Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli (JHEOA), have built some form of pipe network made of bamboo to bring water from the upstream areas to their villages. However, the water quality has deteriorated in recent years due to the on-going development, road construction, logging activities and large-scale agricultural development. In particular, logging has been blamed for the erosion and siltation of streams that supply piped water to Orang Asli villages. The shortage of water supply in the highlands is due mainly to the fact that water supply from streams and rivers is limited. The intakes points for water supply in highlands are inevitably located in the upper reaches of the water catchments where the water yield is low. The water supply system has been adequate in the past when the water demand was comparatively lower, but cannot meet the increasing water demand from new developments and rising populations. The critical issue with regards to water supply is the need for protection of the catchment area to ensure good quality and reliable water supply. The clearing of land and any disturbance to the land within the water catchment is liable to have a negative impact on the quality of water. Development within the upper reaches of water catchments will result in increased amounts of wastes dumped into the watercourses that feed downstream water supply intakes. Water supplies for farms in the highlands are sourced from mountain streams on slopes above the farms and fed by gravity flow to the farms at lower elevations. However, as the farms expand and water demand for irrigation increases, farmers often source water from headwaters and streams higher up the mountains. This diverts the flow of water from its natural course and reduces the flow to downstream areas. The runoff from the farms subsequently pollutes receiving streams and further degrades the environment with silt and chemical pollutants Cloud Forests Tropical montane cloud forests typically occur at elevations above 1500m. Generally, the climatic and topographical factors influence the distribution of cloud forests in the region. Depending on latitude, the lower limit varies between 1500m and 2500m and the upper limit lies between 2400m and 3300m. Tropical montane WWF Malaysia 4-48

231 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS cloud forests are normally classified by long, persistent cloud or mist cover close to the ground. An important feature of humid tropical cloud forests is that it receives additional precipitation other than rainfall through the capture and condensation of water droplets (Stadtmuller, 1987). The stripping of moisture by vegetation from passing low clouds eventually forms horizontal precipitation or occult precipitation or fog drip to the ecosystems which in turn influences the hydrological regime and other ecological processes. Although the extent of cloud forests in Malaysia has not been mapped, the Main Range is expected to house such forests, as mist and low clouds frequently shroud the hills and mountains. The significant feature about tropical montane cloud forests is that their watersheds record much higher values of annual runoff coefficient (streamflow totals expressed as a ratio of incident rainfall). This is due to the combined influence of additional moisture inputs via horizontal precipitation and low values of evapotranspiration. The low evapotranspiration rates are due to the low evaporation rates in the highlands. Thus, cloud forests transfer both rainfall and horizontal precipitation from the atmosphere to streams without much loss due to evapotranspiration. The high runoff ratio in cloud forests is one of the critical reasons for the conservation of such highland forests (Abdul Rahim, 1996). Almost all such forests areas form important watersheds that supply water resources to downstream users. Thus, the land use and land cover disturbances in highlands would adversely affect the downstream areas. Although forest removal generally leads to increase in water yield, cloud forests are an exception to this rule. Here occult precipitation in the form of condensation and fog drip from forest leaves and stems make up a significant proportion of the total annual rainfall. Therefore complete deforestation of cloud forests may lead to decline in water yield. There is no experimental data on this type of environment in Malaysia. Occurrence of occult precipitation in the humid tropics is normally at elevations between 1500m to 2500m (Stadtmuller, 1987). 4.8 Roads and Transportation in the Highlands Road Construction The construction of highways and roads in the highlands normally involves substantial earthworks which inevitably produce high sediment laden runoff which in turn adversely affects surface water quality by increasing turbidity and nutrient levels. The increased sediment (suspended and bedload) may cause aquatic fauna mortality, increased aquatic flora (algae and weeds due to high nutrient levels) and reduced navigability due to aggradation. Discolouration of water will significantly reduce the aesthetic appeal and deter tourists. The magnitude of soil erosion varies according to construction phase and rainfall seasons. The greatest risk of soil erosion occurs during the land clearing and earthworks phase of the road construction when the surfaces are laid bare and subject to minimal protection. Risk of soil erosion increases dramatically during the rainy seasons. Extreme storm events are responsible for a large proportion of the WWF Malaysia 4-49

232 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS annual sediment load. The sedimentation from the construction of the Simpang Pulai Kuala Berang has caused serious water quality problems at the Sg. Kinta water intake that supplies water for the town of Ipoh. The sedimentation from project is also thought to be the main cause of flooding along Sg. Raia. A characteristic feature of roads in hill areas is the numerous cut slopes above roadways, sometimes up to 50m high. Such slopes are usually benched and protected by concrete crest and berm drains and by downslope cascading drains. The standard practice is to vegetate the bare surfaces through natural regeneration or by a variety of artificial techniques including turfing and hydroseeding. There is often visual evidence of erosion on steep roadside slopes. Rills, gullies, undermined drains, and sometimes landslides and slumps can be observed, particularly after heavy rain. Gullies are the major sediment source on exposed construction sites. Artificial steep slopes are also prone to landslides that pose a risk to human life. Another serious concern pertaining to all road development, for planned roads, road currently under construction and for existing roads is the issue of dissecting habitats. The construction of these roads and power lines will have the effect of separating habitats and species. In the event of established roads becoming permanent barriers, there may be a real need for efforts to reverse these effects where possible so that isolated and fragmented populations can be re-linked through habitat rebuilding. Further research is needed to identify species affected and map their present positions. A whole realm of research has then to be carried out to determine their actual habitat needs and studies and pilot projects undertaken to create connecting habitat conditions. The main long term impact of the road in the general project area is that it may serve as biological barrier to movement of certain species. In general the larger the species the less is it likely to be affected by this factor. All the larger bird species are not going to be affected as they will cross the barrier often at the canopy level. However it has been demonstrated that with some small bush haunting bird species an open space such as the road does prove to be a barrier. Information of this pattern of behaviour at present comes from a study of urban birds within the suburbs of Singapore where it was noted that isolated patches of landscaped plants did not get colonized by the suitable birds species from adjacent patches even when all the eco-habitat requirements appeared to be present. It is quite possible that a similar mechanism is operating with certain small forest bird species, but our knowledge does not allow us to be definite about this. Many ground living animals will also be affected and will be unable to cross the roads at will. Some individuals may get run over by vehicles. Species capable of gliding flight like the flying lizards and flying gecko will be able to cross the width of the road without much difficulty. One group of animals will however be more seriously affected are the medium sized arboreal species such as the pentail treeshrew, the leaf monkeys, the gibbons and slow loris. It is also felt that populations of the giant flying will be similarly affected. The break in the continuity of the canopy will effectively split the individuals and population of these species. The serious side of this split is that it may affect the genetic continuity of a population of a species and reduce the WWF Malaysia 4-50

233 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS genetic fitness of the splinter populations. It is felt that with the siamang (Symphagulus syndactylus) population the impact may be very significant. Impacts of road construction in the highlands are summarized below: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Road construction imposes a significant impact on the fragile environment of the highlands, both during the construction and operational phases of the road projects. In fact, the accessibility and development opportunity created by the construction of roads through previously inaccessible regions often creates bigger impacts to the environment due to subsequent development of the newly opened land than to the road construction itself. The real impacts do not come from road construction itself, but as a result of subsequent development due to the improved accessibility brought about by the road. The aftermath of road construction is usually development of human settlement which causes severe and normally permanent damage to the flora and fauna. Virtually all forestdwelling animals and plants are unable to survive in other habitats or open country. Animals from forests that are being cleared do not easily move to adjacent areas, which may already host existing populations of animals. Roads cutting through forested land split and fragment the forests, which are habitats for the wildlife. The bisecting of wildlife habitats restricts the movement of the animals, especially the smaller ones. The break in tree canopy disrupts the travel of arboreal species such as monkeys. Many animals are reluctant to cross the open roads and thus get cut off from other sections of their original habitat, or are separated from other members of their community. Those animals that venture onto the roads risk being run over by passing vehicles. Road construction in the highlands would result in destruction of habitat and clearing of forests. Since the highland forests are the major portion of remaining forests in Peninsular Malaysia, any construction activity in the highlands would pose a significant threat to the forest. Although only a proportionately small area is taken up by the road pavement and reserve, the impact of the road extends beyond the clearing. Furthermore, during the construction of roads, numerous access tracks, site offices and workers camps are constructed. These temporary facilities nevertheless result in clearing of land beyond the road reserve itself. Quarries, borrow pits, and spoil tips leave scars in the landscape and are often a source of eroded silt when there is inadequate erosion control at the sites. In Cameron Highlands, soil erosion attributed to road construction has been one of the causes of sedimentation at the hydroelectric power station intakes and at the Ringlet reservoir. The Highland Resort Road, spanning a distance of 222 km and linking Genting Highlands, Fraser s Hill and Cameron Highlands, has been proposed to enhance tourism in the Main Range and improve accessibility to isolated mountain regions. WWF Malaysia 4-51

234 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS However, the road would cause massive environmental damage during the construction phase due to earthworks and soil erosion. During the operational phase of the highway environmental degradation would arise due to air and noise pollution and development of hitherto pristine highland forests. The road would cut across the headwaters of river catchments in Selangor, Perak and Pahang, which are important water supply catchments for the domestic and industrial water supply in the lowland urban towns and cities and also for agricultural irrigation. Despite the negative impacts of road construction in the highlands, there are some positive impacts and opportunities that roads offer. The opportunities afforded stem primarily from the improved accessibility to areas that are served by new roads. Orang Asli villages near the road would benefit from better access to towns and markets for their produce. Roads would also increase accessibility for scientists and researchers to highland ecosystems and open up new areas to be studied. This has been demonstrated in the case of G. Bunga Buah, which has been more extensively studied since the access road to Genting Highlands was first constructed in Traffic Congestion at Hill Stations The popularity of the three hill stations on the Main Range, namely Cameron Highlands, Fraser s Hill and Genting Highlands, has attracted large numbers of tourists and visitors. With the good accessibility provided by the roads and highways leading to the hill stations, many tourists and visitors drive cars and private vehicles up to the resorts. Domestic and Singaporean tourists comprise the majority of who drive up to the hill stations. The lack of proper parking areas at town is a major issue. The problem worsens during the holiday season especially in at the town centers where the hotels and amenities are concentrated. Cars parked indiscriminately along main road disrupt traffic flow. The limited land that can be designated for parking areas also compounds the problem. The problem of traffic congestion at town centres in the highlands, notably at Tanah Rata and Brinchang in Cameron Highlands and also in Fraser s Hill, is due to the influx of vehicles at peak holiday seasons, lack of parking space and the conflict between local and through traffic. The problem of traffic congestion is more serious at Cameron Highlands and Fraser s Hill due to the lack of parking facilities and narrow roads. With the opening of the new access road to ascend to Fraser s Hill and the abolishment of the alternating one-way system at the Gap in August 2001, there is a possibility of increased traffic flow to the hill station that could aggravate the traffic congestion. Private vehicle usage at Fraser s Hill is dominant (81% of total) which at peak times such as weekends and public holidays strains parking capacity. There are also problems arising from the inadequacy of public bus services from/to Kuala Kubu Baru (twice daily services only) and a lack of an internal shuttle bus service within the hill resort itself. The land capacity for road expansion is limited and alternative transportation measures need to be considered. The Fraser s Hill town centre is invariably congested during weekends and public holidays when the tourist crowd swells. Cars parked along the narrow road shoulders cause traffic congestion in the WWF Malaysia 4-52

235 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS town centre. The lack of adequate pedestrian facilities such as walkways, in addition to the remoteness of some of the bungalows, deters tourists from walking to the main town centre. Abolishing the alternating ascending and descending traffic control at the Gap will now add to the convenience visitors driving up, and there is a likelihood of increase in vehicular traffic in the town centre. Besides the problems with limited parking, the increased traffic will invariably affect local environmental quality. Air quality will deteriorate due to the exhaust emissions and dust generated by moving vehicles. Noise pollution will also increase and spoil the tranquil ambience that is the trademark of Fraser s Hill. The traffic situation at Genting Highlands is not as critical because of the good transport infrastructure of wide access roads, extensive parking space and the Genting Skyway cable car. Nevertheless, the policy of encouraging public transportation usage should still be continued. There are an average 6,300 cars per day to Genting Highlands and an average of 133 buses per day. With the opening of the Genting Skyway all buses have to stop at the Lower Skyway Station at Gohtong Jaya between 9 am and 11pm and passengers proceed to the hilltop by the cable car. At the newly developed resort of Bukit Tinggi the traffic volume has not yet increased substantially to cause traffic congestion, but as the resort amenities are developed and promoted in the future, there is the possibility of traffic congestion when traffic volume increases. Traffic congestion and the high traffic volume at the hill stations during peak tourist seasons cause air and noise pollution that disrupt the cool and tranquil nature of the highlands. In addition, the conflict between tourist traffic and local commercial traffic could potentially lead to accidents, especially at Cameron Highlands where there is considerable heavy vehicle and farm vehicle traffic. 4.9 Slope Instability Steep slopes in the highlands are susceptible to landslides even in their natural condition, without disturbance from human activities. The steepness of the slopes is the dominant factor in increasing the erosion risk and potential for slope instability in the highlands. Erosion is a natural process which occurs even in undisturbed environments. However, accelerated soil erosion occurs when the land is modified by humans. In the highlands, slope instability is increased when the terrain is modified for various development projects, such as road construction, agriculture, housing and hotel and resorts. The indiscriminate land clearing and earthworks in the highlands has often resulted in denuded slopes being left exposed to the elements and becoming unstable. WWF Malaysia 4-53

236 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Several incidents of slope instabilities and landslides resulting in loss of life and damage have occurred over the past few years. The following is a list of the major incidents that received wide media coverage: (i) The collapse of the Highland Towers condominiums in Ulu Kelang, Selangor which resulted in the deaths of 70 people on 11 December 1993 (ii) A landslide at km 59.5 of the East-West Highway on 31 December 1993, which killed a woman and injured three others when their van plunged into a ravine (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) A landslide at km 32 of the East-West Highway on 11 April 1994, which caused many vehicles to be stranded A massive landslide at the slip road to Genting Highlands off the KL-Karak Highway on 3 June 1995, which resulted in 22 deaths and 22 casualties A landslide at km 52.8 of the Tapah-Cameron Highlands road on 19 June 1996 The landslide at G. Tempurung along the North-South Expressway near Kampar on 6 January 1996, in which one motorist was killed Landslides in Cameron Highlands have resulted in the loss of many lives and huge monetary losses. As recent as January 2001, there were two major landslides. In the first incident, six people were buried alive in Kg Raja, while in the other, the sole access road linking Kg Raja and Blue Valley collapsed, effectively cutting off accessibility for about 15,000 people and the bulk of the area s products. The Cameron Highlands has been classified as having the highest erosion index among the three major hill resorts on the Main Range. The erosion index is defined as the number of landslide occurrences per kilometer of road. The area around Kg. Raja in Cameron Highlands has been identified as the most prone to landslides due to the steep terrain and erodibility of soils Climate change The perceived rise in temperature in the highlands, notably in Cameron Highlands, is a real event. Meteorological records indicate that the average temperature at Tanah Rata has been increasing since The temperature rise in the highlands has been attributed to urbanization and loss of forest cover over the years as land has been cleared for development and agriculture. However, this trend of temperature rise parallels the observed temperature rises in the lowlands that is attributed to global climate change. The temperature rise in the highlands and lowlands could be caused by the same factors of global warming. This warming of the earth could be either a natural phenomenon occurring on a geologic time scale or caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. As such, the local temperature rise in the highlands cannot be clearly differentiated from the background noise of global warming. Thus, the exact causes of the WWF Malaysia 4-54

237 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS temperature rise in the highlands cannot be conclusively determined at the moment due to the compounding local and global factors affecting climate. It is a known fact that built-up urban areas experience a heat island effect that results in warmer temperatures in the urban microclimate. Built-up areas that are covered with concrete structures and pavements absorb sunlight and radiate much more heat than forested land. Thus the local temperature rise would be more pronounced in the town areas. However, the heat island effect diminishes rapidly with distance from the urban centres. Rainfall and other meteorological parameters do not show a distinct long term trend. Inter-annual variability of rainfall is large and ranges from 1969 mm in 1986 to 3153 mm in Nevertheless, records from Tenaga Nasional indicate that lower average annual rainfall in 1963, 1967, 1978 and 1983 resulted in lower average annual energy output of the Cameron Highlands/ Batang Padang schemes. A point to note is that comprehensive long-term meteorological records that are necessary for analyzing climatic trends are available only at Cameron Highlands. The other hill stations do not have adequate meteorological records that enable reliable analysis of the climatic trends. However, even in Cameron Highlands there is only one meteorological station which is located in the outskirts of Tanah Rata. This station is often taken as a representative station for the highlands due to the lack of stations in the other parts of the highlands. The sole meteorological station at Tanah Rata provides reliable data, but it is only applicable for the areas immediately surrounding the station. In fact, the station is located in a relatively undeveloped part of Cameron Highlands, away from the town center of Tanah Rata. Therefore, the effect of urbanization on the highlands cannot be conclusively drawn solely from an analysis of data from the station. The heat island effect from the town centers such as Tanah Rata cannot be inferred from the station s meteorological records because the station is too far from the town. The effects of climate change on the crops grown in the highlands have not been determined. It is possible that warmer temperatures might lower the productivity of the temperate crops. However, more research into this area is needed. Other potential consequences include the increase in temperature may lead to reduced cloud cover, an increase in the altitude of the cloud base, a shift in altitudinal zonation, and the loss of species that are already restricted to single peaks. For example, the herb Sonerila fraseri, known only from the top of Pine Tree Hill at Fraser s Hill, would probably disappear with only a small temperature increase. There might also be economic impacts through the changes in plant growth rates, hence productively of temperate crops grown in the highlands. Reduced cloud cover could also lead to reduced cloud stripping by montane vegetation, hence reduced water yields. WWF Malaysia 4-55

238 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS 4.11 Waste Management Solid waste management is a critical issue in the highlands, which have limited land area for the treatment and disposal of solid wastes. As the population rises and tourist developments expand in the highlands, the amount of solid waste generated is also expected to increase and impose a greater impact on the environment. The improper disposal of solid wastes causes numerous environmental problems, notably surface and groundwater pollution due to leachate and air pollution due to open burning. At Cameron Highlands and Fraser s Hill, the solid waste is disposed of at an open dump at the top of a hillside. The rubbish is then pushed down the slope by a bulldozer. Pools of leachate seep out from the rubbish pile and contaminate the stream flowing at the bottom of the valley. Recycling efforts in Cameron Highlands have been reported to be dismal and lacking public participation. In addition, the remoteness of poor accessibility and steepness of the highland roads has resulted in low efficiency of collection of solid waste. The increasing local population and expansion of hotels and resorts in the highlands will strain the existing solid waste management system. As the highland environment is very fragile, the need to manage solid wastes in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner is paramount. The scarcity of land in the highlands requires that solid waste management facilities be compact. On a brighter note, the solid waste management system being implemented at Genting Highlands is more environmentally friendly. The solid waste is disposed of by incineration at four incinerators at the hilltop complex and two incinerators at the midhill. There is a pilot project sponsored by the Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment to develop a solid waste separation and composting system at Genting Highlands. The functions of the system are to separate the organic and inorganic combustible components of solid waste, after which the organic component is sent for composting and the inorganic component for incineration. The separation process reduces the final amount of waste that requires incineration and puts the organics to good reuse by composting. This method is suitable for waste streams with high organic content, such as kitchen wastes. Sewage treatment systems in the highlands vary from septic tanks to modern mechanized systems. Most of the older bungalows and resorts such as those at Fraser s Hill and Cameron Highlands are equipped with basic septic tanks. The newer and bigger developments are equipped with more advanced sewage treatment systems. The sewage treatment system of Resorts World Bhd at Genting Highlands is the most advanced in the highlands, catering for a population equivalent of 133,000 and designed to comply with Standard A. In the remote areas of the highlands, the Orang Asli utilize simple pit latrines and pour flush toilets Environmental Education in the Highlands The importance of environmental education cannot be overemphasized. It is paramount that the level of environmental awareness and concern among all WWF Malaysia 4-56

239 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS sections of society increase in parallel with the Government s effort to heighten environmental conservation and promote sustainable development. The importance of environmental education and awareness in the highlands is all the more pressing due to the fragility of the highlands environment and the urgent need for short and long-term solutions to the environmental problems. Environmental education seeks to promote conservation through raising awareness, changing attitudes, imparting knowledge, providing skills and increasing participation of individuals and communities. The lack of funding for environmental education stands out as a major hindrance to increased efforts in environmental education programmes and facilities. At present, most environmental education is carried out on a small-scale, with limited resources. Often, environmental education initiatives are stretched because of lack of human and financial resources. For example, the WWF Mobile Education Unit is an environmental education initiative that is sponsored by a private company. Thus, the operation of the unit is very much dependent on the amount of funds allocated by the company, which may vary from time to time. The lack of environmental awareness among tour guides and operators is a hindrance to helping tourists appreciate nature. Tourist guides should be properly trained and knowledgeable enough to provide tourists with enough information on the natural attractions of the highlands. Tour guides should lead tourists to appreciate natural attractions of highlands, such as the forests, streams, panoramic views and the unique flora and fauna. There is also a lack of environmental awareness among tourists that results in negative impacts to the environment in the form of littering and defacing of natural attractions and also in a general lack of interest in natural attractions. The poor public attitude and lack of appreciation of natural beauty can be changed through education and exposure to the environmental conservation. The lack of awareness is exacerbated by the lack of information and promotion of natural attractions. Government officers, who lack knowledge on environmental issues, may end up making decisions that are not in line with sustainable development principles, and this may work against sustainable development initiatives. Often such government officers have good intentions, but the design and execution of projects result in undesirable environmental impacts. Thus, the opportunity for environmental education is enormous given the need for greater awareness and knowledge among all stakeholders in sustainable development of the highlands. WWF Malaysia 4-57

240 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Plate 4-1: Hill cutting for farming at Kuala Terla. Some of the hills have been cut right to the top. Plate 4-2: Siltation in the Sultan Abu Bakar Reservoir at Ringlet due to soil erosion upstream. Note the sandbars in the middle. WWF Malaysia 4-58

241 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Plate 4-3: The municipal solid waste dump 2 km from Tanah Rata where waste is simply pushed down the hillside without proper landfilling. Plate 4-4: Land clearing and hill cutting for agriculture at Lojing have increased in recent years. WWF Malaysia 4-59

242 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Plate 4-5: Rain shelters are expensive but help to reduce soil erosion at farms. Plate 4-6: Logging activities along the Cameron Highlands Gua Musang highway. WWF Malaysia 4-60

243 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Plate 4-7: Sg. Berok is silted up due to road construction works and land clearing upstream. Note the riverbank protection measures. Plate 4-8: Turfing and fibromatting as erosion control along the Cameron Highlands Gua Musang highway currently under construction. WWF Malaysia 4-61

244 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Plate 4-9: The East-West Highway at its highest point (1050 m), with the pristine Upper Belum forest in the background. The highway offers many scenic vista points. Plate 4-10: Tasik Temenggor and bridge as seen from Pulau Banding, which has potential for ecotourism. WWF Malaysia 4-62

245 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Plate 4-11: A vegetable farm on a terrace cut into a steep hill side at Lembah Bertam. Plate 4-12: Vegetable farm on a slope at Lembah Bertam. WWF Malaysia 4-63

246 CHAPTER 4 : PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE HIGHLANDS Plate 4-12: Vegetable farms spreading up the hillsides at Lembah Bertam. WWF Malaysia 4-64

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248 5 STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN

249 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE 5.1 Introduction This chapter presents the strategic land use plan for the Main Range. Two levels of strategic land use plans were prepared, namely: (i) (ii) An overall strategic plan for the Main Range Strategic land use plans for the special management areas. Some of the broad principles adopted in formulating the strategic land use plans are as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) The Main Range is an important water catchment area for many water supply schemes in the Peninsular and as such should be classified as an Environmental Sensitive Area. Unnecessary urban encroachment into the highlands should be avoided and urban development should be contained within designated zones. Conserve areas identified as State parks, wildlife reserves and high conservation value areas. Conserve areas of geological significance and areas that are unsafe for development Agriculture activities should be promoted only in designated areas where there is sufficient infrastructure and facilities. Road development in the highlands to be minimized and only allowed to meet specific regional planning objectives. Nature and ecotourism activities should be encouraged in the highlands. In formulating the strategic land use plan for the Main Range, the various physical constraints and opportunities were reviewed. The selection of a particular criterion was based on the availability of the information and its relevance at a strategic planning level. Further analysis may have to be done at a local plan stage when detail topographic and cadastral information are available. The basic technique used was an overlay mapping of constraints and opportunities maps to establish a broad strategic land use plan for the highlands. The development constraints that were mapped out are summarized in Table 5-1. Opportunities for development in the highlands are precipitated by several factors (Table 5-2). The main factor in the highlands is the construction of new roads. This will provide opportunities for agricultural development, settlements and development of tourism facilities. New urban development and tourism projects would also necessitate the construction of additional infrastructure and services. There is pressure for resort development in the popular areas near Pulau Banding, Cameron Highlands, Frasers Hill, Genting and Bukit Tinggi. Urban encroachment into the highlands can also be observed at the foothills in the Tanjung Malim- Slim River area, Genting Ulu Yam road in Selangor and the Kenaboi Forest Reserve in Jelebu. This can be seen from the number of committed projects in the area (Appendix 7). Major new urban development projects within the Main Range in various stages of planning include the Kinta Highlands project, the Pos Brooke and Sigar New town in Lojing. Potential agriculture areas are mainly within areas where there is already a resident population and basic infrastructure and facilities. These are mainly in Cameron Highlands, Janda Baik and Bukit Tinggi. WWF Malaysia 5-1

250 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Table 5-1 : Summary of Development Constraints Sector maps Key parameters Data Source Remarks Elevation 300m, 750m 1000m, 1500m Topographic maps Slope More than 25degrees Analyzed from topographic maps Water Catchment areas Forest Reserve Existing Built up and developed areas Wildlife Reserves Erosion Map Rivers and Water Bodies Security Installation Areas in the immediate catchment of existing and proposed dams Montane Forest including Oak Laurel, Upper Dipterocarp, Virgin Forest & Amenity Forest Urban and Agriculture use Gazetted Wildlife Reserves and Sanctuaries High Conservation Value Areas (HCVA) A high erosion factor of more than 150 ton/ha/year Main rivers, reservoirs and lakes Dams, Water Intake Plants, HEP National Water Resources Study Department of Forestry Department of Agriculture Department of Wildlife & National Parks and sector proposals Department of Agriculture Topographic Maps 1:50000 TNB, JKR These are significant contour lines representing different vegetation groups that appear in the highlands. The areas of changes in vegetation types are also significant biological sensitive areas. 300m: highlands 750m: hill forest changes to upper dipterocarp 1000m: No logging permitted above this elevation 1500m: Montane Ericaceous Forest Generally areas with more than 25 degree slope are not suitable for development. Further analysis has to be done at the Local Plan stage as the contour intervals in a topo sheet are 20m on a scale of 1:50000 Most of the Main Range is water catchment areas and as such should be declared an ESA. The areas within the immediate catchment of dams need greater protection Most of the Main Range is covered by Forest Reserves. However the montane, virgin and amenity forest may need further protection Urban and agriculture use only amounted to about 1% of the total area. However most of the problems affecting settlements on the highlands are related to unsustainable urban and agricultural expansion. The HCVA are proposals made under the study Most of the Main Range are susceptible to erosion. However, detail erosion risk maps need to be done for the SMA s. Rivers are an important source of water supply for the lowland areas Other parameters include security areas found at the Malaysia Thai Border. WWF Malaysia 5-2

251 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Table 5-2 : Opportunities and Potentials Opportunities sector maps Highways and Roads Tourism areas Settlements Committed Developments Potential agriculture areas Policies and proposals of Structure and Local Plans Key parameters Data Source Remarks 1) Existing roads 2) New Road proposals 1) Ecotourism 2) Nature Tourism 3) Agrotourism 4) Resort areas 1) Existing towns 2) Orang Asli settlements 3) Traditional villages 1) New urban development approvals Agricultural areas above 1000m 1) New towns 2) New road proposals 3) Other development proposals JKR, HPU MTPB, National Ecotourism Plan, MOA JPBD, JHEOA JPBD Local Authorities Department of Agriculture JPBD Local Authorities Roads are the principle drivers in opening up land for development There is a vast potential for tourism in the highlands Most of the economic activities in the highlands are close to existing settlements New developments will increase the resident population and may strain the existing facilities Most temperate agriculture is grown at elevations above 1000m. New road proposals and new urban developments proposals provides access and the economic rational for developing the highlands. 5.2 Strategic Land Use Plan for the Main Range The Strategic Land use Plan was formulated taking into consideration the various constraints and opportunities and the principles outlined above. The Strategic Land use Plan is a physical plan representation of the Management and Conservation Strategies for the highlands. The various components of the Land Use Plan are discussed in the following sections (see also Figures 5-1 to 5-6). Development in the highlands will be guided by the management and conservation strategies discussed in Chapter Constraints and Opportunities Elevations The elevations are often an effective basis for implementing policies. The main contour lines represented are:- 300m contour line 750m contour line 1,000m contour line 1,500m contour line The 300m contour is taken to represent the start of the highlands in the Main Range (Figure 5-1). The 750m contour is where the hill forest changes to upper dipterocarp forest. The 1,000m contour represents the recent National Forest Council (NFC) decision not to allow any logging in the PFE above this contour line. WWF Malaysia 5-3

252 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Many of the hill resorts where there are opportunities for temperate agriculture such as Cameron Highlands and Lojing are found above this elevation. The 1500m line represents the presence of the montane ericaceous forest (mossy forest) Water bodies The main water bodies in the Main Range are the headwaters of the major rivers in Peninsular Malaysia. Other water bodies include the Temenggor Lake in Perak, the hydro-electric dams in Cameron Highlands and the Pergau Dam in Kelantan. There are also several other dams and reservoirs found at the foothills of the highlands Road network Road construction is probably the main driver of development in the highlands. The Main Range serves as a physical divide between the west coast states and the east coast states of the Peninsular. As such adequate east west linkages have to be established to enhance economic linkages between the settlements in the east and those in the West. The main east-west road linkages that would pass through the Main Range (Figure 5-3) are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) (xi) East West Highway linking Grik in Perak and Jeli in Kelantan. Proposed Simpang Pulai (Perak) Gua Musang (Kelantan) Highway Cameron Highlands - Kuala Lipis road. Proposed Ulu Slim - Batu Malim (Raub) road. Existing Kuala Kubu Bahru - Frasers Hill - Raub road Karak Highway Ulu Yam - Genting road Proposed KLORR Karak Bypass Ulu Langat Jelebu road Seremban Kuala Pilah road Seremban Kuala Klawang road The proposed Ulu Selim - Raub road is a regional planning initiative of encouraging the economic spread effects of the proposed Proton City to Pahang State while the proposed KL -Karak Bypass has been proposed in both the Structure Plans for Ulu Langat and Bentong and will serve as an alternative link to the Karak Highway. All the roads crossing the highlands are scenic routes and as such appropriate rest and recreation facilities should be developed along these routes. Other road proposals reviewed in this study but recommended to be dropped due to the high risk of environmental damage include the proposed Sg. Siput Kuala Berang road, Kerling Frasers Hill road connection and the proposed Highland Resort Road Dams and water catchment areas The catchment areas of dams must be protected. The dams in the highlands are either for water supply of for generating hydro-electricity power. The impounded WWF Malaysia 5-4

253 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE lakes around hydro stations are generally security areas and not accessible to people. The main dams and their catchment areas are shown in Figure 5-3 and also Table 3-4. There are also several dams proposed in the National Water Resources Study (EPU, 2000). Many of these dams are found at the foothills of the highlands. The catchment areas of these dams however extend into the forest reserves in the highlands. These catchment areas should also be gazetted and protected as water catchment forest Tourism sites The highlands offer much potential for tourism. Broadly the attractions may be classified as follows (see Figure 5-4) : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Cultural/Archeological Interest Resort facilities Nature tourism Agrotourism. Areas of cultural / archeological interest The main cultural interest sites include Gunung Reng in Jeli and Gunung Ayam in Kelantan. Both Cameron Highlands and Frasers Hill also have several heritage buildings. Resort facilities Resorts providing accommodation facilities are found in Frasers Hill, Cameron Highlands, Genting Highlands and at Bukit Tinggi. New resorts have also been proposed in the Kinta Highlands, Pos Sigar in Lojing and near the Temenggor Lake. Nature tourism Existing nature tourism sites are found at Sg. Perias Waterfalls and G. Stong in Kelantan, Belum, G. Korbu, Temenggor lake and the Lata Iskandar waterfalls in Perak. The Cameron Highlands and Frasers Hill also provide opportunities for nature tourism. In Selangor the main nature tourism facilities are found in the Kanching Forest Reserve, the Chongkak Waterfall, and in Templers Park. Similar facilities are also found in the Kenaboi and the Ulu Bendol Forest reserve in Negeri Sembilan. Potential new areas include Gunung Nuang in Selangor and the Pergau Dam in Kelantan. WWF Malaysia 5-5

254 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Agro tourism Agrotourism is popular in the hill resorts of Cameron Highlands where planned tours are arranged to visit tea plantations, strawberry farms, vegetable and floriculture farms. Similar prospects also abound in the Lojing Area and the Kinta Highlands. There are good opportunities for hobby farming and orchard farming in the Bukit Tinggi and the Janda Baik area. However agro-tourism is not encouraged in Frasers Hill as this area is planned as a nature tourism destination Areas important for the protection of biodiversity The areas important for the protection of biodiversity include high conservation value areas, wildlife reserves and State parks (Figure 5-5). Although most of the forest areas in the highlands are gazetted forest reserves, very few are classified as protected forest. (i) All areas above 1000m. These are areas of sensitive habitat with high endemism of flora and fauna. Soils are fragile and the environment easily affected by development. These include both the oak-laurel forest and the ericaceous forest. Montane forests are generally found at altitudes above 1500m. This study has recommended that forest above this altitude be totally protected under the NFA in view of the high endemism found here. The montane forest should be preserved in their natural state and no form of development allowed in these areas. (ii) Wildlife reserves There are several gazetted wildlife reserves in the highlands (or in the foothills). These include the following :- Chior Wildlife reserve in Perak Sungkai Wildlife reserve in Perak Frasers Hill in Pahang and Selangor Bukit Kutu Wildlife Reserve in Selangor Klang Gates Wildlife reserve It is important that these reserves are clearly identified and duly enforced to ensure protection for the animals. (iii) State Parks The most recent addition to the state parks in the country is the Belum Forest reserve which will be gazetted as a State Park in Perak. It is also recommended in this study that the highland areas in Selangor should be designated as a Selangor State Park as an effective mechanism to prevent urban encroachment and also serve as an effective buffer and recreational area for the Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Area. The Selangor State has WWF Malaysia 5-6

255 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE tentatively identified a 12,000 ha site in the Hulu Gombak Forest Reserve Area near the Klang Gate Area to be developed as a State Park. (iv) East West Belts A total of eight high conservation value areas have been tentatively identified, each forming an east - west protected area belt across the Main Range (see also Figure 9-2). These areas are intended to ensure that significant areas up and down the Main Range retain good useable habitat in spite of some development, where the majority of, if not all, montane species can survive on a long term basis. The eight areas identified are : a) Belum North b) Ulu Perak /North-West Kelantan c) Cameron Highlands North Buffer d) Sungkai Extension e) Krau Linkage f) Bukit Kutu Extension g) Genting Area h) Gunung Angsi in Negeri Sembilan Agriculture Development The Camerons Region is suitable for the growth of temperate crops due to the cool climate and the established infrastructure. The release of agriculture land should be carefully coordinated and sustainable in meeting the market demand for these products particularly in view of AFTA. There is a need to move towards organic farming and reduce pesticide usage on the food crops in order to be competitive in securing niche markets. The Janda Baik- Bukit Tinggi Area is a popular location for hobby farming and orchards. There is a need for more organized farming practices in this area. There should also be a proper Development Master Plan done for the Janda Baik area in view of its proximity to KL and the availability of suitable farmland in the area. Agriculture development in the highlands will only be permitted within the Special Management Areas where there is sufficient infrastructure and available land especially in: (i) (ii) Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands Janda Baik Bukit Tinggi area Existing settlements and development areas Settlements in the highlands include small townships, traditional villages and the Orang Asli settlements (Figure 5-2). The main hill resort areas in the highlands are found in Cameron Highlands, Frasers Hill and the Genting Highlands. WWF Malaysia 5-7

256 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Traditional villages There are about 30 traditional villages in the Main Range. Most of them are found at the foothills and along the main roads traversing the highlands. Many traditional villages are found in the Bukit Tinggi - Janda Baik area (Table 5-3). There is a need to establish proper village plans for these settlements and improve on the facilities and services in the area. Orang Asli settlements Most of the Orang Asli settlements are found in Cameron Highlands where there are 26 settlements. Other concentrations of Orang Asli settlements are found in the district of Gua Musang (14 settlements), Raub (19 settlements), Jeli, Kuala Lipis and Bentong. In Negeri Sembilan there are 13 Orang Asli villages in Jelebu. In Selangor most of the villages are found in Hulu Selangor, Gombak and Ulu Langat district. Most of the Orang Asli in Perak are in Hulu Perak, Kuala Kangsar, Kinta and the Batang Padang districts. WWF Malaysia 5-8

257 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Table 5-3 : Traditional Villages in the Main Range No State Traditional Village 1. Perak Jeram Tangkai Padi 2. Kelantan Kg.Chas 3. Kelantan Kg.Kuala Betis 4. Pahang Kg.Raja 5. Pahang Kg.Kuala Terla 6. Pahang Berinchang 7. Pahang Tanah Rata 8. Pahang Lembah Bertam 9. Pahang Kg.Hulu Sungai 10. Pahang Teras 11. Pahang Bukit Fraser 12. Pahang Teranum 13. Pahang Kg.Baharu Penjuring 14. Pahang Kg. Baharu Camang 15. Pahang Kg.S.Dua 16. Pahang Kg. Baharu Bukit Tinggi 17. Pahang Kg.Sum Sum Hilir 18. Pahang Kg Janda Baik 19. Selangor Gumut 20. Selangor Pertak 21. Selangor Kg.Hulu Kalong 22. Negeri Sembilan Broga 23. Negeri Sembilan Kg.Telekong 24. Negeri Sembilan Kg.Kongkoi 25. Negeri Sembilan Kg.Masuba 26. Negeri Sembilan Kg.Ulu Klawang 27. Negeri Sembilan Kg.Kasau 28. Negeri Sembilan Kg.Langkap 29. Negeri Sembilan Kg.Ulu Bendol 30. Negeri Sembilan Kg.Nerusa WWF Malaysia 5-9

258 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Special Management Areas Special Management Areas (SMA) are locations in the Main Range where agriculture and urban related activities may be permitted to be developed. It is drawn from the earlier principle of the strategic plan that development should only be permitted in selected locations in the highlands. These are areas in the highlands where there are already existing concentration of population and serviced by basic infrastructure and facilities. In delineating the SMA, other considerations taken into account were:- (i) the extent of development activities, (ii) extent of alienated lands, (iii) availability of farmland, (iv) proximity to settlement areas, (v) terrain and conservation needs, and (vi) a cohesive and manageable form The SMAs may be used as a guide to determine where development activities may be permitted in the Highlands. Once a SMA is established it may be necessary to prepare a development plan for the area and a management plan to ensure that development land is released in a sustainable manner. Prior to this, proper terrain maps have to be prepared for all the SMAs to be used as a basis for planning. The main SMAs in the Main Range proposed in this study are (Figure 5-6) :- (i) (ii) (iii) Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands SMA Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik SMA Frasers Hill SMA The types of development permitted within the SMAs include agricultural structures, agriculture (which involves clearing of trees), attached dwellings, dwelling houses, recreation areas, recreation facilities, tourist facilities and utility installations. Golf courses and manufacturing industries should not be permitted in the SMAs. Except for isolated eco-tourism facilities, development outside the SMA should not be permitted. The three SMAs are elaborated in further details in section 5.3 to section Strategic Land Use Plan The Strategic Land Use Plan for the Main Range is shown in Figures 5-7a and 5-7b and the land areas summarized in Tables 5-4 and 5-5. This generally indicates the broad classification of land uses proposed in the Strategic Land Use Plan. WWF Malaysia 5-10

259 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Table 5-4 : Strategic Land Use Plan for the Main Range Land Uses Area (ha) Area (%) Proposed SMA Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik Fraser s Hill (48749) (23930) (887) 4.96 (3.29) (1.61) (0.06) Protection Forest High conservation value areas, wildlife reserve and water catchment forest State Parks Selangor State Park, Perak State Park Water Bodies Remaining Forest Reserve Total The SMAs constitute only 4.96% of the total Main Range area. The Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands SMA will cover an area of about 48749ha, the Genting Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik SMA will be about 23930ha while the Fraser s Hill SMA is estimated at 887ha. Protection forest will include the existing wildlife reserves, proposed high conservation value areas, and water catchments. The total area designated as protection forest is ha or 59.29% of the total Main range area. Most of these protection forests are in Perak (41.85%) followed by Kelantan (25.66%), Pahang (21.09%), Selangor (5.89%) and Negeri Sembilan (5.51%) (Figure 5-5). Water bodies constitute 46037ha while the remaining forest reserve areas amounts to ha. The remaining forest reserves could be utilized as productive forests subject to the guidelines by the DOF. 5.3 Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands SMA Setting The Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands triangle is a SMA which constitutes most of the settlements within Cameron Highlands, Pos Sigar and Pos Brooke in Kelantan and the Kinta Highlands in Perak. The area transcends the three states of Pahang, Kelantan and Perak. The SMA covers 48,749 ha out of which 29,258 ha are in Pahang, 9,607 ha in Perak and the remaining 9,883 ha in Kelantan (Figure 5-8). The development boundary was drawn taking into account the principles of delineating the SMA, committed development projects and incorporate the existing developed agricultural areas as well as the proposed new highway linking Simpang Pulai in Perak with Gua Musang and the Cameron Highlands Kuala Lipis road. WWF Malaysia 5-11

260 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Table 5-5 : Strategic Land Use Plan for the Main Range Areas by State Land Uses Proposed SMA Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik Fraser s Hill Protection Forest High conservation value areas, wildlife reserve and water catchment forest State Parks Perak Kelantan Pahang Negeri Sembilan Selangor Area (ha) Area (%) Area (ha) Area (%) Area (ha) Area (%) Area (ha) Area (%) Area (ha) Area (%) (9608) (1.56) (9883) (2.64) (21080) (6.68) (29258) (9.27) - - (2851) (3.43) (762) (0.24) - - (125) (0.15) Selangor State Park, Perak State Park Water Bodies * * * * * * * * Remaining Forest Reserve Total * Included in water catchment forests and forest reserves WWF Malaysia 5-12

261 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Table 5-6 : Land Area of Cameron Highlands Lojing Kinta Highlands SMA State Township Area(ha) Percentage Pahang Kg. Raja - Kuala Terla Tringkap Kea Farm Brinchang Tanah Rata Habu Ringlet Subtotal 3, Perak Kinta Heights * Subtotal 1, Kelantan Pos Sigar * Pos Brooke * Subtotal 1, Township area Total 5, SMA outside the town ship Total 42, SMA total area Total 48, Note : *1 : Based on original proposals from the State The Cameron Highlands part of the SMA encompasses the area covered under the Cameron Highlands Local Plan. The total estimated population in Cameron Highlands is 23,557 (2000) within the local authority area. The Local Authority area covers a number of small townships such as Ringlet, Habu, Tanah Rata, Brinchang, Tringkap - Kea Farm, Kg - Raja- Kuala Terla. Both a Structure Plan and a Local Plan have been completed for Cameron Highlands. The Structure Plan covered the entire district while the Local Plan only covered the above township areas. Further development guidelines are contained in the Study on the Development of Hill Stations (EPU, 2001). Generally urban expansion is only permitted within the township areas as defined in the Local Plans. The Lojing part of the SMA stretches from Pos Brooke which is about 44km from Tanah Rata to the Pahang State Boundary. The State of Kelantan has identified Pos Brooke and Pos Sigar as new growth centers for the area. In the original proposals, a total of 847 ha will be developed around Pos Brooke and 464ha at Pos Sigar (Table 5-6). The rationale behind proposing the Kinta Highlands as part of this SMA can be traced to the proposal in the Rancangan Struktur Sebahagian Daerah Kinta ( ), to have a growth center in the Highlands called Dataran Kinta or the Kinta Highlands. This center located in the Highlands is planned to take advantage of the new highway connecting Simpang Pulai and Cameron Highlands. The land use activities planned for the growth center include agriculture and tourism activities to accommodate the spillover from Cameron Highlands. The Kinta Highlands project will provide the opportunity to plan and develop a sustainable growth center in the Highlands in the state of Perak. The existing hill station in Perak at Bukit Larut (Maxwell Hill) has restrictions on further development WWF Malaysia 5-13

262 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE and lacks tourist facilities to accommodate the growing number of international and local tourist that visit the Highlands. In view of the relatively closer proximity to Ipoh, the site also offers potential for the development of health farms and convalescent homes. The growth center will also help to decentralize development activities and reduce the concentration in Cameron Highlands. From an environmental perspective, the site is located in the Sg. Raia catchment and does not affect the main water intake plant which is located at Tanjung Rambutan. The site has already undergone selective logging and the project is not expected to displace any of the Orang Asli settlements nearby Land Use Change There have been significant changes in the land use within the Camerons SMA between (Table 5-7) (Figure 5-9). Most of the increases were in urban use which increased by 79% and agriculture use which increased by 67%. Cleared land, presumably for agriculture which was categorized as others, also showed a significant increase. There is an urgent need to control the clearing of forest land for development purposes within the Camerons region. Clearing of forest was rampant in the Lojing in the Forest Reserve of Sg. Beruk, the Kinta Highlands area and the Sg. Terla Water Catchment Area. Table 5-7 : Camerons SMA Land Use Change, Year Type Change Hectare % Hectare % Hectare % Urban Use , Agriculture Use 6, , , Forest Use 41, , , Others , , Total 48, , Adopted from : Information obtained from Agriculture Maps of the DOA Strategic Proposals While detail policies and recommendations are contained in the Local Plan, Structure Plans and the hill station study, some of the strategic proposals in this study are as follows:- 1) Guiding land use development Land use development should conform to the provisions of the Local Plans and the proposed Special Area Plan. Development in this area should also be monitored according to a Management Plan prepared for the area. Areas of scenic beauty should be identified and appropriate policies formulated to protect these views. WWF Malaysia 5-14

263 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE 2) Conservation of existing forest reserves Existing forest reserves within the SMA constitutes an area of 19,653 ha or 40.3% of the total area. These include the PFE of Hutan Rezab Sungai Beruk (Kelantan), Hutan Rizab Bukit Kinta (Perak), Hutan Rizab Bukit Tapah (Perak). It is important that the gazetted forest reserves within Cameron Highlands such as Hutan Rezab Hulu Icat, Hutan Rizab Batu Gangan, Hutan Rezab Ulu Bertam, Hutan Rezab Sungai Kial,and the Hutan Rizab Mentigi, are protected against encroachment of urban and agricultural activities. These forest reserves should also be gazetted as Water Catchment Forest under the Forestry Act. 3) Protecting the steep slopes Within the SMA, steep land with slopes exceeding 25 o constitute 12,264ha or 25.2% of the area. These areas should be gazetted as Hill Lands under the Land Conservation Act. It is recommended that no agriculture and urban development should be allowed on these land as they are particularly susceptible to erosion. The enforcement of these provisions rest with the Land Office. The slope analysis map was done using the topographic sheets on 20m contour intervals. There may be a need to prepare detail terrain maps and erosion risk maps to further determine specific areas to be avoided for development. 4) Protecting the Water Supply Catchment Areas. The main water supply to Tanah Rata is from the Sg. Burong Intake near Brinchang. There are several other small water supply schemes serving the other small townships. There are two water catchments in Cameron Highlands namely the Telom Catchment in the north and the Bertam Catchment. Both these catchments are important for the proposed new water schemes at Habu and Kuala Terla. The Habu Stage 1 scheme will yield 19.2MLD with an eventual capacity of 22.88MLD while the Kuala Terla Stage 1 will yield 19.21MLD with an eventual capacity of 43.21MLD. With the completion of stage one of these schemes, there will be sufficient water to meet projected water demand for Cameron Highlands which is projected to increase to 26.3MLD by 2020 (EPU, 1999). From a land use perspective it is important that the immediate catchment of the intakes are protected from further agricultural and urban development. These areas should be clearly demarcated by the State Water Supply Department and the Local Authority and gazetted as water catchment areas under the State Water Supply Enactment. There should be strict controls on developments within the Water Catchment Areas. 5) Promoting the sustainable use of unalienated state land. There is still a significant portion of unalienated state land within the SMA (14,779ha mainly in Cameron Highlands). Many of these areas are under forest cover and do not yet have proper road access. These areas are under pressure for both agricultural and urban development. It is important that these lands are monitored and proper surveillance carried out by the WWF Malaysia 5-15

264 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Land office to prevent unlawful encroachment. It is also important that in alienating these lands, the State Authority has to ensure that the proposed development conforms to the Local Plan for the area to ensure compliance with section 18 of the Town and Country Planning Act. No land that is potentially hazardous due to landslides and erosion or important due to its biological significance should be alienated for development purposes. In this respect the applicant for State Land should be required to submit his proposal and the necessary impact studies as decided by the authorities before an approval is given. 6) Preparing a Special Area Plan The Cameron Lojing Kinta SMA is an area of national importance. It is not only important as a hill resort but is also the biggest producer of temperate crops in the country and important for the conservation of biodiversity and endemic species. This region has to be planned comprehensively and developed and managed in a sustainable manner. Cross border issues pertaining to adequate water supply, coordinated agricultural and resort development and the application of comprehensive conservation and management strategies have to be addressed before this region can be developed in a sustainable manner. A comprehensive regional plan should be prepared for this area. This should be carried out by the proposed Regional Planning Committee for the area. Detail terrain maps need to be prepared for the SMA s to be used as a base for planning. 7) Review the Scale of Development of the New Township Areas The new township area of Kinta Highland (1,461 ha) and Pos Brooke (847 ha) are very large compared to the existing settlement area in Camerons such as Tanah Rata which is only 515 ha. It is proposed that the second parcel in the Kinta Highland abutting the Pahang State Boundary should not be developed. Similarly the settlement area in Pos Brooke should also be reduced and planned as a local service centre for the Orang Asli in the area. 8) Prepare Terrain Maps for the SMA The existing base plans for the SMA are topographic sheets 1:50,000 with 20m contours. This is not sufficient to prepare Detail Development Plans / Local Plans. Terrain maps incorporating topography, soil and geological considerations should be prepared for all the SMA areas identified in this study to serve as a base for detail planning work. WWF Malaysia 5-16

265 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE 5.4 Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik SMA Setting This region comprises steep hills in the Genting Highlands and Bukit Tinggi and an established agricultural settlement in the Janda Baik area (Figure 5-10). The SMA covers 23,930 ha. The highest peak is the Gunung Ulu Kali (1,772m) which houses the microwave telecommunications station. The other major peak is the G. Buah Bunga which has been identified for its good ecotourism potential. Both these peaks have outstanding potential for flora conservation. A major part of the highlands falls within the catchment of Sg. Selangor where a new water supply dam is being constructed. Rivers that drain the area that may be particularly sensitive to upland development include the Sg. Pencheras that feeds into Sg. Selangor and the Sg. Berdah that flows southwards towards Bt Tinggi New Village and Sg. Perting that drains northwards where there is a water intake plant supplying water to Bentong. The main river draining Bt Tinggi Resort is the Sg. Kesyar while the Janda Baik area is drained by Sg. Benus. Broadly the area could be grouped into three sub-areas (i) (ii) (iii) Genting Resort Area (8204ha) Bukit Tinggi Resort (6324ha) Janda Baik Area (9403ha) The Genting Resorts area includes development around the Awana Country Club and the Goh Tong Jaya township (914m elevation) the Casino Complex, the Convention Center, the Theme Park and the Samaworld Development at the 1828m elevation. Other proposed developments include Genting View and the Genting Medical Center. The Bukit Tinggi Resort area currently comprises the Bukit Tinggi Golf and Country Club, Meranti Park Suites, Colmar Tropicale (1000m) and a Japanese Tea House. Other proposals include a Theme Park and a new Bukit Tinggi township. The Janda Baik area includes the Selesa Homes, the existing Bukit Tinggi New Village and the traditional villages such as Kg. Sum Sum and Kg Janda Baik. This area will require further government assistance to ensure comprehensive planning and development. Generally this area is at a lower elevation (400m). Much of the land within the corridor has been identified for development and guided by the Genting Area Development Plan and the Bukit Tinggi Development Plan. Much of this area is still under forest cover however it is likely they will eventually be developed according to the Masterplan for the area. The current estimated population for the SMA is about The Genting Area has estimated population of about 7500, Bukit Tinggi 1264 and Janda Baik estimated at about The main economy of the Genting complex revolves round entertainment and recreational related facilities, casinos, and hotels. There were a total of 13.4 million visitors in 1999 with overnight tourist numbering 1.9million and the remaining 11.5 million being day excursionists WWF Malaysia 5-17

266 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Land Use Change The land use change between 1991 and 1997 showed sharp increase in urban, agriculture and other uses. Forest cover decreased by 22% over the period (Table 5-8). Extensive forest clearing is seen in the Bt. Tinggi Forest reserve in Janda Baik for agriculture use (Figure 5-11). It is noted that much of the Genting Area is still maintained as forest. Table 5-8 : Genting Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik SMA Land Use Change Year Type Change Hectare % Hectare % Hectare % Urban Use 1, , Agriculture Use 3, , Forest Use 16, , , Others 2, , , Total 23, , Adopted from : Information obtained from Agriculture Maps of DOA Strategic Proposals The SMA for the area is shown in Figure The total area is 23,930 ha out of which the Genting Resort area is 8,204ha, Bukit Tinggi is 6,323ha and Janda Baik 9,402ha. The map attempts to accommodate the development proposals in the Master Development Plan for Genting Highlands and the Bukit Tinggi Area. Both these compartments will be developed by the concessionaries for the area. However the Janda Baik area has to be planned in an integrated manner with the proposed developments in the north. Some of the strategic proposals are: (i) Development should only be permitted within the SMA boundaries The basic objective of this proposal is to prevent urban sprawl and ensure a well-planned integrated community. There are already emerging trends of urban sprawl towards the Ulu Yam area from Goh Tong Jaya and towards Bentong Town. (ii) Review the Development Plans prepared for the Genting Area and the Bukit Tinggi Resort Area The Genting Resort area is about 8,204 ha while the Bukit Tinggi Area is about 6,323 ha. Under the existing development plans for the area more than 95% of the area will be developed for urban and related uses. This is contrary to existing guidelines whereby only 30% of the total area should be allowed for development while the remaining areas are retained in their natural state. Areas with more than 25 degrees slope should also be avoided for any development. WWF Malaysia 5-18

267 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE (iii) Prepare a Comprehensive Development Plan for the Janda Baik area. The Janda Baik Area is currently neglected from the main stream of development. This area offers good potential for the development of an agrobased center, agrotourism activities and promoting hobby farming in an orderly manner. The Plan should also provide for farmlands, display areas for agriculture fairs, settlement areas, drainage facilities, solid waste disposal sites, water supply and road connections. (iv) Enhance Accessibility to the Janda Baik area. The current access to Janda Baik is from the Genting Sempah interchange through a long winding road alongside the Karak Highway. Some of the new road proposals to enhance accessibility to the area are: Proposed KL- Karak Bypass which will link the KLORR with Karak. Direct road linkage from Kg. Sum- Sum Hilir to the Karak Highway. (v) Establish a viable Local Center in the Janda Baik area. There is a need for a proper local center to serve the residents of the area. The proposed center should be strategically located close to the proposed KL- Karak Bypass. 5.5 Fraser s Hill SMA Setting The Frasers Hill SMA covers an area of 887ha. A small part of it falls within the state of Selangor while the main settlement area is in Pahang. The hill was previously managed by the Frasers Hill Development Corporation (FHDC) but was recently taken over by the District Council of Raub. Access to the hill station is through Raub or Kuala Kubu Bahru (Figure 5-12). The total resident population is about 1,256 (year 2000). Most of the employment is in the retail and hospitality sector as well as the government sector. There is also very little agriculture employment in Frasers Hill. There are scattered bungalows, limited shopping facilities at the Puncak Inn and other social facilities in the area. The main recreational attraction is the 9 hole town golf course and the 18 hole Jeriau Course, flower nurseries, recreation parks and jungle trails. Tourist arrival has declined from 57,504 in 1990 to 32,154 in A high proportion of tourists are domestic tourists. Fraser Hill is located at an elevation on 1,200m. The highest peak is Bukit Peninjau (1,328m) which houses a telecom station. The terrain in Frasers Hill is steep. Two of the major projects in the area which have caused significant environmental problems are the 18 hole country club golf course which has led to severe siltation of the Jeriau Waterfalls and the new access road from Raub which has experience several slope failures. WWF Malaysia 5-19

268 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE Frasers Hill is also the source of many rivers that flows into Selangor and Pahang. Sg. Hijau is the source of the Hills water supply and part of the Selangor River Basin. Sewage treatment systems comprise septic tanks and mechanized treatment plants. Discharge form treatment plants have to meet Standard A of the DOE regulations. The solid waste management system is unsatisfactory with waste dumped on a steep valley at Jalan Jeriau and pushed down the slope. Most of the area is still covered with forest (74%). A significant portion of Frasers Hill is protected as wildlife reserves in both the Pahang and Selangor side. Some of these gazettes were as early as 1922 and there is uncertainly as to the exact extent of the protected areas. The Frasers hill area is of prime conservation value. Among the prime flora conservation areas are the: 1. Bishops Path 2. Path to Pine Tree Hill 3. Jeriau valley 4. Forest below the Methodist Bungalow 5. Kenari Nuri Merpati Trail 6. Roadside Forest Fringes Frasers Hill is noted for its endemism and rarity of its plant species. There is also a rich diversity of fauna including endangered species such as the tiger and the serow. The pygmy grey fruit bat is endemic to Frasers Hill. There are also several species of birds on the vulnerable list. Frasers Hill is also a bird watching location of international importance. The Frasers Hill international bird race is held annually in June which attracts participants from all over the world Strategic Proposals (i) The central development theme for Frasers Hill will be to promote nature and eco-tourism activities. This would suggest the importance of conserving the natural environment and limit the opening up of the area. The existing facilities should be upgrade and environmentally degraded areas should be rehabilitated. (ii) Prepare a Special Area Plan for the Frasers SMA The thrust of this plan should be conservation related, although there will be a need to identify new settlement areas and identify sites for social facilities and infrastructure. The plan should clearly identify the conservation areas including forest conservation areas, high conservation value areas, wildlife reserves, water conservation areas and hill lands to be protected. The preparation of such a plan is provided under section 16B of the Town and Country Planning Act. WWF Malaysia 5-20

269 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE (iii) Prepare a comprehensive infrastructure master plan in tandem with the Local Plan. Key facets of this master plan should include the overall stormwater drainage infrastructure, solid waste disposal, sewerage, roads and water supply. (iv) Continuous programme to monitor and evaluate development proposals. The Cabinet Committee on Highlands and the State Planning Committee should continuously monitor all development activities in Frasers Hill. There is also an urgent need to establish strong urban design, site planning and architectural guidelines to ensure an attractive urban form for the area. The desired objectives in the Structure plan are to preserve the English Village setting of the area. WWF Malaysia 5-21

270 CHAPTER 5 : STRATEGIC LAND USE PLAN FOR THE MAIN RANGE 5.1 Introduction Strategic Land Use Plan for the Main Range Constraints and Opportunities Elevations Water bodies Road network Dams and water catchment areas Tourism sites Areas important for the protection of biodiversity Agriculture Development Existing settlements and development areas Special Management Areas Strategic Land Use Plan Cameron Highlands - Lojing - Kinta Highlands SMA Setting Land Use Change Strategic Proposals Genting Highlands Bukit Tinggi Janda Baik SMA Setting Land Use Change Strategic Proposals Fraser s Hill SMA Setting Strategic Proposals 20 WWF Malaysia 5-22

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285 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 6.1 Introduction This chapter examines the Malaysian legislation and institutional framework that are relevant to the planning and management of the highlands. The relevant legislation are reviewed and their strengths and weaknesses explored. Similarly, the problems and issues pertaining to the current institutional arrangements are also reviewed in relation to the planning and management of the highlands. This chapter also proposes improvements to the institutional arrangements and strengthening of the legislation. 6.2 Review of Legal and Institutional Framework The legislation related to planning and management of the highlands are reviewed under the following headings: i. Administration and functional responsibilities ii. Land use planning and development iii. Control and regulation of development activities iv. Habitat protection This classification is merely for purposes of convenience in addressing the laws that relate to the respective subheadings. Some of the laws may have overlapping jurisdiction. For example, the Town and Country Planning Act (TCPA) covers both land use planning and development control. Conversely, the Land Conservation Act is discussed under the control and regulation of development activities as the major thrust of this act was preventing silt and soil erosion from hill lands. The main laws related to administration are the Federal Constitution and the Ministerial Functions Act. The principal laws on development planning and conservation are the National Land Code and the Town and Country Planning Act. The main laws governing the control and regulation of development activities include the TCPA, the Land Conservation Act and the Environmental Quality Act. The acts that are important for habitat protection are the Protection of Wildlife Act, National Forestry Act, the Aborigine Peoples Act and the National Parks Act Administration and Functional Responsibilities Federal Constitution Malaysia follows a Federal system of government with divided responsibilities for Federal and State Governments. Many of the matters pertaining to natural resources and land development are on the State and Concurrent List, rather than the Federal List (Table 6-1). Agriculture, forestry, rivers and water resources, land and soil conservation and local government come under the State List. The protection of wild animals, town and country planning, drainage and irrigation and the rehabilitation of land which has suffered from soil erosion come within the Concurrent List. This suggests that most of the natural resources of the highlands fall within the State list. As such, it is particularly important to recognize that the WWF Malaysia 6-1

286 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK State is an important stakeholder and should be an active participant in implementing the development strategies and management plans of the highlands. This further suggests that national policies on sustainable development have to be translated into action plans and adopted by the respective states for implementation. In most cases, the distribution of legislative and executive power corresponds with the list as per the 9 th Schedule, except for matters on the concurrent list, where executive power is normally vested in the State unless otherwise provided by law (Art 80(2)). Hence, the Federal Government can exercise executive authority on matters under the Concurrent List if the Act provides for it. The Federal Government may also legislate on matters under the State List but only for purposes of implementing a treaty, uniformity of laws or if requested by the State Legislative. The Federal Government does not have executive authority on matters under the State List except for purposes mentioned under Articles 93, 94 and 95 that relate to inquiries, surveys, conducting research and providing technical assistance to the State Government. It is interesting to note the State Agriculture and Forestry officers are duty bound to accept the advice given by the relevant federal agency (Art 94(1)). The Constitution also provides for Federal-State coordination of policies using the National Land Council, the National Council for Local Government and the National Financial Council as forums. The decisions of these councils are binding on the states Ministerial Functions Act 1969 The Ministerial Functions Act 1969 and the associated Ministers of the Federal Government Order prescribe the functions of the various Federal Ministers and Departments (Table 6-2). At the Federal level, the Economic Planning Unit (EPU) plays an important role as a central agency for coordinating and formulating the five-year national development plans. It is also the main agency for national economic planning. The EPU is divided into various sections to carry out its many functions. The Regional Economics and Environment Section currently handles environmental and natural resource planning. At the state level, the State Economic Planning Unit (SEPU) carries out macro economic planning. Other Ministries that play important roles in the institutional framework for sustainable development of the highlands include the Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment (MOSTE), the Ministry of Primary Industries, the Ministry of Works, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government and the Ministry of Land and Cooperative Development. WWF Malaysia 6-2

287 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Table 6-1: Matters Relevant to the Environment & Natural Resources under the Federal, State and Concurrent Lists List Item Matter Federal 8 Trade, commerce and industry, particularly, Item 8(a), relating to production, supply and distribution of goods, Item 8(I), which is concerned with industries and regulation of industrial undertakings, and Item 8(j) which deals with the development of mineral resources, mines, mining, minerals, mineral ores, oils, oilfields and petroleum products. 9 Shipping, navigation and fisheries, especially, Item 9(d), pertaining to maritime and estuarine fishing and fisheries. 10 Communications and transport 11 Federal works and power 14 Medicine and health 20 Control of agriculture pests State 2 Land matters, particularly, Item 2(a) which refers to land improvement and soils conservation 3 Agriculture and forestry 4 Local government 6 State works and water 12 Turtles and riverine fishing 13 Native law and custom in Sabah and Sarawak 17 Ancient and historical movements and records, and archeological sites in Sabah and Sarawak Concurrent 3 Protection of wild animals and wild birds, and National Parks 5 Town and Country Planning 7 Public health 8 Drainage and irrigation Source: 9 th Schedule Malaysian Constitution 9 Rehabilitation of mining land and land which has suffered soil erosion 13 The production, distribution and supply of power and of electricity generated by water power in Sabah and Sarawak 14 Agricultural and forestry research, control of agricultural pests, and protection against such pests, and prevention of plant diseases in Sabah and Sarawak WWF Malaysia 6-3

288 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Table 6-2 : Function of Ministries and Departments Ministerial Functions, Act 1969 (Ministers of the Federal Government Order) Departments Economic Planning Unit Ministry of Finance, Budget Division Public Works Department (JKR) Ministry of Primary Industries Department of Geological Survey and Minerals Department of Irrigation and Drainage Ministry Of Science, Technology & Environment Department Of Environment Town And Country Planning Department Department Of Wildlife And National Park Department Of Survey And Mapping Land And Mines Department Department of Agriculture Department of Forestry Highway Authority Of Malaysia State Economic Development Corporation Ministry Of Rural Development Department Of Orang Asli Affairs Ministry Of Housing And Local Government Subject National Economic Planning Development Budgeting Programme Development Aid National Development Planning Committee Preparation of expenditure budget and control of expenditure Development of roads, bridges, buildings and airports Development of Waterworks and water resources Primary Commodities, National Forestry Council, National Mineral Policy Geological Survey and control of mineral resources Flood mitigation, agricultural drainage, irrigation, river conservancy, hydrology & coastal engineering (National Policy on Biodiversity), National Environment Policy (Cabinet Committee on Highlands and Islands) Environmental Quality Council Prevention and control of environmental pollution Protection & enhancement of the quality of environment Development and enhancement of physical, social, economic and environment system Town and Country Planning Act 1976 Wildlife Protection National Parks and Wildlife Reserves Cadastral survey, topographic survey, title survey and mapping National Land Council Agricultural extension, agricultural statistics, soil management & pesticide control Forestry Development of highway State Economic Development Restructuring of traditional village Development of rural industries Welfare and economic development of aborigines National Council for Local Government WWF Malaysia 6-4

289 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MOSTE) The MOSTE is the main Ministry responsible for environmental management and protection. The Ministry is responsible for administering the implementation of several international conventions and national policies on environment such as the National Policy on Biodiversity. The Ministry is also in the process of formulating the National Environment Policy which will relate to a number of inert sectoral issues. The implementation of these policies is tasked to key line agencies within the Ministry such as the Department of Environment (DOE) and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP). The DOE is responsible for the prevention and control of environmental pollution and draws its powers from the Environmental Quality Act The DOE is also the approving authority for the EIA that is carried out for prescribed activities. The DWNP enforces the provisions of the Protection of Wildlife Act 1972 and is responsible for the management of wildlife sanctuaries and reserves. MOSTE is also the secretariat for the Cabinet Committee on Highlands and Islands (Table 6-3). This committee is charged with the task of advising the government on policies and recommendations for the sustainable development of the highlands in the light of the recent landslides in the area. This Committee is however an adhoc committee with a short term mandate to report to the Cabinet. Ministry of Primary Industries The role of the Ministry of Primary Industries in highlands management can be directly alluded to the functions of two important departments, namely the Department of Forestry (DOF) and the Department of Minerals and Geoscience (DMG). The DOF is responsible for implementing the National Forestry Policy by providing technical advice and assistance to the State Forestry Departments which are manned by officers seconded from headquarters. Notwithstanding this, the state forestry department has the authority to formulate its own policies and enforce the provisions of the National Forestry Act DMG is a Federal Department that is responsible for implementing the National Minerals Policy and programmes relating to geological survey and ground water management. However it should be noted that executive powers with respect to both minerals and groundwater resources are with the State and extraction of these resources will still need the approval of the State. The Ministry is also the Secretariat for the National Forestry Council which is chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister and represented by the State Chief Ministers. Policies on forestry practices that are adopted by the Council is binding on the states. This council is expected to play an important role in ensuring sustainable forest management practices are uniformly applied in the Peninsular. Ministry of Agriculture Within the Ministry of Agriculture, the two main departments that play important roles in highland management are the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID). The DOA mainly provides extension WWF Malaysia 6-5

290 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK services to the sector and focuses on training and development of farmers. The State DOA is responsible for policy and planning at the State level and is required by law to adhere to the advise of the Federal Department. The DOA, however, is not empowered with enforcement powers through an Act of Parliament and is in a difficult position to ensure that highland farmers conform to sound agricultural practices. Even in the area of pesticide control, which is regulated by the Pesticides Act 1974, the Department has very little control on the misuse of pesticides by farmers and pesticide pollution on water bodies. The DID, on the other hand, is responsible for the conservation of river systems, irrigation infrastructure and drainage outside Local Authority areas. Again, in areas outside gazetted irrigation and drainage areas, as is the case in most highland areas, the DID has no enforcement powers. It is common to see agricultural and logging activities extending right up to the river banks as river reserves are not clearly demarcated. Recently, the DID has been entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring sound storm water management practices in all new developments and the application of integrated river basin planning to better manage water resources and reduce incidences of river flooding. Ministry of Housing and Local Government The Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD) within the Ministry of Housing and Local Government (MHLG) plays an important role for the planning and development of urban and rural areas. The department provides technical assistance to the State and Local Planning Authorities in preparing the Structure and Local Plans. The provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act 1976 are implemented by the State Planning Committee and the Local Planning Authority. The recent amendment of the Act provides for the establishment of a National Physical Planning Council (NPPC) that will provide a forum for Federal and State Ministers to formulate a national policy on land use development and conservation. The NPPC (Table 6-4) could also be effectively used as a suitable forum for streamlining integrated and sustainable policies on highland development and management. MHLG is also the Secretariat for the National Council for Local Government. Policies pertaining to local government management are deliberated at the NCLG before they are applied at the Local Authority level. The NCLG is a constitutional council and is represented by both the Federal and State Governments. The decisions of this council are binding on the States. WWF Malaysia 6-6

291 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Table 6-3 : Existing Cabinet Committee On Highlands And Islands Chairman : Minister of Science, Technology and Environment Members : Menteri Besar of all states except Kelantan and Terengganu or their representatives. Director General of EPU or representative Attorney General or representative KSU Ministry of Agriculture or representative KSU Ministry of Primary Industry or representative KSU Ministry of Housing and Local Government or representative KSU Ministry of Works or representative KSU Ministry of Land and Cooperative Development or representative Director General of Department of Environment Director General of Town and Country Planning Department Secretary : Secretary General of MOSTE Existing Functions : 1) Formulate strategies and directions for the development of highlands and islands. 2) Coordinate and monitor development projects on the highlands and islands with emphasis given to conservation and rehabilitation. 3) Recommend to the Cabinet on laws, regulations and guidelines that are suitable for the development of highlands and islands. WWF Malaysia 6-7

292 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Table 6-4 : National Physical Planning Council (NPPC) Act A1129 Members : Chairman : Prime Minister Deputy Chairman : Deputy Prime Minister Minister for Town and Country Planning Minister of Housing and Local Government Minister of Finance Minister for Land Minister for the Federal Territories Menteri Besar or Chief Minister of every state. Not more than 7 other members to be appointed by the Chairman. This could include :- Minister of Works Minister for Rural Development Minister of Science Technology and Environment Minister of Transport Minister of Agriculture. Secretary : Director General of Town and Country Planning Functions : 1) To formulate a national policy on the use, conservation and development of land in the country 2) To initiate and prepare a National Physical Plan and keep it in review from time to time. 3) To coordinate development at a national and regional level to ensure a sustainable form of development. 4) To formulate uniform set of rules and guidelines on planning procedures in the country. 5) To advise the state on planning applications that is referred to the council 6) To collect information and encourage the publication of statistics and information relating to town and country planning and its methodology. 7) To give directions to the Director General of Town and Country Planning consistent with the provisions of the Act. 8) The Council may also perform any other functions incidental or consequential to the Act. The council will meet once every four months. The SPC is also required to get the advise of the Council for the following development applications:- 1) New town development with resident population exceeding or covering 100 ha. 2) Developments in highlands and hill slopes that have been identified in the Development Plans as environmental sensitive areas. 3) Major infrastructure and utility development. WWF Malaysia 6-8

293 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Ministry of Works The Ministry of Works is an important ministry with respect to infrastructure development especially roads, highways and water works in the highland areas. The relevant agencies within the Ministry include the Public Works Department (PWD), Highway Planning Unit (HPU) and the Malaysian Highway Authority (MHA). The two key divisions within the PWD are the Division of Water Supply and the Division of Roads. The State PWD carries out the implementation of public works within individual states. The Ministry of Works is also the Secretariat to the National Waters Council which in the midst of formulating National Water Policy and expected to resolve issues pertaining to inter-state water transfer and supply. This is particularly important as hill stations such as Cameron Highlands, Lojing, Fraser s Hill and Genting Highlands are located close to state boundaries and may have to rely on the water supply infrastructure of neighboring states. Ministry of Land and Cooperative Development The Ministry of Land and Cooperative Development is involved in highlands management through the operational activities of the National Land Council and the Department of Survey and Mapping. The Ministry is also the secretariat to the National Land Council. This council established under the constitution to ensure uniform policies on land utilization, particularly in agriculture, forestry and mining. The decisions of the Council, which is chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister and represented by the State Governments, are binding on the states. This is the other forum that could be used to ensure the uniform implementation of sustainable policies for highlands development and management. The Department of Survey and Mapping carries out topographic surveys and is responsible for the conduct of title surveys for State Governments to issue land titles. As the administration of land is a state matter, the responsibility for such affairs is with the State Director of Lands and Mines who is supported by the District Land Officers. The State and District Land Offices are responsible for implementing and enforcing the provision of the National Land Code and the Land Conservation Act Most of the departments found at the Federal Level are also found at the State level. Some of these departments such as SEPU, State TCPD, State PWD, State DID, State DOF and State DOA and Land Offices are State departments with officers seconded from the Federal Department. Others such as DOE, DSM and DMG are Federal Departments located at the state level. It is also important to appreciate that Local Authorities are creations of the State although MHLG provides financial assistance and ensures coordination of policies. Similarly, as water is a state resource, water supply agencies and water resources management authorities such as the Selangor Waters Management Authority are State Agencies responsible to the state government. WWF Malaysia 6-9

294 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Land Use Planning and Development National Land Code The National Land Code (NLC) vest property in all land, mineral and rock material to the State Authority. The NLC also classifies land into three categories namely agriculture, industry and building. An additional category that is sometimes imposed is the nil category that is applied to uses such as golf courses. These categories are applied to the land when the State alienates State land or if a private landowner wishes to convert (change of category of use) his land for development. Unlike other methods of development such as subdivision and amalgamation of land, the alienation and conversion process does not specifically require planning permission prior to the approval although as a matter of practice, most State Authorities do consult the State TCPD before the application is approved. This creates an unsatisfactory situation whereby land may be alienated or converted to uses quite contrary to planning intentions. There is also no provision under the NLC to classify land for ecological or conservation uses. Most of the highland areas are forest reserves or State land. The State Authorities may also reserve any State land as reserve land (s62). However most states appear reluctant to reserve land for public purpose perhaps due to the limited availability of State Land and the short-term perspective that economic returns from developing the land may outweigh the longterm environmental and ecological advantages. There are also several instances of the State Authorities revoking reserve land for development. Permits for sand mining operations, and the removal and transportation of rock material are issued by the District Land Administrator (s72-72). Again, there is no legal requirement to consult the Local or Planning Authority for the area. On the whole there is also a lack of enforcement on the conditions of the permit resulting in badly silted rivers and drains if the operations are close to the river Town and Country Planning Act 1976 This is a Federal Act for the proper control and regulation of town and country planning in Peninsular Malaysia local authority areas. The Act requires the preparation of a number of plans on a hierarchical concept viz. National Physical Plan, Structure Plans, Local Plans and Special Area Plans. The Act also provides for the establishment of a National Physical Planning Council (Table 6-4) which is chaired by the Prime Minister. The National Physical Plan (NPP) is prepared by the Director General of Town and Country Planning on the direction of the National Physical Planning Council. The NPP outlines the strategic policies for determining the general directions and trends of the physical development of the nation. The Structure Plan which covers the entire state is a policy plan that includes proposals for the use and development of land and the improvement of the physical environment. The Local Plan which is prepared by the Local Planning Authority is a more detailed plan covering land use proposals including the protection and improvement of the physical environment and the preservation of the natural topography. The Special Area Plan is a variant of the Local Plan. The Act provides for the designation of a special area for detail treatment by means of development, redevelopment, conservation or management practices. The Act also provides for WWF Malaysia 6-10

295 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK the Development Proposal Report (LCP) and the Tree Preservation Order. The Development Proposal Report describes the characteristics of land such as physical environment, topography, landscape, geology, contours, drainage, water bodies, catchments, vegetation and other natural features including a land use analysis and its effects on adjoining lands. Planning instruments such as Local Plans, Development Proposal Reports and the Tree Preservation order are important documents to manage land use development in the highlands. However, it should be noted that a good proportion of the highlands are not covered by Local Plans and most areas, except for some hill stations, are not within the Local Authority operational areas. As such, the development control powers under the Act cannot be exercised in these areas. Enforcement on land development activities outside the local authority area lies with the District Land Administrator where there is often a shortage of manpower and absence of guidelines to assist the department Control and Regulation of Development Activities The principal legislation controlling development activities are the Town and Country Planning Act and the National Land Code. The rights of an individual to develop his land very much depends on the land use category and the conditions (both express and implied) imposed on the Register Document of title and the provisions of any Development Plan (Structure and Local Plan) prepared for the area. For example, land under the category of agriculture, may not be subdivided into parcels of less than one acre. As for building land, there is an implied condition that the building will be erected within 2 years of the date of notification of the alienation. The enforcement power rests with the Land Office. Under the TCPA, all development has to conform to the Local Plan for the area and no person, unless exempted, can commence development without obtaining planning permission from the local authority (s18 and s19). Development is widely defined in the TCPA to include: i. carrying out of any building, engineering, mining, industrial or other similar operations on land ii. making of any material change in the use of any land or building iii. subdivision or amalgamation of lands. Under the Act, the Local Authority has wide powers to control development within its area of jurisdiction. However it is important to note that, except for some hill station areas, most of the highland areas are not within the jurisdiction of the local authorities and as such, they are unable to exercise the development control powers accorded to them by the Act. Under the Amended Act (A1129), it is now necessary for development applications affecting hill tops and hill slopes in an area designated as environmentally sensitive to be referred to the National Physical Planning Council for its advice. As a proactive measure, a number of States including Pahang have set up committees on highlands development (Jawatankuasa Pembangunan Tanah Tinggi) to monitor development in the highlands and ensure they are safe for habitation. WWF Malaysia 6-11

296 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Following a Cabinet directive, the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning has also requested State TCPD to furnish it with information regarding development applications. These include development that is more than 1ha. that is 150m above sea level that is on slopes exceeding 15 degrees The collated information will serve as a basis for monitoring development in the highlands. It is also necessary to appreciate that certain types of land may be subject to other legislation. These include: i. Land under customary tenure ii. Malay reservation Lands iii. Sultanate lands iv. Mining lands v. Wakaf or Baitulmal vi. Paddy land vii. Group Land settlement area viii. Forest Reserve land ix. Hill land (under the Land Conservation Act) Land Conservation Act 1960 This Act is aimed at consolidating the law relating to conservation of hill land and the protection of soil from erosion and the inroad of silt. Hill lands need to be gazetted, and once opened, there are strict prohibitions on the activities that can be carried out. For example, there are prohibitions on short-term crops and land clearing of hill lands except with a permit. The State land office, which is responsible for implementing the Act, has powers to prohibit the removal of trees, or order the laying of drains and watercourses to prevent soil erosion. While the Act has been adopted by all states, its provisions have been rarely enforced. Again, part of the problem is the shortage of staff, the lack of awareness on the roles and the absence of guidelines to assist these agencies. To date, only Penang Hill and Cameron Highlands have been gazetted as hill land under this Act Environmental Quality Act 1974 This is a comprehensive piece of legislation for the prevention, abatement and control of pollution and the enhancement of the environment. The authority under the Act is the Director General of the DOE. The Act requires all prescribed premises to be licensed. These include rubber factories, waste treatment plants and palm oil processing plants. There are also restrictions on the pollution of inland waters (s25), rivers, drains, or lakes and restrictions on the pollution of soil (s24). Under the Act, the Minister may specify acceptable conditions for the emission, discharge or WWF Malaysia 6-12

297 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK deposit of waste (s21). Under the EQA (Prescribed Activities)(Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987, there are a number of prescribed activities that require an EIA to be prepared. Under s34a, the project proponent of the prescribed activity has to submit the EIA to the DOE before the relevant Authority grants approval for the project. The project proponent may not carry out the activity unless the report is approved (s34a(6)). This would suggest that the project could actually be approved even before the EIA is approved. While the EIA was meant to be a preventive measure to safeguard the environment, very often it remains a mitigation measure for projects already approved by the relevant authority. Hill development is not a prescribed activity under the Order. However some development activities on hill lands require an EIA include: i. Conversion of hill forest land exceeding 50 ha. ii. Logging or conversion of forest land within catchment areas of reservoirs or in areas adjacent to State and National parks. iii. Logging covering areas of more than 500ha. iv. Housing development covering more than 50 ha. v. Hill station resort or hotel development covering more than 50ha. It is widely accepted that many non-prescribed activities in the highlands can also have deleterious impacts on the environment. Given the scarcity of land at most hill stations, it is unlikely that developments will be anywhere near the prescribed 50 ha. The steep slopes in the highland areas mean that even small development sites could have serious environmental impacts. The prescribed activities do not differentiate between logging in the highlands or lowlands. It is also interesting to note, very few EIAs have actually been submitted for logging operations. Farming activities, that have caused so many problems at Cameron Highlands, are not subject to EIA Other regulations Prohibitions on the pollution of watercourses are found in a number of related legislation. These include the Waters Act 1920, Local Governments Act 1976, Earthworks bylaws, Mining Enactments and the Mineral Development Act 1994 and State enactments such as the Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment 1999 (SWMAE). Under the Waters Act, there is prohibition on the pollution of rivers, inland waters and subterranean water resources (s7a). Similarly under the SWMAE, there are prohibitions on the discharge of pollutants to any water source. The Director may also issue a Water Protection Order if there is any serious risk of pollution or threat to the environment (s122 SWMAE). The Local Authority may make bylaws to keep watercourses clean. Under the Earthworks bylaws, the Local Authority is responsible for the control of earthworks to prevent soil erosion and pollution. Under the Mining enactments, all water used in mining operations has to be free of hazardous chemicals and excessive solid matters before it is discharged to the river. A similar provision is also found in the Mineral Development Act, which states that water, before it leaves the mine, has to comply to prescribed water quality standards and be reasonably free of solid matter and harmful chemicals (s18). WWF Malaysia 6-13

298 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Habitat Protection Protection of Wildlife Act 1972 This Act provides for the protection of wildlife and habitats. The wildlife is listed into categories of totally protected, protected and game animals. The scope of the Act covers animals, birds and insects but does not extend to plant life. However, s48(5) and s49 prohibits the removal of timber or vegetation from a wildlife reserve or sanctuary. Under the Act, the power to declare an area within the state as Wildlife Reserve or Sanctuary is with the State Authority after consulting the Minister. The SA will also have to designate the controlling officer for the reserve or sanctuary. Any revocation of a wildlife reserve would require consultation with the Minister as the protection of wildlife, birds and national parks are on the concurrent list of the Constitution. This provides an added protection in contrast to other reserve lands. The provisions of this Act and other legislation related to the establishment of parks could be used to conserve the rich biodiversity of the highland areas and provide the added protection for these areas In this Act and the regulations promulgated within its framework, many vertebrate species have been afforded total protection i.e. they are listed under a schedule of Totally Protected species. This means that such species cannot be killed, kept, traded or hunted. Limited scientific studies are the only circumstance that can allow for totally protected species to be removed from the wild. Clauses also protect the nests of such animals and salt licks that they are known to use. Almost all birds and large and medium mammals are listed as Protected. Also included for protection in the Act are most of the small mammal species except the forest murids (rats) and some sciurids (squirrels). Among the reptiles, a number of species are Protected which in principle means that the law allows for controlled exploitation of individuals from wild populations. This is also true for certain mammals such as the wild boar (Sus scrofa) where licensed hunting is permitted. Species are added to both the Totally Protected and Protected lists as and when their conservation status makes it necessary. As such, the Wild Life Act, 1972 functions as the official government commitment to the preservation the wild fauna of Peninsular Malaysia. At this level, although many birds and some mammal fauna are given the status of Totally Protected species, this provision does not distill down to the practical reality of protecting the habitats of these animals. As an example, the section of the Wild Life Act that prohibits the disturbing of a nest of a Totally Protected species does not find any practical effect when logging operations occur in timber concessions. Forest activities such as these disturb and even destroy not only nests of Totally Protected species but whole ecological systems and forest structure that such nesting and breeding depend upon National Forestry Act 1984 This Act is promulgated under Article 76(3) of the constitution, which states that the law will only come into operation upon its adoption by the State Legislature WWF Malaysia 6-14

299 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK whereupon it is deemed to be State Law. This would suggest that executive powers with respect to the law lies with the State Authority (SA). This Act is particularly important in highlands management and development as a large proportion of the highlands is forested. Under the Act, the SA may appoint a State Director of Forestry and constitute permanent forest estates (PFE). The Director may classify PFE into 11 classes including soil protection forest, soil reclamation forest, water catchment forest, forest sanctuary for wildlife and research forest etc. Under the Act however, the SA can act unilaterally to excise any PFE although there is a duty wherever possible, to replace an area approximately equal to the land excised. Generally areas under PFE and above 1000m are designated by the DOF as Protection Forest. The control and management of PFE lie with the State Forest Department. However, there are several tracts of land in the highlands that are not gazetted forest reserves and may constitute State or alienated land. Removal of forest products from these lands also requires a removal license issued by the State Director. This could provide some protection for stateland forest so long as the land is not alienated for agricultural or urban development purposes. The National Forestry Act 1984 makes provisions for forest sanctuaries for wildlife within the PFE, thus acknowledging the importance of forests for wildlife, as well as other wider responsibilities of the Forest Department. However, no area has so far been formally gazetted as a forest sanctuary for wildlife as allowed for by this Act. Thus an important policy provision, aimed at allowing forested areas to be established for wildlife protection, has never come into practical use. The National Parks Act 1980 focuses on the protection of flora and fauna and places of aesthetic value while the Protection of Wildlife Act 1972 and its accompanying document, Wildlife Plan for Peninsular Malaysia 1992, are clear about the ethics of conservation and sustainable utilization in relation to wildlife Aboriginal Peoples Act 1954 This Act defines an aborigine and provides for aboriginal areas and reserves and aboriginal inhabited place (an area not yet declared as an aboriginal area or reserve). This Act was aimed at providing for the protection, well-being and advancement of the aboriginal peoples of West Malaysia. Once the SA declares an area as an aboriginal area or reserve, then a number of restrictions will apply. These restrictions include such as the land cannot be alienated or leased except to an aborigine, a TOL may not be issued and the land may not be reserved as a forest reserve or as a wildlife reserve. Any declaration made however may be revoked or modified by the SA (s6(3)). There are not many instances of aboriginal reserves being established in recent times. The current approach seems to encourage the regrouping of the Orang Asli into settlements with separate land titles issued. WWF Malaysia 6-15

300 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK National Parks Act 1980 This Act was to provide for the establishment and control of National Parks. Under the Act, the State Authority may, at the request of the Minister, reserve any State land as a National Park. Once reserved, it cannot be revoked except after consultation with the Minister s3(3). The Act also calls for the establishment of a National Parks Advisory Council and National Park Committees. The responsibility for carrying out the provisions of the Act is under the Director General of Wildlife. The Minister also has the power to make regulations for the proper management of the park. It is interesting to note that Taman Negara was actually established under the State Enactments of Kelantan, Pahang and Trengganu and not under this Act. Similarly the Endau Rompin Park was established under a Johor State Enactment. It is also likely that new State parks at Belum Forest Reserve (BFR) and Perlis will be enacted under the respective State Enactments. Following this trend, it is submitted that the usefulness of this Act for the highland areas is somewhat suspect. 6.3 Key Issues To Be Addressed The legal and institutional framework for the planning and management of the highlands is a complex web of fragmented roles and responsibilities. There is also a lack of awareness of the roles and responsibilities of the various agencies involved. The separation of subject matters by Federal, State and Concurrent list further complicates the matter. While the lack of political will has been cited for the reluctance of the states to adopt national policies on the environment and sustainable development, there is also the practical problems caused by the lack of effective plans and programmes for action at the state level and the issue of trade offs in the form of pecuniary benefits to the state for adopting protective policies. Not withstanding this, the State should be viewed as an important stakeholder in any development plan for the highlands. Added protection for the highlands could also be achieved through the application of the Protection of Wildlife Act (a concurrent matter) by declaring the highland areas as wildlife reserves or sanctuaries. This could also serve a dual purpose of conserving the rich biodiversity of the highlands. Other institutional arrangements that could be utilized to protect the highlands are the forums of the National Land Council and the National Forestry Council, the policies of which are binding on the States. The lack of enforcement is the other serious issue that needs to be addressed. Not all government agencies are empowered by law to be enforcement agencies. Some of the key enforcement agencies on highland development and management are : i. District Land Office and the State Director of Lands and Mines (PTG) ii. Local Authorities iii. Department of Environment iv. State Forestry Department v. Department of Wildlife and National Parks WWF Malaysia 6-16

301 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Other key departments like the DOA and the DID generally do not have enforcement powers, (except for particular matters such as pesticide control in the case of the former) and will have to rely on the above enforcement agencies to ensure proper agricultural land clearing and safeguard the integrity of the drainage systems against pollution and silt. Many of these departments face serious shortage of manpower with the necessary skills and facilities to carry out enforcement functions. This is further compounded by the lack of guidelines and rules to enforce the legal provisions. The other problem relates to jurisdiction and the compartmentalization of enforcement responsibilities. There is obviously a need for leadership at the local level to ensure a coordinated scheme of enforcement. This role could be assumed by the District Officer or the Local Authority for the area. The key issues may be summarized as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Many of the matters pertaining to natural resources and land development are on the state and concurrent list of the Federal constitution. The State is therefore an important stakeholder in the development and management of the highlands. The highlands are an important national resource. Their conservation and sustainable development is vital to ensure adequate water supply, provide natural habitat for the endemic flora and fauna, availability of carbon sinks to combat against global warming, and provide opportunities for the development of temperate agriculture crops and tourism. Hence development in the highlands has to be guided by national policies pertaining to spatial planning, water resources, national biodiversity policy, national conservation strategy and sustainable forest management. This would suggest that the role of the Federal government is equally important in ensuring the continued sustainable conservation and development of the highlands. The functions of the existing agencies involved in the planning and management of the highlands is a complex web of fragmented roles and responsibilities. Current leadership in this area is provided by the Cabinet Committee on Highlands and Islands. However this committee is an adhoc Committee with an administrative mandate to report to the Cabinet. There is a need to establish long term leadership within an overall institutional framework at the Federal, State and local levels. There is also a lack of awareness on the roles of the various agencies involved. It is important that the roles, functions and responsibilities of the various agencies are clearly understood. Many of the states have not formally adopted the national policies pertaining to the environment and sustainable development. These include the National Policy on Biodiversity, National Agriculture Policy, the National WWF Malaysia 6-17

302 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Forestry Policy and the National Eco-Tourism Plan. Other relevant policies and plans in the making include the National Water Resources Policy and the National Physical Plan. There is also a need for the States to translate these policies and national plans into effective action plans and programmes at the state level. There is also a need to incorporate these recommendations into the Statutory Development Plans i.e. the Structure and Local Plans so that there is some level of statutory protection. (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) There is an absence of clear fiscal policies and incentives to the States for adopting protection and conservation policies. There should be some form of pecuniary benefits to the state for protecting these natural resources in the interest of the nation. Most of the highland areas are gazetted forest reserves although there are significant areas in Kelantan which remain as Stateland forest. As a first level of protection it is important that state land forest that are not immediately required for development are protected as forest reserves. Further protection to the PFE can be accorded by classifying these forest reserves into the eleven classes under the Forestry Act, including soil protection forest, flood control forest, water catchment forest, amenity forest and forest sanctuary for wild life. There are very few areas within the highlands that are protected as wildlife reserves or sanctuaries. Many states are reluctant to use the Protection of Wildlife Act 1972 as it is a concurrent matter. The scope of this act is also currently only limited to animals, birds and insects and does not extend to plant life. In a limited way, this Act could be used to accord protection for the rich biodiversity in the highlands. The lack of enforcement is another serious issue to be addressed. This has to be addressed in a comprehensive manner and touching on issues relating to the lack of enforcement powers, inadequacy of the laws, shortage of manpower, lack of guidelines and the absence of leadership especially at the local level The issues pertaining to the use of the EIA and the DPR in addressing the environmental impacts of the project have to be better streamlined. Obviously there is a need to ensure that environmental issues relating to the project are properly addressed and reviewed before an approval is given to the project. 6.4 Underlying Principles on the Institutional Framework In addition to the issues discussed above, the following principles are used as a basis for the proposed institutional framework (i) The proposed institutional framework should be based on the existing prescribed functions of the various government agencies under the WWF Malaysia 6-18

303 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Ministerial Functions Act, related administrative orders and the provisions of existing laws. (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) There is need for a long-term institutional arrangement to address issues relating to the sustainable development and management of the highlands As the Main Range transcends five states and involves matters of both Federal and State interest, there is a need for a Federal-State Coordination Body to address these issues. Matters pertaining to spatial planning and development on the highlands may have to be referred to the National Physical Planning Council as required under the Town and Country Planning Act, while project proposals and policies that have financial implications have to be referred to the National Development Planning Committee (NDPC) and possibly the National Finance Council. In view of the strategic importance of Cameron Highlands Region which transcends the three states of Pahang, Kelantan and Perak, there may be a need to establish a Regional Planning Committee established under the Town and Country Planning Amendment Act A1129 to ensure coordinated planning and development of this area. The Main Range should be categorized as an Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) There is a need to impose rigorous standards and guidelines for sustainable development and ensure there is adequate enforcement to see it through. There have also been several proposals in the past on a suitable institutional framework for the highlands :- i) There were recommendations that the National Land Council take the central role of facilitating an integrated approach to highland planning and management. It was further suggested that a tripartite unit of the NLC, the National Forestry Council and the National Waters Council be established to provide the forum for the resolution of issues relating to land, forests and water (WWF 1998). ii) iii) There was an announcement in 1996 that the DOF will take the lead in forming an inter-governmental committee on the highlands. The committee s mandate was to formulate a national policy on the highlands. However no further developments were forthcoming. Other proposals included the establishment of a Highland Special Economic Zone Development Agency which will be responsible for implementing development projects in a sustainable manner employing techniques of natural resource accounting. WWF Malaysia 6-19

304 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK iv) More recently, the government established a Cabinet Committee on Highlands and Islands under the chairmanship of the Minister of Science, Technology and Environment (see Table 6-3). This committee includes both Federal and state representatives and is charged with the following functions: Formulate strategies and directions for the development of highlands and islands Coordinate and monitor development projects on the highlands and islands with emphasis given to conservation and rehabilitation. Recommend to the Cabinet on laws, regulations and guidelines that are suitable for the development of highlands and islands. This committee is however an adhoc committee with a short term mandate to report to Cabinet. The terms of reference of this committee also includes the islands although the current emphasis appears to be in the highlands. v) The other recent development is the establishment of the National Physical Planning Council (NPPC) under TPCA. The NPPC (Table 6-4) is chaired by the Prime Minister and includes representations of both Federal and State governments. Under the Act, developments on the highlands, hill slopes and in areas identified as Environmental Sensitive Areas will now have to be referred to the NPPC for its advice. This would suggest that all significant developments in the Main Range will have to be referred to the NPPC in the future. The functions and proposed membership of the NPPC is shown in Table 6-4. However, the terms of reference of this council appears to focus on sustainable development of the highlands with respect to urban and infrastructure development and does not cover matters pertaining to land administration, water resource management, forestry, agriculture, wildlife and biodiversity protection. This would suggest that there may be a need to establish a permanent inter-agency committee. In the long run it is suggested that the existing Cabinet Committee on Highlands be made a permanent committee with linkages established to both the NPPC and the NLC. 6.5 Improvements to the Institutional Framework Establishing a Permanent Committee on Highlands and Islands It is recommended that the existing Cabinet Committee on Highlands and Islands be made into a permanent committee and the membership expanded. This Committee will constitute both Federal and state representatives including the MBs of Terengganu and Kelantan (Table 6-5). The Committee will also prepare a management plan for the highlands and keep the plan in review. The Committee will also work closely with the proposed Camerons Regional Planning Committee (see section 6.5.2) and the National Physical Planning Council in making recommendations and strategies for the sustainable development and management of the highlands. The Committee will also provide continuous input towards the WWF Malaysia 6-20

305 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK preparation of the National Physical Plan, which should contain a section on the highlands. The Committee could also formulate the national policy on the highlands for the approval of the NPPC or the NLC. Policies and recommendations in the management plan that need to be further strengthened may also be referred to the NLC for approval to be legally binding on the states. In addition, the Cabinet Committee should prepare a Highland Management Plan outlining the state of affairs of the highlands and the results of monitoring sustainable development indicators from time to time. The proposed organizational framework for sustainable development and management of the highlands is shown in Figure 6-1. The main planning and management agencies for the highlands are highlighted in bold. The participation of NGO s such as environmental groups, the business and industrial community is equally important in developing an effective management plan. The participation of NGO s in the national spatial planning process is seen through the establishment of a National Physical Planning Advisory Committee. It is a proposed that a subcommittee on highlands be established to provide inputs to the Cabinet Committee, the NPPC and the proposed Regional Planning Committee. WWF Malaysia 6-21

306 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Table 6-5 : Proposed Permanent Cabinet Committee on Highlands and Islands Chairman : Minister of Science, Technology and Environment Members : Menteri Besar of all states or their representatives. Director General of EPU or representative Attorney General or representative KSU Ministry of Agriculture or representative KSU Ministry of Primary Industry or representative KSU Ministry of Housing and Local Government or representative KSU Ministry of Works or representative KSU Ministry of Land and Cooperative Development or representative Director General of Department of Environment Director General of Town and Country Planning Department Secretary : Secretary General of MOSTE Functions : 1) Report to the Cabinet and the NPPC and recommend strategies and directions for the development of highlands and islands. 2) Prepare management plans for the highlands and islands. 3) Coordinate and monitor development projects on the highlands and islands with emphasis given to conservation and rehabilitation. 4) Recommend to the Cabinet and NPPC on laws, regulations and guidelines that are suitable for the development of highlands and islands. 5) Formulate a national policy for the sustainable development and management of the highlands and islands and have it endorsed by the NPPC or the NLC Figure 6-1 : Overall Institutional Framework for Sustainable WWF Malaysia 6-22

307 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Development and Management of the Highlands Parliament Cabinet Constitutional Councils NLC NCLG NFC refer National Physical Planning Advisory Committee (NGO s, Business Council) National Physical Planning Council Cabinet committee on Highland and Island advice refer National Spatial Planning Agency Federal TCPD Research Institute EIMAS MAHSURI University Sub-committee on Highland Development consult directive consult / refer The Camerons Regional Planning Committee consult refer refer advice State Planning Committee direct State JPBD consult directive Main Coordinating agencies for the Highlands Local Planning Authority direct Municipal Planning Department WWF Malaysia 6-23

308 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Cameron Lojing Kinta Regional Planning Committee The Cameron Lojing - Kinta region is of national importance, both as an important tourist destination and an established area for temperate agriculture. With the completion of the Simpang Pulai Camerons - Gua Musang Highway, opportunities for development have now spread to Lojing in Kelantan and the Kinta Highlands in Perak. The planning and coordination of development in this region is of utmost importance for the sustainable development of the region. It is therefore suggested that a Regional Planning Committee (RPC) for the Camerons Region be established under the provision of the Town and Country Planning Act. The RPC will not usurp any of the existing powers of the SPC but rather serves to advise the SPC and the LPA s on a comprehensive regional plan to guide and coordinate development in the region. The RPC will be answerable to the NPPC but will report its findings and proposals to the Cabinet Committee. The proposed members and functions of the RPC are shown in Table Management Responsibilities for Other SMAs The other SMA s suggested in this report include the Genting Bt Tinggi Janda Baik and the Frasers Hill area. Most of the Designated area for these SMA s falls in Pahang. However, there is a small portion that falls in Selangor. The management responsibilities for these SMA s should be with the respective State Planning Committee. The SPC will have to consult with the Cabinet Committee on their development proposals for the area. 6.6 Monitoring And Enforcement Both monitoring of development projects and enforcement are important for the sustainable development of the highlands. The role of monitoring development projects in the highlands is one of the prescribed functions of the Cabinet Committee. Other agencies that should carry out this role at the state level should include the SPC and the proposed Regional Planning Committee in the case of the Cameron Lojing - Kinta region. The lack of enforcement is another serious issue to be addressed. Some of the key issues relating to this problem are : (i) (ii) (iii) Not all government agencies are empowered by law to be enforcement agencies. Some of the key enforcement agencies are the State Director of Land and Mines (PTG), the District Land Administrator (DLA), the Local Authority, DOE, DOF and DWNP. Other key departments like the DOA (except for pesticide control) and the DID do not have enforcement powers. Many of these departments have serious manpower shortage with necessary skills and facilities. There is a lack of guidelines and rules and regulations to enforce the legal provisions. WWF Malaysia 6-24

309 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK (iv) Narrow jurisdiction and compartmentalization of enforcement responsibilities make it difficult to achieve coordinated results. There is obviously a need for leadership at the local level to ensure a coordinated scheme of enforcement. (v) There is also a lack of transparency and a general lethargy on the part of local level administration to prosecute offenders. (vi) There is also a fait accompli mentality among some farmers who clear the forest land without any permits and then try to regularize their actions on the basis that the damage is already done. Such irresponsible people should be made to pay the price under the Polluter pays policy. In order to enforce, there has to be an enabling law which prescribes the powers to a particular enforcement agency. Most of the enforcement powers are at the local level. Table 6-7 shows the various enabling laws with respect to enforcement. This compartmentalization of enforcement powers suggest that there should be leadership at all the three levels of government to ensure that enforcement is well coordinated. At the local level, this leadership should be provided by the Local Authority and for areas outside the local authority by the District Land Administrator. 6.7 Improvements to the Legal Framework In considering the legal framework, there is need to address an overall policy framework, the adequacy or shortcoming of existing laws and the sufficiency of subordinate legislation in the form of rules and regulations. (i) (ii) (iii) There is a need for an overall policy framework for the highlands. The need for such a policy has been mentioned several times. The 8MP also calls for the gazettement of areas that are environmentally sensitive and introduce an integrated system of planning for such areas. It is suggested that the national policy for the highlands should be articulated by National Physical Planning Council. There is a need for an integrated land use and management plan for the highlands. An integrated land use and management plan for the highlands is necessary to ensure sustainable development practices in the highlands. The preparation of this plan should be initiated by the proposed Cabinet Committee on Highlands and Islands. The provisions of the plan should also be incorporated into the statutory plans (structure and Local plans) for the area. The strategic land use plans prepared under this study could be used as a basis. To ensure effective enforcement, it is necessary that all the districts in the highlands are incorporated into a Local Authority area. The Local planning authority can only exercise development control in areas within its jurisdiction. Clearing of forest land for agriculture or urban development constitutes a material change of use which necessitates planning permission to be first obtained. The clearing of trees without planning WWF Malaysia 6-25

310 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK permission may also amount to a breach under the Tree Preservation Order which should be enforced by the LPA. (iv) (v) (vi) There is also a need for adequate guidelines, rules and regulations. The State Authority may make rules under the TCPA for the regulation of the development of land in accordance with proper planning (s58(2)(c) TCPA). Similarly under the amended TCPA Act, the NPPC may make rules on any matter under the act and could include matters relating to the use, development and conservation of land. Currently there are inadequate laws to control indiscriminate agricultural land development and the management and conservation of water resources. Both these aspects are within the purview of the state. In the UK, the former is regulated by using town and country planning instruments as mentioned earlier. As to water resources management there is need for all states to establish enactments on water resources management. This is also provided for in the 8 th Malaysia Plan. There are inadequate laws to cover aspects related to biodiversity, biological sanctuaries and biological sensitive areas. Protection of areas to ensure biodiversity of fauna could be achieved using the Protection of Wildlife Act. However protection of plant life may require the use of the Forestry Act. A combination of both these laws may be necessary to provide protection for biodiversity areas in the absence of comprehensive laws covering the matter. There is also a need to streamline and coordinate the submission of the DPR and the EIA with respect to development in the highlands. The DPR (Development Proposal report) is required for all development applications and is submitted as part of the requirements in order to obtain planning permission. Under the TCPA, one cannot commence development without first obtaining planning permission. Under the Amendment Act 933 TCPA, the DPR and the layout Plan should include inter alia ; the development concept and its justification a description of the land including its physical environment, topography, landscape, contours, drainage, water bodies, natural features a survey of the trees and all forms of vegetation measures for the preservation of the natural topography measures for the improvement of the landscape measures for the preservation and planting of trees proposed earthworks. All the above matters relate to environmental statements and if properly done in compliance with the guidelines could greatly reduce the impacts to the environment. For larger developments i.e. exceeding 50ha, there is a need for an EIA. Under the EQA, the proponent cannot commence the development without the approval of the WWF Malaysia 6-26

311 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK EIA (s34(a)(6) EQA. Under the present scheme of things, the project is approved by the Local or State Authority while the EIA is approved by DOE. The enforcement of the conditions of the EIA also rests with the DOE although the Local Authority may be in a better proximate position to enforce it. There is obviously a need to ensure that the conditions of the EIA approval are adopted by the Local Authority as conditions of the planning permission. This could be achieved by amending the TCPA and incorporating this requirement under s22(2) relating to treatment of applications. For larger municipalities, there may be a need to establish an Environmental Unit within the Local Authority. For such areas, the DG of DOE should consider delegating the powers of enforcement of the conditions of the EIA to the Local Authority as provided under s49(1) EQA. A summary of related legislation and lead agencies is shown in Table 6-8. Specific issues and proposals for changes are summarized in Table 6-9. These issues can be broadly categorized under development planning, environmental quality, pollution control, conservation of natural resources, and management issues. These issues are also specifically addressed in the related chapters of the report. WWF Malaysia 6-27

312 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Table 6-6 : Proposed Camerons Region Regional Planning Committee Chairman : Director General of Town and Country Planning Department Members : Six members representing Federal Government four of which are appointed by the Minister. The proposed membership could include the following :- Director General of Dept of Agriculture Director General of Dept of Forestry Director General of Dept of Public Works Director General of Dept of Minerals and Geoscience Director General of Dept of Irrigation and Drainage Director General of Dept of Environment Four members representing State Governments of Kelantan, Pahang and Perak State Director of Forestry State Director of TCPD State Director of Land & Mines State Director of Economic Planning Unit President of every local authority in the region YDP for Cameron Highlands Secretary : To be appointed by the Director General of TCPD Functions : The functions of the regional planning committee shall be : 1) To advise and assist the State Planning Committees and the local planning authorities within the region pertaining to the development plans appropriate for the region, in accordance with the national policy; 2) To consult the Cabinet Committee on its plans and proposals for the Region. 3) To report to the NPPC on the developments in the region and carry out the directions of the Council with respect to planning for the region. 4) To establish policies and to devise a comprehensive regional plan to guide and co-ordinate development of the region; 5) To plan and co-ordinate the provision of infrastructure and facilities for the region; 6) To establish uniform process and procedures to be used by the Federal Government and the State Governments and local authorities concerned for the region; 7) To monitor the implementation of standards, guidelines and procedures in facilitating the development of the region; and 8) To conduct research required for the planning of the region. WWF Malaysia 6-28

313 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Table 6-7 : Enforcement Provisions Related to Sustainable Highland Development and Management Offenses / Aspects Enabling Law Enforcement Agency Land Use Violation NLC, TCPA Land Administrator, LPA, SPC Tree Protection Order TCPA LPA Litter and Unauthorized Garbage Disposal LGA LA Conservation of Wildlife Protection of Wildlife Act DWNP Erosion of Hill Land Land Conservation Act District Land Administrator (DLA) Conservation of Forest Reserves National Forestry Act State Forest Department Control of Earthworks Earthwork by laws LA Erosion and Sediment Control Plan Diversion and Abstraction of Water and Damage to River Banks To be incorporated into the Earthworks Bylaws Waters Act, SWMAE LA District Office, SWMA Sand Mining Operation NLC, SWMAE DLA, SWMA Mining Operations Mining Enactments, Mineral Development Act (MDA) Director of Land and Mines (DLM) Director of Minerals and Geoscience Inspector of Mines Discharge of Wastewater EQA, SWMAE, MDA, LGA DOE, SWMA, LA, Director of Mines Unlicensed Blockage and Diversion of Rivers Indiscriminate Development in Catchment Area Enforcement of River and Drain Reserve Unauthorised Disruption or Taking of Water from any Water Source Pollution of Water Courses SDBA, WA, SWMAE SWMAE, NFA NLC, SWMAE SWMAE LGA, WA, WSE, SWMAE, MDA, EQA LA, District Office, SWMA SWMA, State Forest Department SWMA, DLM SWMA Contamination of Soils EQA, SWMAE DOE, SWMA Commencing development without EIA approval for prescribed activities Commencing development without planning permission EQA TCPA LA, District Office, SWMA, JBA, Director of Mines, DOE DOE LPA WWF Malaysia 6-29

314 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Table 6-8 : Related Legislation and Implementing Agencies Aspect Federal State Jurisdiction Lead Agency 1. Federal Constitution Federal Government / State 2. Ministerial Functions Act 1969 Government / SA / Federal 3. Incorporation (State Legislative Competency) Act 1962 Landuse Planning and Development Minister and Department 1. National Land Code PTG 2. Town and Country Planning Act LPA, JPBD Pollution, Control and Regulation of Development Activities 1. National Land Code PTG 2. Town and Country Planning Act 1976 JPBD, LPA 3. Land Conservation Act 1960 Land Office 4. Environmental Quality Act 1974 DOE 5. Waters Act 1920 District Office 6. Local Government Act 1976 LA 7. Earthworks By-laws LA 8. Mining Enactments PTG 9. Mineral Development Act 1984 Director of Mines Conservation 1. Protection of Wildlife Act 1972 Department of Wildlife and National Parks 2. National Forestry Act 1984 Forestry Department 3. Aboriginal Peoples Act 1954 Department of Aboriginal Affairs (JHEOA) 4. National Parks Act 1980 Department of Wildlife and National Parks 5. Land Conservation Act 1960 Land Office 6. Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment 1999 SWMA 7. Town and Country Planning Act 1976 SPC, JPBD, LPA WWF Malaysia 6-30

315 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Development Planning Table 6-9 : Summary of Issues and Recommendation on the Legal and Institutional Framework Issues Recommendation Lead Agency 1) Need for an overall policy for the sustainable development and management of the highlands Formulate a national Policy on Highlands. EPU, JPBD 2) Absence of a Statutory Local Plan Gazette the Cameron Highland Local Plan under S15.TCPA. MDCH 3) Need for Local Plan for the whole District / Development Area 4) Strengthen the environment content in the DPR 5) Strengthen the environmental content of Structure and Local Plans 6) Lack of impact studies when the State Authority alienates State land or awards TOL 7) Agro-Tourism facilities are not permitted to be built on land under the landuse category of Agriculture 8) Need to ensure that the conditions of the EIA approval are adopted by the Local Planning Authority Prepare Special Area Plans for the all the SMA identified in the Study under s16b TCPA Amend S.21(A) TCPA to include environmental statement in the DPR. Encourage the preparation of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) as part of the requirement for preparing a Structure / Local Plan. All land alienated for development must conform to the Local Plan for the area (s.18(1) TCPA). Amend s.79 (1)a of the NLC to require the applicant of State land to submit the relevant impact studies before the SA approves the alienation and s.65 NLC when SA approve the TOL. Amend the NLC, to permit agro tourism facilities to be built on agriculture land without the need to convert the land Amend s 22(2) TCPA to include the EIA as a material consideration when dealing with planning applications MDCH / JPBD JPBD JPBD PTG / KPTG KPTG / PTG JPBD WWF Malaysia 6-31

316 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Environmental Quality Issues Recommendation Lead Agency 1) Many development projects in the highlands are not subject to an EIA 2) Need for an environmental agency in Raub and Bentung districts Pollution Control 1) Need for preemptive measures to prevent pollution 2) Need to delegate pollution control powers to Local Authorities to ensure more effective enforcement Amend Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) EIA Order 1987 to include housing and commercial development exceeding 10ha in the highlands to be subject to an EIA. Additionally the EIA should also cover highways, roads and transmission lines. Establish an Environmental Unit within Majlis Daerah Bentung (MDB) and Majlis Daerah Raub (MDR). Ensure a wider application of s.31 EQA whereby DOE may require the occupier of the premises to install and operate control equipment where any pollutants are being or likely to be emitted / discharged. DG to delegate pollution control powers under s.49 EQA to Local Authority which has an Environmental Unit established. 3) Indiscriminate sand mining operations Amend s.71nlc to ensure that the Land Administrator consults the LPA before a permit is issued. 4) Need for better enforcement of Earthworks bylaws and ESCP Attach environmental guidelines and establish rules under s.14nlc for sustainable sand mining operations. Amend the Earthworks By laws to include the ESCP. DOE MDB, MDR DOE DOE KPTG MHLG, LA WWF Malaysia 6-32

317 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Issues Recommendation Lead Agency 5) Excessive use of pesticides Formulate regulations to prohibit presence of specified pesticides in food s.21(1)a Pesticides Act (PA). 6) Need for proper guidelines and rules on the storage, keeping and use of pesticides Establish rules for the proper storing / keeping and use of pesticides under the PA s.57(1)(g) and (k). DOA DOA Conservation of Natural Resources 1) The scope for the reservation of State land in the NLC is limited to public purpose 2) Hill lands with slopes exceeding 25 and susceptible to erosion should be protected 3) Many forest reserves are not classified under s.10 NFA 4) Conformity to the National Forest Council decision 5) There is uncertainty as to the extent of Hill Lands and Wildlife Reserve in the Highlands To amend S.62(1) NLC to allow the State Authority reserve state land for conservation purposes. Gazette hill lands within any Development Corridor / Area with slopes exceeding 25 and susceptible to erosion as Hill lands under the Land Conservation Act. Classify and gazette PFE s in the highlands according to appropriate categories such as soil protection forest, water catchment forest, flood control forest, virgin jungle reserve, forest sanctuary for wildlife, amenity, education and reserve forest. Enforce the no logging of forest above 1000m outside the Development Area. There is a need to clearly identify and verify the gazette and spatially map these areas. KPTG SA / PTG State Forestry Department State Forestry Department Land Office, Wildlife Department 6) Need to secure the river reserves Demarcate and protect river reserves under s.62 NLC or under the Water Resources Enactment. River reserves should also be demarcated in the Local Plans. PTG, DID, LPA WWF Malaysia 6-33

318 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Issues Recommendation Lead Agency 7) Prevent the rampant clearing of trees in local authority areas 8) Reduce occurrence of flash floods in urban areas 9) Need to protect water catchment area of dams and water intake plants 11) Ineffectiveness of the National Parks Act as forest areas are under the State list 12) Need for a Water Resources Enactment as water is on the State list Management Issues Enforce the provisions related to the Tree Preservation Order under part VA of the TCPA and s.35e pertaining to replacement of trees. Ensure compliance with the Stormwater Management Guidelines for all new developments and formulate by laws on urban drainage under s.133 (xviii) SDBA. Demarcate and gazette water catchment Areas under the Water Supply Enactment or the Water Resources Enactment or as Water Catchment Forest under the NFA. Establish State Park Enactments in all state to establish, manage and conserve the country s natural resources. Establish State Water Resources Enactment to conserve and manage the Water Resources of the State. Local Planning Authority DID, LA SA / State Water Supply Department / State Forestry Department SA SA 1) Lack of security of tenure for farmland SA to consider leasing state land to farmers who have had continuous TOL for 3 years or more. 2) Lack of enforcement officers and professionals Establish more positions for enforcement officers and professionals at the Local Authority, Land Office, Forestry Department and DOE. 3) Lack of training Provide training to enforcement officers especially on enforcement procedures and environmental legislation and rules and regulations under the enabling Act. SA, PTG Public Service Commission INTAN, respective Ministry and Departments WWF Malaysia 6-34

319 CHAPTER 6 : LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Issues Recommendation Lead Agency 4) Lack of local community based organizations Encourage the establishment of local community based organizations. 5) Lack of guidelines / rules and regulations There is a need to establish comprehensive guidelines and regulations under the various Acts affecting the highlands. 6) Lack of publicity and interaction with the community Government Agencies must engage local communities in the planning and management of development project / development plans. 7) Lack of leadership at the local levels The Local Authority should assume leadership in coordinating monitoring and enforcement action at the local level. NGOs, MOSTE and MHLG Departments / Ministries LA, Government Departments LA WWF Malaysia 6-35

320 7 ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS

321 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS 7.1 Introduction This chapter reviews a range of economic instruments that could be used to promote sustainable use of natural resources, maintain critical ecological processes and protecting the biological diversity in the highlands. In recent years, new economic instruments which address environmental concerns while simultaneously promoting economic development, have been introduced. It is increasingly being recognized that these instruments are central to the integration of economic and environmental decision-making, which is an essential requirement for sustainable development. It is important to note that economic instruments can have positive or negative effects on the environment depending on how they are implemented. Moreover, the effects of these instruments can be neutralized by other policies which do not take environmental consequences into account. In the Malaysian context, the Federal Government has indicated in OPP3 that a major policy aim is the removal of distortions and barriers which impede the improvement of environmental quality and optimal natural resource use. 7.2 Types of Economic Instruments Economic instruments can be divided into three principal categories depending on how they affect the government s budget, viz., public expenditure instruments, revenue generating instruments and budget neutral instruments. Generally, economic instruments are more effective when used in conjunction with regulation. Public expenditure instruments, the most common type of economic instruments, take the form of tax allowances, subsidies and grants. They are the most familiar tools of intervention reflecting the fact that it is politically more acceptable for governments to provide benefits than to impose costs on individuals. Examples include tax allowance for energy conservation, grants for developing eco-friendly technology and price supports for recycling activities. Revenue generating instruments include fees, charges and taxes. Generally, fees, charges and taxes are too low to have major impacts on environmentally damaging behaviour and mainly serve as revenue streams. This income can be used to subsidize new investments, for clean-up operations and to finance new abatement technologies. Examples include depletion taxes on mineral exploration, user charges for public waste disposal, tax differentiation between leaded and unleaded petrol and stumpage fees for timber. Budget neutral instruments are relatively new economic instruments and most commonly involve a deposit refund system. They are designed to lay a surcharge on a potentially harmful substance or activities and then refund that surcharge if that substance is recycled, restored or use is avoided. In such cases the government acts as the intermediary transferring funds from one group to another. There are three common types of budget neutral instruments in use, namely : deposit/refund systems feebates distributive credits WWF Malaysia 7-1

322 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Common deposit/refund schemes are for the recycling of glass bottles, aluminum cans and other containers. Feebates refer to a system where producers or consumers of various substances are required to pay a certain rate for that action regardless of the legal limits permitted. Those who consume or produce less of the substance than the legal limits are then compensated. Those consuming or producing more than the legal limit receive little or no compensation depending on how the system is set up. Examples of feebate systems would be reforestation rebates on timber stumpage fees, or the Swedish nitrogen oxide charge. Distributive credits are most often used in the area of waste management where a credit against the waste collection fees is offered to households who recycle their waste. The credit should theoretically be equal to the savings incurred by not having to collect and process this waste. Pricing is one of the main economic causes of environmental degradation. Prices often do not reflect the value of environmental resources and its functions. This leads to the notion of missing markets and thus exploitation of the resources without careful reflection of the true value. Therefore, a balanced intervention between Government regulation and economic instruments is needed to ensure sustainable and efficient resource use. The issue of pricing, or more precisely the absence of prices on environmental resources, leads to four underlying causes of environmental degradation, viz., externalities, underpricing, policy failure and the lack of markets for environmental services. Externalities refer to instances where effects (harmful or beneficial) of production or consumption are imposed on others but cannot be traced or charged back to the originator. The main characteristic of an externality is the separation between the affected individual and the source of the effects. Because of this, it is difficult to get the perpetrator to pay for the costs of the harmful effects or the beneficiaries to reimburse those who create benefits to society. Thus, externalities are not built into the market price of a good or service. An example of a negative externality is pollution. A positive one may be environmental enhancement. Underpricing occurs when all the costs of an input or activity are not included in the price of an output. This is generally due to the fact that markets only make provision for pecuniary costs and not environmental and social costs of production. Efforts are being made to incorporate non-pecuniary costs into the price of outputs through shadow pricing or economic opportunity costs and other valuation techniques. Lack of information also leads to incorrect pricing because it gives a distorted impression of the scarcity of a resource. While insufficient information can lead to a commodity being overpriced, it is when it leads to underpricing that environmental degradation is most likely to occur. Perverse incentives in the form of policies also contribute to underpricing of environmental resources. Through government subsidies for certain inputs, particularly in agriculture, the consumer bears less cost and gains a false impression of the (non) scarcity of a resource. Furthermore, a lower cost will induce an individual to use more of a resource (which is after all the point of a subsidy) with the possible consequence of negatively affecting some other resource in the WWF Malaysia 7-2

323 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS process. For example, using too much chemical fertilizer in highland agriculture often leads to contaminated river water. The final market failure has to do with situations where no property rights (and hence no market) exist for certain goods (whether resources, services, or products used by producers or consumers). These are generally referred to as open-access resources or public goods which are usable by all without payment. Since such resources are difficult to value, they tend to be overexploited due to their negligible user charges. 7.3 Economic Instruments and Funding Mechanisms for the Highlands Several economic instruments and funding mechanisms were evaluated with regard to the sustainable development of the highlands. These include : Incremental cost Establishment of Highlands Heritage Fund Rebate/Reduction of Tax/Duties by the Federal Government. Rebate/Reduction of Quit Rent/Assessment by State Governments Incentives and Awards Educational Services The details of the mechanisms and proposals are discussed in the following sections. 7.4 Incremental Cost Framework Malaysia has in place several measures to achieve sustainable development at the national level. Some of these national measures, however, are insufficient to maintain sustainability at the global level. Additional national actions, which entail additional costs or incremental costs, are needed to achieve those global benefits. The following hypothetical case illustrates the application of the Incremental Costs Framework (ICF) methodology to the conservation of biodiversity in the highlands. Presently inventory of biodiversity undertaken by the DOF is confined to commercially traded timber, rattan and bamboo. Systematic and comprehensive inventories prior to and after logging of commercial timber and also of non-timber forest products such as rattan and bamboo is carried out by the DOF. This forms the baseline cost and is deemed sufficient to generate the domestic benefits needed to keep logging at a sustainable level. However, Malaysia and the highlands in particular is an indispensable part of the global diversity. Hence, an alternative strategy of expanded bio-inventory which if incorporated with the baseline would yield benefits both at domestic and global levels. The commercial inventory cost of the baseline case could be reduced with some of its cost being absorbed within the combined commercial inventory and bioinventory alternative situation. How much reduction in baseline costs depends on WWF Malaysia 7-3

324 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS whether the DOF staff is trained to undertake additional inventories or have the skills to do so. Having worked out details on how this alternative of bio-inventorying is to be carried out as regards to strategies, training, equipments and facilities with the right agencies (e.g., tropical biodiversity specialists) a decision could be made to undertake the alternative instead of the baseline strategy. a) Baseline: Commercial Inventories The baseline pre-and post felling commercial timber inventories are undertaken by the Forest Departments to comply with the International Tropical Timber Association (ITTA) requirements for sustainable forestry operations. The full cost of this inventory is met by the DOF and the main beneficiaries are domestic stakeholders. b) Alternative: Commercial Inventories plus Bio-Inventories The expansion of the commercial inventories is for domestic benefit mainly while the bio-inventorying is for global benefit. The additional cost incurred to carry out this alternative case is the incremental cost. c) Incremental Cost Matrix In this matrix, the main cost and benefit components associated with the baseline and alternative are presented. The costs - capital and recurrent are for a period of five years and present values are calculated at 13 percent discount rate. An additional 1 percent is added to the 12 percent social discount rate to reflect the higher discount rate needed for environment projects. The annual coupe for the five states in the Main Range is over 31,000 ha. Of this if say two percent are within the Main Range, then the incremental costs to be calculated is for over 600 ha for commercial felling inventory each year. On the assumption that commercial timber inventories cost about RM 120/ha, the baseline costs over the five years discounted to present values could be ascertained. If the proposed alternative strategy is to be adopted, then the current inventory system shall be augmented to include bio-inventories. This would benefit the country to ensemble a data-base of biodiversity in the forest as well as generate a pool of skilled personnel in biodiversity. From the incremental cost matrix for the Main Range shown in Table 7-1, the main cost and benefit components (which is highly simplified) associated with the baseline and the alternative are presented. The global benefits indicated in the Table 7-1 achieved from shifting from the baseline to the alternative strategy, are the comprehensive biodiversity information needed for the global community. This then qualifies for the GEF funding which is one source of funding for global environmental actions. WWF Malaysia 7-4

325 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Table 7-1 : Incremental Cost Matrix Item Baseline (A) Alternative (B) Incremental Cost (B-A) Global Biodiversity Benefits Commercial inventory of timber, rattan and bamboo No inventory of biodiversity Commercial inventory plus bio- inventory i.e. inventory of other biodiversity species (eg herbs, flora and fauna) Domestic Benefits First Year Costs (including capital costs) Recurrent Costs Year 2 to Year 5 Pre-felling inventory-stock taking and marking trees for logging Post-felling inventory-stock taking, inspection for rehabilitative and restorative activities to ensure sustained harvests. Commercial felling inventories cost of staff time, training, equipment, transportation and RM120/ha Pre-felling inventory-stock taking and marking trees for logging Post-felling inventory-stock taking, inspection for rehabilitative and restorative activities to ensure sustained harvests. Ensemble data base of biodiversity, to set up herbaria facilities with trained staff. Commercial felling inventories cost of staff time, training, equipment, transportation and RM120/ha Bio-inventories estimated cost - operating RM 50,000 - capital RM 50,000 More comprehensive inventory to meet requirements of global stakeholders. Total RM 72,000 RM 172,000 RM 100,000 Annual cost of commercial felling of RM Assumed saving of 20% from commercial 72,000 to be discounted at 13 percent felling with combined activity under from Year 2 to Year 5. alternative strategy Present Value (PV) of costs for Year 2 to 13% discount rate RM 214,160 RM 171,328 Bio-inventories operating costs - staff - training - computer data base - herbarium facilities RM 150,000 PV costs Year 2 to 5 RM 214,160 RM 321,328 Total PV Incremental Costs for 5 years RM 286,160 RM 493,328 RM 207,168 WWF Malaysia 7-5

326 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS 7.5 Highlands Heritage Fund Experience from many other countries indicate that the endowment of trust-funds and trust-like mechanisms provide an important means for conservation areas to obtain long-term and stable financing. This is itself a key factor in effective management. A study of 13 such funds by the Global Environment Facility (GEF, 1998) deduced that such funds are frequently the most efficient method of achieving long-term conservation objectives. The study found, for instance, that trust funds had made impressive accomplishments in: a) supporting protected areas, including creation of new parks, expansion of existing areas and in providing a basic resource security for their operations; b) generating and managing financial resources; c) enabling the participation of civil society institutions in resource conservation; d) increasing the level of scientific research on conservation; and e) raising public awareness of conservation issues. For the highlands of Malaysia, it is recommended that a Highlands Heritage Fund (HHF) should be set-up. The aim is to establish a capital fund from which the investment proceeds could be utilized to finance sustainable development activities. The HHF could be a useful mechanism for funding conservation research, preserving wildlife habitats, enhancing recreational opportunities in the highlands and compensating and easing financial burdens on State Governments. There would be a need for the proposed fund to be operational for at least 20 years and a basic legal, financial and supporting architecture to be developed Purpose of the Fund The proposed HHF could provide funding for: Conservation of natural areas in the highlands that possess unique features such as habitat for rare and endangered species including migratory birds; Conservation of areas in the highlands that are to be preserved in their natural state for public use, outdoor recreation and nature education; and Maintenance of heritage properties in the highlands. Scientific research in the highlands. Education and awareness pertaining to the highlands Incentives for promoting environmental best practices Subsidy for organizations in the highlands implementing environmental management systems Among the conservation trust funds appraised by the GEF were the Peru: National Trust Fund for Protected Areas; Mexico: Fund for the Conservation of Nature; Brazil: Brazilian Biodiversity Fund; and Bhutan: Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation. See Global Environment Facility, Funds and Trust Funds, Sept WWF Malaysia 7-6

327 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Sources of Funding Revenue for the HHF could come from: Seed capital from the Federal Government Capital contributions from State Governments Revenue from environmental fines levied for activities in the highlands Endowments from Corporations, Commercial companies and other organizations, e.g., developers, banks, travel and tour companies and commercial agricultural enterprises. Multilateral international sources such as the United Nations, International Bilateral aid agencies e.g. DANIDA, JICA Increased water tariffs Fund Management A Highlands Heritage Fund Board would need to be established in order to manage the fund. The Board members could comprise: Director-General of EPU Representative from State Governments Representative from the Ministry of Finance Representative from MOCAT Representative from MOSTE Representative from Forestry Department Representative from DOA Representative from DOOAA Representatives from the Private Sector. Representatives from NGOs Evidence from the GEF study suggests that ideally governance of such trust funds should reflex a mix of public, private and civil stakeholder interests Tax Deductions for Contributors For donations of cash contributions to the Highlands Heritage Fund, it is assumed that a tax deduction could be given to the company or entity making the cash donation against its taxable income, as well as other appropriate incentives. Other bilateral aid agencies who fund environment programmes include Australia Aid (AUSAID), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Global Finland, Swiss Agency for Development (SDC) and Department for International Development (DFID), UK. Public water supply is primarily the responsibility of the respective State Governments in Malaysia as enacted in the Water Act, 1920 (Revised 1989). As noted in the Water Resources Study , as Malaysia moves towards developed nation status, disposable incomes and income or wealth distribution would rise, ability and willingness to pay for water and awareness of the need for conservation of water would increase, and raising water tariffs would be appropriate. WWF Malaysia 7-7

328 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Legislation The establishment of the HHF should be supported by an instrument of law especially if it involves government funding. The provisions for the Fund could be included in the proposed Heritage and Conservation Act or alternatively included in one of the existing acts on conservation such as the Land Conservation Act 1960 or the Protection of Wildlife Act 1972 or the Town and Country Planning Act Alternatively the Fund could be established under a separate Act of Parliament called the Heritage Funds Act by invoking Article 109 (3) of the Constitution Size of the Fund It is difficult to estimate the size of the HHF without undertaking more in-depth research that is not possible within the scope of this study. Nevertheless, based on examples of trust funds within Malaysia and also elsewhere in the world, it may be possible to propose a gross estimate of the size of the Fund (Table 7-2). Table 7-2 : Examples of the Size of Trust Funds Trust Fund Malaysia Malaysian Marine Parks and Marine Reserves Trust Overseas Ontario Heritage Challenge Fund (Canada) Environmental Trust, New South Wales (Australia) Regional Central American Fund for Environment and Development (FOCADES) Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation (Bhutan) Brazilian Biodiversity Fund (FUNBIO) (Brazil) Mexico Fund for the Conservation of Nature (FMCN) (Mexico) Peru National Trust Fund for Protected Areas (FONANPE) (Peru) (RM Million) Remarks Allocation under 6MP and 7MP 6.25 Allocations for operating expenditures 23.4 Launching Fund (1) 26.6 Annual Appropriation (2) 56.5 GEF Funds (3) 37.6 GEF Funds (3) 75.3 GEF Funds (3) 62.1 GEF Funds (3) 18.8 GEF Funds (3) 18.8 GEF Funds (3) Cape Peninsular Biodiversity Conservation Project Table Mountain trust fund component (South Africa) Notes 1. Exchange Rate RM 1 : C$ Exchange Rate RM 1 : A$ Exchange Rate RM 1 : US $ The six GEF Financed Trust Funds with operating experience have also leveraged additional funding totaling US$ 33 million (RM million) 4) WWF Malaysia 7-8

329 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Based on the above evidence, it is recommended that the HHF is started with a capital contribution of at least RM 60 million from the Federal Government (as seed capital) with a target of RM 30 million minimum of other funding to be leveraged Examples from Other Countries (a) Ontario, Canada In Ontario, Canada, a C$10 million Heritage Challenge Fund has been established. The fund is divided into two C$5 million components. One component is directed to communities, including eligible non-profit organizations and municipalities, to preserve, restore and maintain their heritage properties. Seed money for endowment funds will also be provided to help communities meet the ongoing capital costs of maintaining these properties. The other $5 million component will provide funding for the Ontario Heritage Foundations to preserve heritage buildings and natural heritage land it holds in trust for all Ontarians. This component will also allow the Ontario Heritage Foundation to set up, with matching funds, an endowment to help ensure its long-term viability. (b) Kentucky, USA In the US state of Kentucky, there is a Heritage Land Conservation Fund with revenue for the fund derived from the state portion of the unmined mineral tax, environmental fines and the Nature License Plate. The Coal Marketing and Export Council receives $400,000 of the unmined mineral tax each year for public education of coal-related issues. The Environmental Education Council receives $150,000 of environmental fines each year for environmental education programmes. A 12-member Heritage Land Conservation Fund Board appointed by the governor manages the fund. (c) The Land and Water Conservation Fund, US The Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) was established by the US Congress in 1964 to create parks and open spaces, protect wilderness, wetlands, and refuges, preserve wildlife habitat, and enhance recreational opportunities. From parks to playgrounds, wilderness to wetlands, bicycle paths to hiking trails, the LWCF has helped communities acquire nearly seven million acres of parkland, water resources, and open space. The LWCF has also underwritten the development of more than 37,000 state and local park and recreation projects. Authorized at $900 million annually, LWCF is one of the most important conservation tools ever designed. To ensure an integrated approach to conservation and recreation, the Land and Water Conservation Fund has two components: A federal program that funds the purchase of land and water areas for conservation and recreation purposes within the four federal land management agencies (Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Services, National Park Service, and Bureau of Land Management); and WWF Malaysia 7-9

330 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS A state matching grants program that provides funds to states for planning, developing, and acquiring land and water areas for state and local parks and recreation areas. Funds appropriated for LWCF s federal program are used for: Public acquisition of special lands and places for conservation and recreation purposes; Public acquisition of private holdings within national parks, national forests, national fish and wildlife refuges, public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management, and wilderness areas; Public acquisition of areas key to fish and wildlife protection; and Public acquisition as authorized by law. Funds appropriated for LWCF s state matching grants program are divided among the states and can be used to: Acquire land for parks and recreation purposes; Build or redevelop recreation and park facilities Provide riding and hiking trails; Enhance recreation access; Conserve open space, forests, estuaries, wildlife and natural resource areas through recreation projects. 7.6 Incentives by the Federal Government The Federal Government has long shown willingness and flexibility in lowering or granting exemptions on taxes and duties, in order to promote activities which are suitable to the economic requirements or development of Malaysia. A number of generic incentives are already provided with regards to direct taxes, although these are generally not location specific and geared to the sustainable development of the highlands Direct Taxes Malaysia provides incentives for investments in promoted products and activities in the agriculture, hotel and tourism industry, R&D and training activity and manufacturing. These incentives, which grant partial or to a limited extent of relief of income tax, are contained in the Promotion of Investment Act, 1986 and the Income Tax Act Pioneer status Investment tax allowance Exemption under section 127 Double deduction WWF Malaysia 7-10

331 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS The agriculture, hotel and tourism industry, R&D and training activities operating in the highlands presumably have already benefited from these incentives. There is not much scope for tailoring these incentives to reward contributions to sustainable development since even new enterprises such as eco-tour companies and commercial agricultural enterprises would probably meet existing eligibility criteria. It should be noted, that this study has recommended a spatial limitation of temperate agricultural production in the highlands and its restriction to the Camerons region. It has also been proposed that permits be withdrawn from farms located in unsuitable locations, especially if the farmers have not adopted sound conservation practices. Existing agriculture in the Camerons SMA must be upgraded to meet criteria for sustainability. New agricultural enterprises adopting modern and environmentally friendly technologies, backed up by relevant R & D located in the lowlands could produce temperate vegetables, fruits and flowers. NAP3 indicates that high technology production of high value temperate vegetables (in the lowlands) using rain shelters and netted structures will be promoted. Product differentiation such as pesticide free vegetables and organic farm produce will also be emphasized. These enterprises should be beneficiaries of direct tax incentives Indirect Taxes (a) Sales Tax Rebates or reduction in sales tax can be used to reward enterprises that contribute to sustainable development in the highlands. The type of enterprises and activities, providing they clearly contribute to sustainable development, that could be eligible for rebates or reductions in sales tax under section 10 of the Sales Tax Act 1972 for specified periods could include: Logging companies investing in high tech equipment for reduced impact logging and other sustainable forestry practices; Commercial agriculture ventures engaged in organic farming and other forms of sustainable agriculture; Retailers who sell mostly Malaysian handicrafts and utilize the maximum amount of recycled materials; Hotels that implement environment management systems such as ISO or equivalent; Holiday park accommodation with communal facilities such as commercial camp sites, caravan and campervan parks who adopt best environment practices; Transport operators including buses, camper vans and rental cars who utilize environmentally-friendly fuels and provide environment-friendly modes of transport; Commercial operators of adventure, eco, cultural tourism and heritage attractions who contribute to sustainable tourism development; WWF Malaysia 7-11

332 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS (b) Import Tax/Excise Duty Reductions or exemptions in import duty and excise duty under section 14 of the Customs Duty Act 1967 are other incentives for sustainable development. The 2002 Budget, for instance, granted car rental operators excise duty exemption on the purchase of national cars in an effort to lower the cost of car rental to tourists. Similarly in the Budget, all private institutions of higher learning and private language institutions were granted exemptions on import duty, excise duty (and sales tax) on educational equipment, including laboratory fittings, workshops, studios and language labs. This was done in order to promote Malaysia as a centre of excellence on education. Enterprises and activities that could qualify for reductions or exemptions in import and excise duties include: Logging companies that demonstrate a clear commitment to sustainable forestry, e.g., through adoption of reduced impact logging; Commercial agricultural enterprises sourcing equipment such as rain shelters and materials for sustainable practices such as organic farming in the highlands; Commercial enterprises producing rattan, bamboo and other non-timber forest produce through scientific and sustainable management practices; Transport operators sourcing equipment that enables them to provide environment-friendly modes of transport; Holiday park accommodation providers such as commercial camp sites, caravan and campervan parks etc sourcing eco-friendly equipment such as solar generators; Commercial heritage and other visitor attractions including handicraft outlets promoting history, heritage, traditions and identity and/or otherwise contributing to sustainable tourism development, sourcing display and other presentational equipment; 7.7 Incentives by the State Governments State Government s and Local Authorities also have a role to play in providing incentives to encourage and reward sustainable development practices in the highlands. Whilst the regulatory environment plays an important role in creating the conditions suitable for sustainable development self-regulation is also often a highly effective solution. The principal fiscal incentives the Local Authorities could provide include a rebate or lowering of quit rent and assessments to enterprises that clearly demonstrate a commitment to sustainable development. The type of enterprises and activities that could be regarded as eligible for such incentives include: WWF Malaysia 7-12

333 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Hotels/resorts which fully implement environmental management systems to ISO or equivalent as a condition of their business license; Allow rebates or reduction in quit rent and assessments to enterprises who contribute financially to the up-keep and/or restoration of nature trails, heritage centres, and other components of the natural, scenic, historic and architectural heritage of the highlands; Allow rebates or reduction in quit rent and assessments to agricultural producers for non-use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on their land. 7.8 Incentives and Awards The success of sustainable development in the highlands will be greatly influenced, inter-alia, by the sensitive development of natural and cultural heritage resources. Any deterioration, degradation or loss of these resources would present serious, and in some instances, insurmountable and irreversible problems for sustainable development. Thus, resource protection and sustainable development in the highlands are critical. In this context it would be useful to establish basic standards for environmental and cultural heritage protection and conservation in the highlands. Sites, e.g., historic places, forests, caves, nature trails, etc and projects, e.g., hotels, restaurants, interpretative centres, handicraft and souvenir outlets, etc, which achieve these standards should be rewarded through the granting of relevant awards. Standards and awards which are internationally recognised would be expected to enjoy greater credibility. Examples of such standards include: MOCAT Award for Sustainable Development in the Highlands It is proposed that MOCAT initiates an Awards scheme specifically for entities contributing to best practices and sustainable development in the Malaysian highlands. Table 7-2 provides details of possible categories and types. The aim would be to develop sustainable tourism consciousness by recognizing local and international corporations and individuals who have excelled in management performance, tourism service and in contributing to sustainable development. It is important that environmental concerns are strongly factored into the types of activities that are selected for the awards. Conversely, there is a need to filter activities that might potentially have adverse impacts on the sustainability of the highlands. By selecting entities showing best practice in their field as role models, others would be encouraged to follow suit. WWF Malaysia 7-13

334 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Table 7-3 : Proposed MOCAT Award Scheme Award Category Category 1 Visitor Accommodation and Transport Category 2 Visitor Activities and Attractions Types Major Hotels and Resort Hotels full service hotels and resorts providing accommodation, facilities, service and comfort at superior quality and luxury levels. This category includes Serviced Apartments depending on service standards and facilities. Luxury Lodges, Boutique Hotels & Exclusive Retreats providing high level of operator/guest interaction. Special character & luxury accommodation & personalised service. Hosted Accommodation providing mid-range accommodation with high levels of guest/operator interaction. The category includes farmstays, homestays, and bed and breakfast accommodation. Holiday Parks providing holiday park accommodation, normally with communal facilities. The category includes camp sites, caravan and campervan parks, cabins, etc. Transportation Services Operators providing self-drive modes of transport and services that operate according to published timetables. This category includes buses, rental cars, camper vans, boats and bicycles. Some basic visitor information such as maps will be expected. Adventure Experiences that offer thrills or excitement based on active participation and personal challenge. This category includes river rafting, kayaking, caving, mountaineering, jungle trekking, sky diving, etc. Eco Tourism Tourism with a natural area focus, which benefits the environment & communities visited, fosters environmental & cultural understanding, appreciation and awareness. Eco tourism operators are expected to demonstrate how they contribute to environmental sustainability. The judges will expect to see a high level of environmental interpretation in this category and a commitment to protecting the environment/species. Cultural Tourism Any product that recognizes the relationship between tourism and the diverse cultures and values of the highland communities. Entrants in this category should contribute to the understanding and appreciation of Malaysian culture. Orang Asli cultural tourism experiences should demonstrate and reflect the integrity, spirituality and cultural values of Orang Asli in an authentic way. The judges will expect to see a high level of visitor interpretation. WWF Malaysia 7-14

335 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Award Category Heritage Attractions Types Any operation that recognizes the relationship between tourism and the development of a sense of national history, heritage, traditions and identity. This category includes museums, historic places, natural and wildlife attractions etc in the highlands and may include some commercial development. The judges will expect to see a high level of visitor interpretation in this category. Retail and Restaurants Retail outlets that sell mostly Malaysian products and restaurants that cater for the tourism market or provide a taste of Malaysia. Includes outlets attached to other enterprises that provide a retail or restaurant component. This category includes all stand-alone restaurants offering a tourism experience. It is not a food award but does recognize a significant contribution to tourism through the provision of food and beverage. Restaurants or retail outlets in hotels that satisfy the criteria, giving proof of their contribution to tourism, can enter this category. Category 3 Tourism Marketing and Development Tourism Marketing Any marketing activity including product development, pricing, promotion and distribution of highlands tourism products and services. This category is open to State or Regional Development Councils/ tourism Organizations, international wholesalers and inbound tour operators. It could be a media campaign, website promotion or a targeted promotional campaign. Tourism Media and Visitor Information All forms of print and electronic publications and promotional material that demonstrate an ongoing commitment to informing visitors about the travel product in the highlands. This category includes printed publications, travel guides and internet sites. The focus is on quality of content, high levels of customer satisfaction with the product on offer and its distribution. Tourism Service Providers Any organization that contributes a service which directly relates to Malaysia s highlands travel and tourism industry including event organizers, telecommunication providers, professional consulting services, tourism training providers, etc. Entrants must demonstrate their organization s contribution to the development of the tourism industry and explain how they assist in delivering outstanding visitor experiences. WWF Malaysia 7-15

336 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS Green Globe Award of the World Travel and Tourism Council The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) has developed a system of Green Globe awards which it anticipates will become the primary global standard of environmental commitment by the Travel and Tourism industry. Currently the Green Globe has the support of the World Tourism Organisation, the United Nations Environment Program, the Earth Council and over 20 international industry organization representing thousands of businesses world wide. The Green Globe programme provides guidance material and a certification process linked to both ISO standards and Agenda 21 principles. It is recommended that the MOCAT encourages and provides assistance to Malaysian organizations which to participate in the Green Globe programme PATA Green Leaf Award The Pacific Asia Tourism Association (PATA) is an industrial association, which promotes the Pacific Asia as travel and tourism destinations, products and services. PATA also serves as a central resource of information and research, travel industry, education and training, as well as quality product development with sensitivity for culture, heritage and environment. In 1992, PATA introduced its Code for Environmentally Responsible Tourism to strengthen the principles of preservation in the region. Businesses, organizations, NGO s and individuals in the highlands wishing to affirm their support for the PATA Code should be encouraged to participate in the PATA Green Leaf program. It is recommended that the MOCAT encourages and provides assistance to Malaysian organizations which to participate in the PATA Green Leaf programme Eco labelling There are many examples around the world of industry sponsored eco labelling schemes, whose principal aims are recognition of good industry practice and influencing consumer behaviour into purchasing the labelled products. The Green Key, Denmark scheme operated by Hotel, Restaurant and Leisure Industry Association (HORESTA) is one such example. This scheme has criteria that include environmental management, water and energy consumption and waste management. Special features also include ecological food products, outdoor areas and adaptations for access by disabled persons. There is some potential in the highlands for eco-labelling, e.g., organically produced vegetables, highland tea, fruits and medicinal plants. The Farm Accreditation Scheme under the Ministry of Agriculture should classify produce as conforming to sound environmental practices and standards and this would be in the form of a label (eco-labelling). Produce could be marketed under tea brand name Malaysia Best. Eco-labelling can be environmentally effective and the soft effects especially on awareness raising can be considerable. WWF Malaysia 7-16

337 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS 7.9 Educational Services A potential funding mechanism is the sale of educational services pertaining to the highlands. The educational market for knowledge-based services could in principle prove to be lucrative and marketing the highlands as a form of virtual eco-tourism could constitute an appropriate strategy for raising funds. The development of educational web-casting has gained in momentum in recent years. This could involve web-based educational resources and programmes being made available on subscription and targeted at international schools and universities, conservation charities, international organizations and others interested in the Malaysian highlands. As noted in the Maliau Basin (Sabah) Management Plan, virtual ecotourists can contribute significantly to such conservation benefits as the: growth of a national and international support network; promotion of awareness; and the generation of revenues. The other major advantages is that these conservation benefits would be secured cost-free with regards to the impacts on the highlands. In the US, the Center for Plant Conservation makes available resources and programmes on rare native plants and also stocks videos, books and research material. Educational web casting has been well developed by major universities such as Duke, Ohio and Colorado State University, who offer degree programmes over the Internet. In the UK, the Science Museum has developed innovative web casts for school pupils involving relaying live videos of a staff-led session at the museum through the Internet. An online chat room was set up to enable teachers and students to ask questions and comments on the sessions while they are active. The development of educational services through web-casts would most appropriately be carried-out by a Malaysian university. There are a number of examples of successful educational marketing of cataloguebased, mail order, booklets and postcard packs of areas like the highlands. Merchandising has been undertaken by major conservation organizations such as the National Park Foundation, Audubon Society, Sierra Club and Smithsonian Institution in the US, by the John Muir Trust in Scotland and internationally by NGO s such as WWF. Suitable products related to the Malaysian highlands could include: Illustrated booklets and postcard packs Magazines Video CDs Posters Limited edition prints T-shirts, Polo shirts and Sweatshirts with a highlands image Other environmental friendly products DANCED, Maliau Basin Management Plan, Draft, April 2002 WWF Malaysia 7-17

338 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS In addition to saleable products, a high quality packaging and dispatching infrastructure would be needed in order to respond efficiently and promptly to orders. This would, in turn, require substantial investment and recruitment of staff. It is a function that could be undertaken by the proposed Highlands Heritage Fund. Target markets for such educational marketing could include the Malaysian, Singaporean and Anglophone school and youth markets, i.e. USA, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the Republic of South Africa Federal Government Contributions to State The basic provisions relating to the Federal Government contributions are found in the Constitution. Under Article 109 of the Constitution, annual grants made to the State include : (i) (ii) Capitation Grant which is calculated on the basis of the population of the State. State Road Grants for the maintenance of state roads. Under Article 109(3), the Parliament may also by law make grants for specific purposes to any of the states. Using this provision, the State Grants (Maintenance of Local Authorities) Act 1981 was promulgated to enable the Federal Government to make grants to any state for the maintenance of local authorities. In addition to the above, the sources of revenue assigned to the States under the Constitution (Part III Schedule 10) include inter alia; (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Revenue from Lands, Mines and Forest Revenue from Licences Receipts from water supply and water rates Interest and rents of state property Very often the total revenue collected by the state is insufficient to meet the cost of development projects in the state. Under current practices, these are usually charged to a consolidated development fund established at both the Federal and state levels. Allocation for projects is based on a project budgeting and programming process which is coordinated by EPU and Treasury on a 5-year planning cycle. The purposes for which the Federal Development Fund may be applied is enumerated in the First Schedule of the Development Funds Act 1966 (Act 406) and these includes among others : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) drainage and irrigation public roads and bridges public facilities such as schools, hospitals, sanitation etc housing including urban renewal soil conservation rehabilitation of land affected by soil erosion. WWF Malaysia 7-18

339 CHAPTER 7 : ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS AND FUNDING MECHANISMS From the above, it is noted that the distribution of federal grants and development funds are skewed in favour of achieving development objectives in the conventional sense. The irony is that the more the population and roads in the state, the more grants it receives. Except for limited funding provisions for soil conservation and rehabilitation of land affected by erosion, there seems little express provisions in the law for fiscal incentives to the state for adopting and implementing conservation and protective policies and projects. If conservation of the environment is the premise on which sustainable development projects and policies are to be formulated in the future, then it makes good sense for the Federal Government to provide a law to make grants to the States for conservation purposes. This may be done by the following means: (i) (ii) Amending Article 109(1) of the Constitution to provide for annual grants to the States based on the extent of protective forests and areas in the state. Invoking Article 109 (3) to provide for a Federal Law to make grants to the state for conservation purposes e.g. the Proposed Heritage Funds Act. Under the principles of sustainability, the economy and society should continue to exist without destroying the natural environment on which we all depend. Perhaps a paradigm shift is needed to include conservation objectives as an integral component of the development equation and adequate fiscal provisions should be introduced to achieve this. WWF Malaysia 7-19

340 8 STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM

341 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM 8.1 Introduction The Benum Range, straddles three districts in central Pahang, namely Jerantut, Raub and Temerloh (Figure 8-1). The maximum elevation is Gunung Benum at 2107m, the eleventh highest mountain in Peninsular Malaysia. The Benum Range is important in terms of biodiversity as it hosts the Krau Wildlife Reserve, one of the largest wildlife reserves in Peninsular Malaysia. Several PFEs such as the Gunung Benum FR, Lakum FR, Jerantut FR, Krau FR Extension, Hulu Dong FR and Bukit Tacing FR either lie within or adjacent to the Benum Range. As with other highland areas, the Benum Range forms the headwater for many rivers as well as being a water catchment. It is well documented that land clearing in a water catchment produces a chain of effects downstream, and this chapter will take a hard look at this and other related activities which threaten the conservation and sustainability of the Benum Range. For a better understanding of the study area, a brief insight into the three surrounding districts will precede the description of the existing environment. Although the study area is evenly divided among the three districts, much of the human contact is from the Raub side, and hence, a greater portion of the focus will be on Raub. 8.2 Existing Situation Raub District The District of Raub used to be famous for its gold mines, where it was largely a gold mining settlement. The name of Raub was derived from the word raup which means to scoop. Population in the district increased from 64,414 people in 1980 to people in 1991 and 79,432 in This translates to an annual growth rate of 1.25% from and 0.93 % from A negative growth rate in the Raub town coupled by a positive growth rate in Mukim Gali (where Raub town is located) suggests that the people preferred living outside the town area. The main settlements in Raub district are Cheroh, Dong, Raub and Teras. Kg. Sg. Ruan, Kg. Pucung and Kg. Hulu Dong are the largest settlements closest to the Benum Range. The district of Raub covers an area of 226,883 ha. Forest (140,667 ha) dominates the land use followed by agriculture (62,302 ha) and mining (408 ha). Industrial development in Raub only constitutes 0.14% of the total area or 318 ha. This is partially due the rugged terrain, which makes industrial development extremely expensive, and the location of the district itself, which is outside the Eastern Industrial Development Corridor. This makes Raub a less popular option for the investors compared to Temerloh and Bentong. The alternative is agriculture, and so, despite the limited flat terrain, the areas surrounding Raub was opened for agriculture. There are many fruit orchards in Raub especially durian and banana. In WWF Malaysia 8-1

342 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM the year 2000, 44.8% of the population in the district of Raub was involved in agriculture. The vision for the district of Raub by the year 2010 (Raub Structure Plan), is to: Fully develop as main service centre for the West Pahang region and to serve as a 'stop over' for visitors travelling from Kuala Lumpur to Kota Bahru Become as an agro-tourism centre Develop its fruit processing industry Become a centre for small and medium industry Introduce Raub as a Hill resort district Become research centre for agriculture industry. The Majlis Daerah Raub has identified the fruit orchards as a tourism product and wants to fully exploit it to attract more local and foreign tourists to this district. The district of Raub is to be promoted as a premier agro-tourism destination. The hills and forests surrounding Raub offer a variety of attractions to tourists. The foremost tourist spot in Raub is Fraser s Hill, a hill station offering cool climate and other attractions such as pony rides, flower nursery, the Jeriau waterfall and a 9- hole golf course. Other recreational areas here mostly relate to nature tourism including a myriad of waterfalls. Lata Jarum, Lata Berembun, Lata Lembik and Bukit Telaga waterfalls are popular picnic spots. White water rafting enthusiasts can pit their skill against the rapids at Jeram Besu. The Tasik Ria Kundang Pauh and Sungai Pasu Recreation Centre offer game fishing. Cave exploration at Ulu Gali presents another recreational endeavor Jerantut Jerantut is the largest district in the state of Pahang covering an area about 7,563 km 2 (756,346 ha). Jerantut is famous for its nature tourism, for within this district lies the Taman Negara, or the National Park. Jerantut has always been considered the gateway to the Taman Negara. In 2000, the total population of Jerantut was 81,215 and the annual growth rate for was 0.95%. Kg Ulu Cheka and Batu Balai are the two settlements closest to the Benum Range. The total population in Kg Ulu Cheka and Batu Balai were 2,000 and 3,200 people respectively in 1995 and are expected to increase to 5,900 and 11,900 respectively in the year Jerantut is a destination that offers a wide selection for outdoor activities. Taman Negara, one of the world s oldest tropical rain forests, offers an exciting experience for cave exploring, jungle trekking and wildlife observation. Aquatic pursuits are available at Jeram Perahu, Tasik Kerawat, Sungai Pahang, Sungai Tembeling and Sungai Tiang. Other recreational areas include Rekreasi Sungai Salan, Lemboh Kiol and Lata Berkoh, which are good sites for camping, jungle trekking, canopy walks and picnics. WWF Malaysia 8-2

343 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Tekam Plantation Resort is a model agro-tourism project encompassing 2,000 ha of oil palm, coffee, coconut, cocoa and rubber plantations, herbs, garden, nursery and fruits orchards, complete with chalets and hostels for accommodation. Although tourism features promptly in Jerantut, agriculture remains as the mainstay of the district s economy. Agriculture activities in Jerantut, consisting of mainly rubber, oil palm and fruit orchards, occupy an area of 69,208 ha, or 9.2% of the land area of the district, and involve 61% of the district s populace (Kajian Rancangan Struktur Daerah Jerantut, 1995). The district s aquaculture centre at Perlok is also the largest in the country. A large portion of Jerantut (80%) is hilly. Only 16% of the entire district is suitable for development, mostly located at the southern end of the district Temerloh The District of Temerloh covers an area of 225,070 ha. It is 133 km from Kuala Lumpur and is strategically located within the Main East-West Development Corridor (Klang Valley-Kuantan). The district of Temerloh is generally flat. Only 13% or 28,200 ha of area is located on steep slopes (>20%). The land use is dominated by agriculture which covers an area of 110,889 ha or 49.3% of the total area and forest which occupies an area of 94,200 ha or 41.9%. In 2000, Temerloh had a total population of 136,162, with an annual growth rate for of 1.59%. The main settlements are Temerloh, Mentakab, Kuala Krau and Lanchang. The main socio economic activity in Temerloh is agriculture. The major crops here are rubber and oil palm besides paddy, cocoa, coconut, fruits and vegetables. The industrial sector is now growing at a fast pace and several industrial parks, such as the Temerloh and Lanchang Industrial Parks, have been established. Temerloh offers opportunities for cave exploration and hiking. Gunung Senyum Recreational Forest, located within Jengka FR is gaining popularity with its fascinating caves. Other outdoor activities here are mountain climbing, jungle trekking and camping. Tasik Bera, covering an area of 24,000 ha, is one of the largest freshwater lakes in Malaysia. This lake offers a variety of recreational opportunities like trekking and boating. Lake Bera is a protected under the Ramsar Convention, and also wellknown for the Semelai aborigines living within the area. Temerloh also boasts a wealth of scenic waterfalls with the three-level cascade Lata Bujang topping the list. The Paya Kujan and Paya Taram waterfalls have been identified as potential spots to be developed in the near future. The Krau Wildlife Reserve, which is one of the most important protected area in Malaysia, is also located within the Temerloh district. WWF Malaysia 8-3

344 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Land Use The existing land use of the Benum Range can be classified as predominantly forest (Figure 8-2), which makes up 99 % of the land use in the area. The forest consists of state land forests as well as several forest reserves, namely the Gunung Benum FR, Hulu Dong FR, Lakum FR, Jerantut FR and Bukit Tacing FR. The Krau Wildlife Reserve in the southwest makes up the largest portion of the forest land use. Agriculture constitutes the remainder of the land use, with rubber being the leading crop, followed by oil palm. Vegetable farms and fruit orchards are cultivated in smaller areas. Rubber trees are found mostly on the Raub side, while oil palm plantations are evident in the Raub as well as the Ulu Cheka area in Jerantut. Vegetable farms and fruit orchards feature mostly on the Raub side, and can be found on steep hill lands, up to the 600m elevation. Urban development, rural communities, traditional villages and Orang Asli settlements constitute the settlement pattern in and around the Benum Range. The settlements are concentrated at the northern and western boundaries of the Benum Range. Rural communities such as the new villages of Kg. Sg. Ruan, Kg. Sg. Kelau and RPS Sg. Chalit are concentrated in the west. Traditional villages such as Kg. Hulu Dong, Kg. Pucung, Kg. Kuala Keloi and Kg. Bedu can be found in the north. Batu Balai and Ulu Cheka are rural communities located in the Jerantut side. In Temerloh, small settlements are found adjacent to State Route C141, namely Kg. K. Pian, Kg. Balik Nyior and Kg. Penderas Topography and Soils The Benum Range has altitudes ranging from 300m near Sg. Chalit to 2107m at the summit of Gunung Benum. The slopes on the north of the summit are gentler compared to the rugged terrain on the southern and the western faces (Figure 8-3). The Benum Range consists of a series of small hills, where to the south of the Benum summit are Bukit Lebah (592m) and Bukit Gapis (1388m), whereas G. Palas (1527m), Bukit Chalit (664m) and Bukit Lebak (628m) are found on the western side. On the northeast of Gunung Benum, the geology is mainly Triassic sedimentary rocks and quaternary volcanic effusives up to about 340m. Towards the summit of Gunung Benum (above 1000m) granitic rock and boulders become exposed. Soil composition is also influenced by heavy leaching of nutrients on the steeper slopes with consequent breakdown of soil structure and development of an associated vegetation type. These factors tend to produce a rather acidic soil at higher altitudes. WWF Malaysia 8-4

345 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM The entire Benum Range has a very high erosion risk, with levels above 150 t/ha/year. At the eastern fringes of the Benum Range, the erosion risk is slightly lower with rates between 100 to 150 t/ha/year Climate The nearest meteorological station is located at Gali, approximately 10 km from Raub town. The mean annual rainfall recorded here for the year was 1750mm. A slightly higher reading was recorded at Kuala Lompat, about 2000mm, with two noticeable peaks in April and November. Mean minimum and maximum daily temperatures at Gunung Benum range from 15 C to 17.5 C and 22 C to 32 C respectively at altitude between 300m and 1525m (Caldecott et. al, n.d.) River System The Benum Range forms the headwater for a number of streams, all eventually draining into Sg. Pahang. The western side of the Benum range is drained by tributaries of Sg. Kelau, namely, Sg. Chalit, Sg. Terus, Sg Pertang, Sg. Kelau Kecil and Sg. Temir. Sg. Kelau itself originates from Bukit Lebak and Bukit Chalit. This forms the larger part of the catchment for the proposed Kelau Dam. Sg. Pian, Sg. Chenderoh and Sg. Terboi drain east into Sg. Kerau. In the south, Sg. Teris flows towards Temerloh before merging with Sg Pahang. Sg Dong and Sg Keloi, which discharge northwards, complete the drainage pattern for the Benum Range. Water intakes are found along Sg. Keloi and Sg. Chalit (Figure 8-4), which provide the main supply to the Raub district. The treatment plant for the intake at Sg. Keloi channels the water to a treatment plant which supplies the Ulu Dong area, while water from the other intake is treated near Kg. Sg. Kelau and supplies the Gali area. Outside the Benum Range, water intakes are also found further downstream along Sg. Krau in Temerloh Water Quality The water quality of the Benum Range was measured from the three existing in the area, two at Sg. Kelau and one at Sg. Pertang. The water quality of both rivers between 1996 and 1998 was good and generally within the Class II limit. The TSS levels began to increase in 1998 with concentrations of 49 mg/l and 158 mg/l downstream and upstream respectively, for Sg. Kelau. Sg. Pertang also exhibited a similar trend, with levels in 1999 was over the limit of Class II at 117 mg/l. The BOD and COD concentrations also recorded levels slightly over the Class II limit in WWF Malaysia 8-5

346 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Forest and Biodiversity Introduction The lowland tropical rainforests in Peninsular Malaysia at present exist in fragments. It is estimated in 1992 that in the peninsula, only about 871,140 ha of original lowland forest still remain, of which some 431,644 ha were within protected areas, in such areas as Taman Negara and the Gunung Benum area as part of the Krau Wildlife Reserve. KWR, the second most important protected area in Peninsular Malaysia after Taman Negara, is situated at the southeastern flanks of Gunung Benom. Gunung Benum, with its elements of highland forest, and the surrounding lowland forest, has long been recognized as an important area for species conservation. It offers refuge to a large number of threatened lowland fauna and flora, as well as, houses significant amount of endemic species. The assemblage of highland representative species is also equally rich. For the purpose of this section, KWR and its neighbouring forested areas, which includes both Permanent Forest Estates (PFEs) and State land forests would be considered as one entity and will be referred in the text as the "Gunung Benum Forests" (GBF). GBF covers about 156,000 ha in total; approximately 40% or 62,395 ha is protected within the KWR and the balance are part of the Permanent Forest Estates and Stateland forests. The Krau Wildlife Reserve was created in 1923 as the Krau Game Reserve (KGR). The then KGR was thought to be a significant refuge for gaur (Bos gaurus). This species was living around abandoned forest clearings along Sg. Krau but now together with the sambar deer and serow, have dwindled in numbers and become the least abundant of the herbivores, with restricted distribution. Since its establishment, the reserve has undergone several changes in its delineation. Table 8-1 below lists the summary of gazettement and degazettement notices concerning the KWR. As for the PFEs, several of them have been gazetted over the years, which buffer the core of KWR (Figure 8-5 & Table 8-2). These are located within the Raub, Jerantut and Temerloh districts. The PFEs, although having a history of logging, are generally still intact to hold significant amount of biological diversity compared to those of KWR. At present, the DWNP manages KWR as an isolated reserve. To reduce the pace of possible species loss and the overall decline in biological diversity, the forest management practices, therefore, cannot simply be excluded from the wildlife management at the KWR. WWF Malaysia 8-6

347 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Table 8-1: Summary of Gazette Notices concerning the Krau Wildlife Reserve Notice Area Gazette No. Date Legal Instrument Original gazette 55,182ha (136,300ac) GN Wild Animals and Birds Protection Enactment 1921 Regazette 53,042ha (131,000ac) GN Wild Animals and Birds Protection Enactment 1921 Regazette 65,268ha (252 sq. mi) GN Wild Animals and Birds Protection Enactment 1921 Degazette 1,984ha (4,900 ac) GN Wild Animals and Birds Protection Ordinance 2 of 1955 Degazette 891 ha (2,200 ac) Gazette of Jenut Kelebang ¼ mile around saltlick GN 7454 GN 7079 (source: KWR Management Plan, 2001) GN Wild Animals and Birds Protection Ordinance 2 of Wild Animals and Birds Protection Enactment 1921 Table 8-2: Permanent Reserved Forests Within and Around the Benum Range PRF Original Area (ha) Current Area (ha) Gazette date District: Raub Ulu Dong FR 1, , Bukit Taching FR 2, , Bukit Taching FR (Lipis) 3, , Gunung Benum FR 24, , Jahit FR Kelau FR 6, , Rotan Tunggal 2, , District: Jerantut Jerantut FR 1, , Jerantut FR (Add.) 15, , Som FR 13, , District: Temerloh Krau FR 7, , Lakum FR 15, , Total PFE 94, , (Source: Pahang Forest Management Plan, 2000) Forest Types & Species Richness Different types of forest cover the Benum Range. While the lowland forests predominate the western, northwestern and southeastern parts, the central parts are covered by a succession of hill and montane forests. The tree family Dipterocarpaceae (which has Peninsular Malaysia and larger part of Southeast Asia as its center of diversity) is often used to characterise mature lowland and hill forest types in Malaysia (Symington, 1943). Hence, using Symington's elevation zonation classes, much of the forests in Peninsular Malaysia including those of the Benum WWF Malaysia 8-7

348 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Range can be delineated. Table 8-3 below provides a summary of the major vegetation zones in the Benum Range. This should provide a basis for species distribution, as elevation and topography influence very strongly localised grouping of plants and animals, i.e. indirectly contributing to the pattern of species endemism. Therefore, any disturbance to the overall ecosystem would become a threat for the survival and existence of these species. Table 8-3: Estimated major floristic zones in the Gunung Benum Forests Floristic Zone Area (ha) % of GBF Lowland Dipterocarp Forest (< 300m) 87, Hill Dipterocarp Forest ( m) 45, Upper Dipterocarp Forest (750 1,200m) 19, Oak Laurel Forest (1,200 1,500m) 3, Montane Ericaceous Forest (> 1,500m) Total 156, The National Conservation Strategy (EPU, 1993) recognized KWR as having rare extreme Lowland Dipterocarp Forest and being an important habitat for large mammals with Gunung Benum being especially important for conserving the biological diversity of montane species. Together with the lowland forests of Taman Negara area, the Benum Range represents the last refuge for a host of original lowland forest plant and animal species which do not have genetically viable populations elsewhere in Peninsular Malaysia, possibly in the region as well. Besides the primary undisturbed forest of KWR, it is expected that the surrounding managed forests (both logged and unlogged) would help support the rich and diverse biological diversity. For this reason, it is vital to prepare and implement an integrated management plan that will ensure effective protection of the rich biological diversity of the area. Research activities have been carried out almost continually since early 1970's in KWR, but until recently, these have been concentrated around the Kuala Lompat area. For other areas within the Benum Range, very few scientific studies have been conducted except for an early ascent of Gunung Benum from Raub (attempted in the 1930's) and the 1967 Gunung Benum Expedition. The later exercise made transect from the lowlands to the peak of the mountain. This provided one of the earliest and comprehensive inventories of the area. The KWR has been the focus of zoo-centric research over the past 30 years. Faunal data has been relatively well documented for select group of species, which have been studied by scientists, undergraduate and postgraduate students. Until recently, most, if not all of the large mammals of the peninsula were recorded in KWR. Overall, 122 mammal species have been documented from the area with 44 species of bats, 7 species of primates and 33 species of rodents. With reference to the Protection of Wildlife Act 1972 in relation to the Totally Protected species, a total of 38 mammal species were found here; 15 of which are listed in the IUCN (1996) category as globally threatened. Among these, the tiger and gaur are now WWF Malaysia 8-8

349 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM known to have reduced populations in this area and that their long-term survival is questionable. Wild elephant populations are extinct from the area due to translocation and probably poaching. The bird fauna of KWR is relatively well surveyed. So far, a total of 298 bird species (inclusive of both lowland and montane species) have been enumerated from the area. The majority of lowland species is widespread, and is also reported from other parts of Southeast Asia, except for the Malayan Peacock Pheasant, which is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia. In addition, seven other resident bird species found within the KWR are also listed as "Vulnerable" on IUCN's (1996) global list of threatened species. The two groups of amphibians and reptiles were studied intensively in In connection with other more recent surveys, a total of 85 species has been recorded for the GBF area, comprising 43 species of amphibians, 19 species of lizards and 23 snake species. The fish fauna of the streams and ponds is known only at a cursory level. Some recent studies in early 1990's, revealed 68 species in 19 families, including 6 rare species of which one was a new record to Peninsular Malaysia. In contrast, there has been a general lack of floristic data for the whole area. Initial data on the vegetation came from the Gunung Benum Expedition. Details on the floristic composition, however, were not filled until the recent ( ) DANCED botanical studies. The current floral records indicate approximately 1508 plant species from 445 genera and 142 families, or 1084 dicotyledons, 328 monocotyledons, 4 gymnosperms and 48 fern and fern allies. Of these, at least 158 species (or 10.5% of the total species) are endemic to Peninsular Malaysia. Important botanical findings in the KWR include the following: Licuala sp. nov (Palmae) is a new species encountered from the lowland dipterocarp forest at Sg. Kudung, south of the reserve. Consisting of less than ten mature individuals, the species will be named Licuala krauensis from its type locality KWR. Scaphochlamys concinna (Zingiberaceae), collected from the confluence of Sg. Baik and Sg. Neram, is the second collection after the type collection, which was collected from Perak in the late 19th century. Alpinia petiolata (Zingiberaceae). Collected from the swamp forest along Sg. Baik, the southeast part of the KWR, this species had so far been known only from the mountain forests. Until this collection appeared, there has never been a lowland record. Calamus flabellatus (Palmae) is known in Malaya from two collections i.e. from Sg. Kayu, Johor, presumably from the lowland swamp forest and from Bintang Hijau FR, Perak. Licuala pahangensis (Palmae). Endemic to southwest Pahang (KWR and its vicinity), this species was surprisingly gregarious throughout most of the WWF Malaysia 8-9

350 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM lowland forest in the KWR. Being a rare endemic, it is fortunately protected in KWR. Phalaenopsis maculata (Orchidaceae). This species has so far been recorded only from Sg. Tahan in Pahang. A new record for the KWR, it was collected as an epiphyte by the riverbanks of Sg. Lompat Hulu (c. 530m). Soejatmia ridleyi is a rare endemic bamboo and is restricted to the lowland forests of Kelantan and Pahang. It was recollected again beyond the Bukit Rengit Station and in the lowland forest along Sg. Baik Keratong. Polyosma nullii (Escalloniaceae). A very rare endemic recorded from only two sites in Peninsular Malaysia (upper montane forests of G. Ulu Kali and G. Benum. The single collection from G. Benum (c. 2040m) was made by T.C. Whitmore in Ardisia petricola (Myrsinaceae). A very rare endemic known only from G. Benum. The single collection (c. 2040m) was made by T.C. Whitmore in The KWR is home to several threatened tree species. Hopea pubescens, Vatica bella and V. heteroptera (Dipterocarpaceae) are categorised as critically endangered under the IUCN Red List (1994). H. pubescens and V. bella were found in the lowland and hill forests while V. heteroptera occurred in the lower montane forest. The most unique vegetation encountered in the KWR was the freshwater swamp forest. This forest type is poorly studied in Peninsular Malaysia-there is only one detailed publication and this was for the Sedili Rivers in south Johor. Unlike that of Sedili, the freshwater swamp forest in the KWR is not under tidal influence and hence is floristically different Socio-Economy Population The population in the areas adjacent to the Benum Range is estimated to be around 20,000, and mostly concentrated at the northeastern and western parts, specifically around Mukim Ulu Cheka in Jerantut and at the new villages in Raub. The Ulu Cheka area has about 1525 households with a population of In Raub, the villages such as Kg. Sg. Ruan, Kg. Sg. Kelau and RPS Sg. Chalit has a total population of more than 9000, while the about 1500 live around the Ulu Dong area Agriculture Agriculture in the fringes of the Benum Range comprises of rubber, oil palm, cocoa, vegetables and fruits. Rubber plantations are predominant around settlements within Mukim Dong in the north, along with some fruit orchards. The northeastern portion, at Ulu Cheka features rubber, paddy and fruit orchards, while oil palm estates are located at the Sg. Rengat Land Development Scheme (FELCRA). Agriculture at Batu Balai is mostly rubber plantation. WWF Malaysia 8-10

351 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Rubber and oil palm plantations also line the eastern reaches of the Benum Range. Rubber estates at the Jenderak Utara Land Development Scheme (FELDA) and oil palms at Sg. Pian Land development Scheme (FELCRA) are the main plantations. Agricultural activities confined to the Raub side at the west include rubber, cocoa, vegetables and fruits. Here, vegetable and fruit plantations are almost exclusively cultivated by farmers from RPS Sg. Chalit and the New Villages of Kg. Sg. Ruan and Kg. Sg. Kelau Tourism Waterfalls and the forests (Figure 8-6) are the main attractions in this area. Lata Berembun, a splendid cascading waterfall, is the main attraction on the Raub side. Access to this waterfall, previously only possible using 4-wheel drive vehicles, has now been improved. The new access road, which would soon be available to normal vehicles, stops less than a kilometre away from the waterfall. The other waterfall in the Raub side is Lata Tujuh, which is ideal for camping and picnics. For the adventurous, there is a hiking trail through the Lata Berembun recreational forest all the way to Gunung Benum that also include a picturesque journey through the Gunung Benum FR. Raub also offers cave exploration at Ulu Gali, near the foothills of the Benum Range. Jerantut has similar attractions, with Lata Rengat, a waterfall located near Ulu Cheka. There are also trekking expeditions to Gunung Benum from Ulu Cheka. The Lata Meraung Recreational Forest offers another alternative location for trekkers. The KWR occupies the entire Temerloh side of the study area and tourism activity is limited here. The presence of the wildlife reserve has spawned several wildliferelated centres such as the Wildlife Training Centre at Bukit Rengit, Elephant Sanctuary at Kuala Gandah, Seladang and Deer Sanctuary at Jenderak, and Mini Zoo in Temerloh town Orang Asli The Orang Asli population on the Benum Range is mainly concentrated around Sg. Temir, Bukit Lancar and Sg. Yol in Raub and at the border of Krau Game Reserve in Temerloh. The Orang Asli here are made up of the Temuan, Jah Hut and Che Wong. (Figure 8-6) Sg. Temir is the largest orang asli settlement area in Raub and there are approximately 80 Temuan families living here. This is followed by Sg. Yol (33 families) and Bukit Lancar (15 families). Most of them practice agriculture, while some of them are employed by the farmers to work in the rubber estates in Sg Chalit. Both the Jah Hut and the Che Wong tribes settle at the fringes of and also within the Krau Wildlife Reserve. The Jah Hut are mostly settled agriculturist along Sg. WWF Malaysia 8-11

352 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Krau, which is the south-eastern boundary of the study area. They live in small villages between Penderas and Kg Pian and quite frequently enter the KWR to hunt or collect plant materials. In the west of the reserve are the Che Wong, living along the headwaters of Sg Lompat and along the south-west boundary from Kuala Gandah to Sentau and around Bukit Patong. The Che Wongs are mainly hunters and gatherers. 8.3 Issues And Problems Encroachment by Agriculture The encroachment by farmers from Raub into the Gunung Benum FR is the main problem in the Benum Range. The area encroached is fairly extensive, about 3000 ha (7000 acres) on both state land and forest reserve. An estimated two-thirds (about 2000 ha) of the encroachment lies inside the forest reserve or hill lands, and have been cleared by farmers for growing commercial crops (Figure 8-7). For example, almost the entire Bukit Chalit has been cleared for agriculture (Plate 8-1). The exact acreage is being surveyed at the present moment. About 800 ha (2000 acres), mostly on state land rather than the forest reserve, have been surveyed to date. To have a better understanding of the problem, the underlying nature of the situation must be first understood. The concept of New Villages, as they are officially known, originated soon after the Second World War, more than 50 years ago. During that time, many Chinese immigrants formed squatter communities in the fringes of towns and in the rural areas. During the Emergency, these squatter communities had aligned themselves with the communists and steps had to be taken to isolate them from the influence of the communists guerrillas. A committee was formed to look into this matter and the Report of the High Commissioner 1949 proposed the resettlement of these squatter colonies to secured sites to be called New Villages. The resettlement exercise was duly implemented under the Briggs Plan between 1950 and In the subsequent years until the late 1960 s, these New Villages suffered from the lack of development funds. With that, the local community took on their own initiative for development, taking up agriculture on mostly Government land to help sustain the local economy. The situation changed in 1970 when the TOLs were issued to the people in the New Villages and a budget allocated for the development for New Villages. However, in the 70 s and 80 s, there was an increase in agricultural activity from the increase in population at Kg. Sg. Ruan and RPS Sg. Chalit. The land areas that were granted temporary ownership were insufficient and this resulted in more government land and hill areas being expanded for agriculture. From the 1990 s until the present time, there has been no appreciable increase in encroachment onto hill lands. This is partly due to the difficulty in access to the WWF Malaysia 8-12

353 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM farms, and since most of the farms were illegal, there have been no funds allocated for the maintenance of these accesses. The high cost of farming with low returns had also become a deterring factor, especially in the face of competition with cheaper produce from other countries. RPS Sg. Chalit was established in 1978 under LKPP s programme to develop areas within the security zones. Basic infrastructure and amenities was provided in setting this community. With initial population of 128 people, the economic activity was confined to rubber tapping on a 647ha plot of LKPP plantation, but this soon proved to be insufficient income and many resorted to working the fields. In 1987, the Gunung Benum FR was gazetted, and the farmers who were cultivating on land deemed not suitable for agriculture (hill lands, slope > 25 o ) found their farms to be illegal. Although the DOF can issue permits to carry out agricultural activities inside the PFEs under Section 33 of the National Forestry Act, 1984, the DOF has not done so for worries that this trend would spread out to newer areas, and is not compatible with current forest management. The matter has been brought up to the Pahang State Executive Committee for further action. At present, there is an ongoing effort by the farmers to apply for some sort of ownership (grants or TOLs) on lands not belonging to them. The process is costly and time consuming, where vast areas have to be surveyed. The affected farmers have formed a Committee for Planters on Government Land to resolve this. The farmers and land owners have always been locals, although in recent years, there have a been several farmers from Cameron Highlands buying land and carrying out vegetable and orchard farming. The farms vary in size, where a single farm can be as large as 40 ha (100 acres), but on average are about 4 ha (10 acres). Labourers from Indonesia and Bangladesh are mostly utilized to work on the farms. The produce includes cocoa, rubber, fruits such as bananas, durian, guava and vegetables such as tomatoes, cabbages and long beans (Plate 8-2 & 8-3). The type of crop planted varies from time to time depending on their market demand. The produce is mainly transported to the markets in Kuala Lumpur via middlemen, as these farmers do not have adequate resources to directly supply the markets. The farmers plant in fairly difficult terrain, and travel on poorly maintained farm roads (Plate 8-4). There are little or no funds for the maintenance of these roads. As there is no ownership of land, farmers can readily abandon farms and move on to greener pastures, in search of more fertile ground. The scarring of the slopes from abandoned farms, which leaves the ground unprotected by vegetation and further adds on as a major cause of soil erosion and sediment flow downstream (Plate 8-5). The biomass from the cleared forest is often burned instead of being removed to other locations for decomposition. This act extends the deterioration of the environment by polluting the air as well as releasing significant amounts of carbon dioxide into the air. With the initial activity of cultivating in prohibited lands already WWF Malaysia 8-13

354 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM illegal, the farmers have no reason to abide by any other rules designed to protect environment. Environmental degradation from the cultivation of short-term crops is not immediately evident, despite the fact that environment-friendly measures such as rain shelters or terracing were not employed. The streams have also remained relatively unpolluted. The uncontrolled farming on the steep slopes is likely to increase siltation at the proposed Kelau Dam would be likely a result of uncontrolled farming in steep slopes. The present farms in the encroached hill areas are not terraced nor have any rain shelter and hence do not offer any form of sediment control (Figure 8-8). The question of externalities then arises, where the cost of environmental cleanup is passed on to the other stakeholders affected by the consequences of activities upstream. Encroachment in the Temerloh side is limited to a few areas totaling 606 ha, along the road between Perlok and Kg. Pian. The areas concerned are Kg.Terboi, Kg. Pian, Kg. Berdut, Kg. Kusa, Kg. Perah, and Orang Asli settlements of Kg. Senel, Kg. Bancal, Kg. Batek and Kg. Bayek Narim. The agricultural activities are confined to fruit orchards and rubber plantations Tourism Unrealized Tourism Potential The full tourism potential of many of the local attractions have not been realized. Although Raub is located close to the Klang Valley, most of the attractions other than Fraser s Hill are not well known outside the local populace. It is the same with Jerantut as Taman Negara has overshadowed the other attractions near Gunung Benum. While the Pahang State Tourism (Fraser s Hill Development Corporation) has brochures to promote the attractions around Gunung Benum, it is still not reaching out sufficiently to the masses. The visitors frequenting these places are almost entirely made up of people from the nearby localities. In these competitive times, market sectors have not been identified and targeted. There has been a lack of facilities on-site to provide the necessary information. Jerantut and Raub do not have proper tourist information centre. Being the district administrative centre, both towns are expected to provide the information and accommodation base necessary to support the tourism industry Access to Lata Berembun The improved access to Lata Berembun is a vital factor in promoting this waterfall as a tourist attraction. The construction works, which includes a small bridge, is scheduled to complete by March WWF Malaysia 8-14

355 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM This new access, which traverses steeply along the hillside, is a source of environmental degradation. The road remains unpaved, possible due to the lack of funds. Despite being in an environmentally sensitive area, the road has been constructed without due regard to the environment. As a result, sediment control was non-existent (Plates 8-6), the protection and conservation of flora and fauna would have been overlooked and biomass disposal may have been unregulated. Large amounts of earth were observed to have spilled over the slopes along the road, bearing in mind that tributaries of Sg. Kelau and Sg. Pertang flow beneath those very slopes. While the road will be completed soon, the sediment from the unpaved surface will continue pollute the nearby watercourses Biodiversity Conservation Resource extraction and poaching within the Benum Range There is no logging within the PFEs at present. Logging within the forest reserves was last recorded in In all past events, the concessions have been given out on the 'compartmental' basis and are usually of areas less than 300 ha at one time. The steep areas (>40 0 ) are usually spared as "protection forest", and these are the areas where significant stand of primary forest still persist within the PFEs. Much of the logged areas within the PFEs, however, consist of different mosaics of forest stands with different age and forest structure; allowing for different sets of wildlife to strive and exploit on the situation. Following the Selective Management System implemented within the state of Pahang, the forest coupe should be ready for second cycle of harvesting after 30 years period. As it is, there is no mention of any forest harvesting operations for the Benum Range area within the next 5-year's (harvesting) work plan for the three districts. The rich biological diversity in the KWR is constantly under threat. Threats range from incompatible use by local communities and other users. The Orang Asli communities and the villagers nearby have the longest association with the reserve. This association continues to be an additional pressure to KWR. Outsiders and local communities legally and illegally enter the KWR to hunt either for their own use and/or for sale. Outsiders also do engage local communities to hunt. The Indian elephant and Sumatran rhinoceros are now absent in KWR due to a variety of reasons; translocation of elephants and poaching of rhinoceros are among the common reasons cited. This phenomenon, if not curbed, may also lead to the reduction of other species in the KWR and eventually within the Benum Range Isolation and fragmentation of the Benum Range The Benum Range is already an isolated block of forest, bordered by roads such as the Bentong - Raub, Raub - Jerantut, Jerantut - Temerloh and Temerloh - Karak - Bentong roads. The development that had followed the roads in the surrounding areas of the Benum Range had very much contributed to the physically separation of the Benum Range physically from other larger contiguous forests, especially to the Main Range in the west and Taman Negara in the north. For the latter, WWF Malaysia 8-15

356 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM however, the biological connection could still be viable through a narrow stretch of forest between Jerantut FR (Add.) and Som FR. A 2.5 km portion of the road connecting Perlok and Kg. Terboi is bisecting the biological corridor between KWR and Jerantut FR (Add.), hence the link to Taman Negara. This road was built in 1960 by the Army to control the communists, as the Benum Range, including the KWR were considered black areas. This barrier hinders the wildlife moving to and fro between the KWR and Taman Negara Proposed road from Mempaga to Ulu Cheka A road from Mempaga to Ulu Cheka has been proposed as part of a tourist route from the Klang Valley to Dungun, in Terengganu. The implications of the construction of this road on the environment is numerous, as the proposed alignment traverses through protected environments such as water catchments, wildlife and forest reserves especially in Jerantut. This road will further isolate and fragment the forest reserves in the area as discussed in Section The other major concern is that this road will travel across the Krau Wildlife Reserve in the Temerloh district and to some extent, the Lakum FR near Mempaga in the Raub district. The environmental damage during the construction stage will be severe, even with proper sediment control, the watercourses is likely to be silted, vast tracts of forest will be destroyed to make way for the road as well as for construction accesses and laybys. The wildlife will be disrupted from the noise and air pollution despite the best mitigation measures. The tiger, gaur, sambar deer and serow numbers in the KWR are already dwindling and this interference may threaten them with extinction, along with 11 other fauna species that are globally threatened. Hopea pubescens, Vatica bella and V. heteroptera (Dipterocarpaceae) which are found in the KWR are categorised as critically endangered tree species under the IUCN Red List (1994) and along with several other endemic plant species, they will all be under threat from the destructive repercussions of heavy construction activity. Although the DWNP has objected to this proposal, the project has nevertheless been incorporated in the Jerantut Structure Plan, Recommendations The problems pertaining to agriculture and biodiversity threaten the sustainability and conservation of the forests and ecosystems in the Benum Range. There is therefore an urgent need to formulate and implement solutions to check against these threats and ensure the continual conservation of the area. The problems pertaining to the encroachment by agriculture are complex and would therefore require a great deal of endeavor and resoluteness to resolve. The issues concerning the conservation of flora and fauna appear to be more straightforward, WWF Malaysia 8-16

357 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM and will largely be concerned with the prohibition of activities that are likely to pose a threat to the biodiversity of Gunung Benum. Tourist development proposals for the Gunung Benum area arise with the presence of such abundant natural beauty. The promotion of tourist activities is not intended to draw in the masses but rather to single out a segment of the tourist market that would relish the unique attractions found in the area Agriculture At present, farming on encroached hill lands and forest reserve has led to the destruction of forest and degradation of hill slopes and the environment in general. It has to be stressed again that within the Gunung Benum study area, lie the Gunung Benum and Lakum Forest Reserves and the Krau Wildlife Reserve, areas that are protected for the preservation of the multitude of endemic to endangered flora and fauna species. This area is also important as a water catchment. The effects of contamination and scarring of water catchments on the water supply and flow regime downstream is an often-publicized environmental grievance and steps must be taken to ensure this area is protected. The other negative aspects arising from cultivating in illegal land concerns the socio-economy. There is a loss of revenue to the Government in terms of produce taxation. In return, there is no physical or marketing infrastructure support from the Government. There is also a constant threat of eviction from the Authorities, giving the farmers no security of tenure at all. There has been a precedent where the Authorities in Raub evicted a farmer from an illegally cultivated plot with the farm produce uprooted and destroyed. Recommendation 1 : Reorganize Farming Activities This specially applies to the farms in Raub, where this problem is apparent. The illegally cultivated farms are actually two separate problems, each requiring different solutions. Firstly, there are farms planted on state land, then there are farms planted on protected forests or/and hill slopes > 25 o. Legalizing serves as the best option as it does not deprive the present farmers of their livelihoods, where they have shown to be very capable of successfully working the land. This will also enforce the Vision of Raub being a regional fruit and vegetable producer. This recommendation entails several steps : Step 1 : Survey the Illegal Farms A boundary/ cadastral survey must be undertaken to delineate and map all the farms. The cost of the survey must be borne by the farmers although the Land Office could facilitate the process. Upon completion of the survey, a joint inspection/ WWF Malaysia 8-17

358 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM verification by the Land Office and the farmers is also necessary to confirm the boundaries. Step 2: Alienate the State Land The state land that is presently being cultivated illegally should be alienated and leased to the farmers under Section 221 of the National Land Code 1965, for a period of at least 10 years. This provides the Government with revenue from the harvest and lease, and at the same time the security of tenure to the farmers. Step 3: Relocate Illegal Farms All farms that are situated in the forest reserve or hill land (slopes > 25 o ) should be relocated to areas with gentler terrain. The Land Conservation Act 1960, Sections 5 and 6 prohibit the planting short-term crops and the clearing and cultivation of hill land respectively. An annual permit for cultivating short-term crops under conditions (Section 5) can be issued by the Land Officer in the interim. To minimize losses to the farmers, relocation can be implemented in stages. For vegetable farms, they can work on the land until the end of the planting cycle, and start the new cycle at the new farm. For fruit plantations, the farmers will have to wait until the trees in the new farms begin to bear fruit before abandoning the old farms. Step 4 : Alienate State Land for Relocated Farms State land of areas less than 25 o slope, equivalent to the surveyed area of the illegally cultivated hill lands and forest reserve, shall be alienated and leased to the farmers whose farms were relocated, under Section 221 of the National Land Code 1965, for a period of 10 years of more. This land would give farmers a greater security of tenure. The alienated land should ideally be located near the present illegal farms. The size of the alienated land must also take into account any tracts within this land that has slopes greater than 25 o, as the farmer will not be allowed to cultivate on this tract of land. A larger area will have to be alienated to compensate for this. Step 6 : Form A Committee To Oversee The Implementation Farm Relocation A committee should be formed to oversee the implementation of the relocation to ensure that the exercise is carried out smoothly and properly. The committee should be chaired by the District Land Officer, and consists of representatives from DOF, DOA and the farming community. Step 7 : Rehabilitate Forest and Hill Lands The rehabilitation of the forest and hill lands should be undertaken as soon as the farms have been vacated, especially on vegetable plots. A program for the conservation and rehabilitation, along with adequate funding, should be established to ensure that the rehabilitation process is executed properly and successfully. Funding will be required for the implementation and the stakeholders, which are the farmers, DOF and Department of Water Supply Pahang (maintaining the Kelau Dam) should be responsible for this cost. There are two options: Option 1 The farmers to pay all costs of rehabilitation of their previous farm and in return receives the title for the new land. WWF Malaysia 8-18

359 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Option 2 The farmers to pay a percentage of the cost of rehabilitation as a condition of the land lease for the new land, with the DOF and Department of Water Supply Pahang contributing the rest. Recommendation 2 : Ensure Farmers Adopt Best Practices for Agriculture While a major threat to the environment will be overcome with the removal of farms from the hills and forest reserves, there is still a need to instill safeguards to reduce and mitigate what may now be perceived as a minor environmental impact from the farms. In this area where structural development is limited and hill farming eliminated, agricultural activities become the primary source of soil erosion and sedimentation, besides the risk of pesticide and fertilizer contamination of streams and rivers. In the case of vegetable farms, this situation will occur frequently, after every harvest, and before the next planting. Vegetables are also poor cover crops due to their lack of roots. Considering that many of these farms are within the catchment for the proposed Kelau Dam, the farming practices with respect to the environment cannot be taken for granted. The District Land Office should impose conditions on the land lease requiring the leaseholder to implement soil erosion control measures before and during occupancy of the land. Large areas uncovered by vegetation can be a significant source of sedimentation; therefore it is recommended that silt traps be constructed for farms with areas greater than 2 acres. Officers from the Land Office can make periodic checks on these traps to ensure that they are well maintained. The water collected from the silt trap can be used for irrigation. Terracing should also be made mandatory for farms with slopes greater than 6 o. Farmers should practice the proper application of fertilizers to prevent pollution of rivers by excessive nutrients leached into the water. Fertilizers must be applied at the correct dosage and timing in order to maximize nutrient uptake by plants and to minimize leaching into the environment. MARDI and the DOA could provide the technical knowledge of fertilizer application, while the Land Office should enforce the fertilizer application requirements as part of conditions of the land leases. Pesticide usage at farms should be monitored, supervised and controlled by the DOA to ensure that proper application, storage and disposal practices are adhered to. Farmers should be educated on the dangers of pesticide misuse on the environment. Integrated pest management should be implemented by farmers on a wider scale and hopefully become a commonplace among the agricultural community in the highlands. The DOA can assist the farmers with the implementation and provide the necessary guidance. As pests develop immunities to common pesticides due to overuse of the pesticides, alternative non-chemical pest control and crop protection methods must be developed. Through integrated pest management, pesticide usage can be reduced and optimized. This will be beneficial to consumers by lowering the risk of excessive pesticide residue on farm produce. WWF Malaysia 8-19

360 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Recommendation 3 : Provide proper infrastructure for the farms Proper infrastructure in the farms in encroached areas was previously lacking, as they were illegal. Now with their new legal status after the alienation exercise, the farms should also enjoy the provision of basic infrastructure from the local authorities. Proper farm roads should be constructed for the benefit of the farmers, and should be adequately maintained. The maintenance of the roads is important because unpaved roads are prone to damage from erosion and heavy usage of trucks. Most of the farmers in the Raub area sell their produce through middlemen, who transports the produce to wholesale markets in Kuala Lumpur. A location strategically close to the farms for the transaction to take place is recommended, complete with storage facilities and lorry bays. This will prevent lorries from parking haphazardly and causing traffic chaos from an unsuitable location Biodiversity Conservation Recommendation 4 : Adopt an ecosystem approach towards managing the Benum Range Adopting an ecosystem approach would mean managing the Benum Range with its surrounding buffer of forest on PFEs, and through neighboring forest patches and riverine reserves and agricultural land, in relation to each other. Adopting the ecosystem approach provides an avenue for the natural forests to be linked with other ecosystems and habitats and to be managed as one component or entity. Managing the Benum Range should be recognized as management of a protected area for its biological diversity value. In the past, the emphasis of managing wildlife was the function of DWNP and the forests by the DOF. With the dawn of the new millennium, the emphasis of managing such an area of high value must include biological species, the ecological interactions between them and the habitat that they depend on. It should achieve conservation of nature and ecological process by preserving genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. The roads fragmenting the Benum Range not only form permanent barrier hindering the movement or migration of wildlife, but in constructing new ones, the damage to the environment and wildlife are immense. Roads such as the proposed Tourist Road from Mempaga to Ulu Cheka should not be constructed. The present roads from Klang Valley Temerloh via Karak (Federal Route 2) and Temerloh to Jerantut (Federal Route 98) are being upgraded, and together with the new Karak-Kuantan Expressway, should be adequate to provide a convenient and swift access from the Klang Valley to the East coast or Taman Negara. WWF Malaysia 8-20

361 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Holistic management of biodiversity is needed For KWR to exist and not further decline in species abundance of large mammals, drastic measures are necessary. The concept of management of KWR and its flanking forests as single entity must be deep-rooted in all the agencies responsible. DWNP alone can never have sufficient resources to manage and address all threats and reverse the declining trends in biological diversity of this national heritage. A strong local community participation would be needed for this to bring about a sense of ownership and stewardship towards achieving the goals of conservation of biological diversity of the area. The Jerantut (add.) FR should be gazetted as a wildlife sanctuary The Jerantut (add.) FR Should Be Gazetted as a forest sanctuary for wildlife under Section 10(f) of the National Forestry Act, There is a need for viable and functional biological to be identified and the physical forest/ vegetation connection restored from the Benum Range to the surrounding/ nearby large forested areas (Main Range and Taman Negara). The measure will be essential as forest fragmentation and degradation will eventually lead to erosion of biological diversity in the long run. At the moment, the only existing connection for GBF to Taman Negara is via Jerantut FR (Add.) to Som FR. Effective management of buffer areas surrounding KWR forested area is also important to ensure that the remaining forests remain unbroken. Enhance Research Activities To Support The Conservation and Management of the Area As A Reserve for Wildlife Forest forms the main land use for the Benum Range (99% of total land area above 300m). The key features of this wildlife reserve are the range of significant forest types from alluvial lowland forest to montane forest. It is noted that the Benum Range has a remarkable high level of endemism, despite being part of an isolated forest fragment, enclosed by a mosaic of agriculture land. These features in itself would be an ideal setting for both applied and fundamental research to be carried out. The relationship between the various vegetation types and biological diversity, species interaction in terms of competition, predation in the different forest regimes, human-animal interactions in particular the Orang Asli and their use of forest, etc. can be studied. The ultimate goal for research in this reserve should be towards improving biological diversity, enhancing conservation and management and to reverse the declining trend of wildlife population in the Benum Range. KWR should in fact be developed as a "center of excellence" for wildlife research for the country given the research history and its current status. Recommendation 5 : Controlling forest resource extraction and poaching The rich biological diversity in the Benum Range is constantly under threat from both legal extractions of timber through logging operations and illegal poaching of wildlife within the Benum Range. The Orang Asli communities and the villagers WWF Malaysia 8-21

362 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM nearby have the longest association within the reserve. This association continues to be an additional pressure to the Benum Range. Outsiders also illegally enter the area to hunt either for their own use and/or for sale. The Benum Range Should Be Redefined Further Under Section 10 of the National Forestry Act The Benum Range should be compartmentalized and gazetted under Section 10 of the National Forestry Act, The area encompassed by the Kelau Dam catchment and the Sg. Keloi catchment should be gazetted under Section 10(e), as a water catchment forest while the rest of the area should be gazetted under Section 10(f), as a forest sanctuary for wildlife. This will protect the forests within the Range from logging or development of tourist resorts. Enforcement At the Benum Range Should Be Tightened Establishing wildlife and forest rangers posts at strategic points around the KWR and GBF could help in preventing illegal hunting (either for sport or commercial gain), preventing illegal resource extraction (e.g. illegal logging or harvesting nontimber forest products), and possibly also curb illegal encroachment into the area. Several sites where the posts can be established besides using existing wildlife and ranger station in the area include Ulu Cheka, Kg. Sg. Ruan, Kg. Dong and Kg. Damak. The military or field force can be called upon to assist in the enforcement by having their training camps situated near these areas Tourism Recommendation 6 : Develop the Tourism Industry The Benum Range possesses a wealth of scenic and beautiful natural attractions, mostly unspoilt, and frequented by the local populace. The strategy here is to develop the tourism industry by giving it a proper structure. By limiting the tourism theme to Nature Tourism and Agro Tourism, a niche market is then created for the target catchment from the Klang Valley and even as far as the Seremban locale. Any tourism related infrastructure development in the area would be limited, of lowimpact and promote conservation. Establishment of Tourist Centres A Tourist Centre is vital to successful tourism development and should be established in every district capital. The Centre should be staffed with trained personnel, opened seven days a week and able to provide detailed and printed information on the various attractions, promotions and festivals in the district. Signboards indicating the presence of the Centre should be displayed around town. The Raub Resthouse is an ideal location for the Tourist Centre in Raub. WWF Malaysia 8-22

363 CHAPTER 8 : STUDY ON GUNUNG BENUM Promote Attractions to Target Markets The type of attractions offered in this area generally appeal to the younger generation with a fondness for adventure and the outdoors. The advertisements and promotions should therefore be targeted at this market segment. Articles promoting these attractions should appear in the youth section of the newspapers, and appropriate magazines. Promotion should also be done at Universities and other institutes of higher learning. Develop A Synergy Between Agriculture and Tourism Visitors staying at farms and taking part in agricultural activities, much like the homestay concept, should be promoted as a facet of the agro-tourism theme. Although this rather unique form of attraction is largely a Western flavour, the concept has successfully taken off in some orchards in Selangor. Such homestay programmes, initiated by the Ministry of Culture Arts, & Tourism are already in the pipeline at selected farms in Kg. Sg. Ruan, Kg. Sg. Kelau and Kg. Sg. Chalit in Raub. WWF Malaysia 8-23

364 CHAPTER 8 : GUNUNG BENUM Plate 8-1 Hill cleared for agriculture, near RPS Sg. Chalit, Raub Plate 8-2 Fruit orchards on hill slopes in Bukit Chalit, Raub WWF Malaysia 8-24

365 CHAPTER 8 : GUNUNG BENUM Plate 8-3 Vegetable farm on encroached land at RPS SG. Chalit, Raub Plate 8-4 Poor condition of farm roads at Bukit Chalit, Raub WWF Malaysia 8-25

366 CHAPTER 8 : GUNUNG BENUM Plate 8-5 Scarred hill slope from abandoned farm in RPS Sg. Chalit, Raub Plate 8-6 Unpaved access to Lata Berembun, Raub WWF Malaysia 8-26

367 CHAPTER 8 : GUNUNG BENUM Plate 8-7 Another view of the access to Lata Berembun Plate 8-8 Bridge crossing a stream near Lata Berembun under construction WWF Malaysia 8-27

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