LITHIC TECHNOLOGY: MEASURES OF PRODUCTION, USE, AND CURATION

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1 This material has been published in Lithi Tehnology: Measures of Prodution, Use, and Curation edited by William Andrefsky, Jr. This version is free to view and download for personal use only. Not for re-distribution, re-sale or use in derivative works. prehistory/lithi-tehnology-measures-prodution-use-anduration?format=pb&isbn= LITHIC TECHNOLOGY: MEASURES OF PRODUCTION, USE, AND CURATION Edited by WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR. Washington State University.:.: :.,, CAMBRIDGE ::! UNIVERSITY PRESS Q.DO

2 87 4 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR. : UNPACKING PRODUCTION, RESHARPENING, AND HAMMER T"(E Abstrat Measuring retouh amounts on stone tools has been helpful for understanding human organizational strategies. Multiple retouh indies geared toward assessing retouh amounts on flake tools and unifaes have been developed, but few have been developed to evaluate retouh exlusively for bifaes. For this study, a retouh index was developed and evaluated on an experimental assemblage of bifaes. It is shown that redution ativities on bifaes may reate extensive amounts of retouh that are ontingent upon a number of fators from both the prodution and resharpening events that must be taken into onsideration before understanding a bifaes life history. INTRODUCTION Tool uration has been defined as the relationship between a tools potential utility and its atual usage (Andrefsky 25; Bamforth 1986; Shott 1996), or its "life history" (Eren et al. 25). This uration onept has been linked to studies of hunter-gatherer organizational strategies in understanding issues ofland use, eonomy, ar:d, mobility. For stone tools, retouh amount has been used as an effetive measure to assess the degree to whih a tool has been urated (for disussion of uration see Andrefsky 26; Barton 1988; Binford 1973, 1979; Blades 23; Clarkson 22; Davis and Shea 1998; Dibble 1997; Nelson 1991; Shott 1989, 1996). However, assessing retouh amount may not be as universal as we might initially believe. We define retouh as the deliberate modifiation of a stone tool edge reated by either perussion or pressureflaking tehniques (Andrefsky 25). As suh, retouh takes plae in the beginning prodution stages of a tool as well as in the subsequent episodes of resharpening and reshaping of a tools utting edge. Therefore, we would expet the amount of retouh to progressively inrease throughout the prodution and the use-life of a tool. To evaluate retouh in terms of degree of uration, analysts have reated indies that quantify retouh for omparisons of storie tools. Previous retouh measures have been effetive for different kinds of stone tool forms. Barton (1988) and Clarkson (22) measure retouh on flake tools based upon progressive use of the original flake blank. Kuhn (199) measured retouh on sraper edges. Andrefsky (26) and Hoffinan (1985) measured retouh on hafted bifaes (see also Eren and Prendergast; Hisok and Clarkson; Quinn et al., this volume). We feel that North Amerian bifaes represent a different tool type than some bifaes from other parts of the world. Bifaes are stone tools that have two surfaes (or faes) that meet to form an edge around the entire perimeter and usually have flake sars that extend from the edge to the midline of the surfae (Andrefsky 25). North Amerian bifaes tend to undergo a prodution phase and a subsequent use-life phase (Callahan 1979; Whitaker 1994). In some areas of the world, bifaes are produed from flake blanks as a result of their being used and resharpened extensively (f. Clarkson 22). However, we feel that some bifaes do not beome bifaes as a result of this use and resharpening proess. We feel that some bifaes are shaped by extensive retouh before they are even used. Some bifaes, partiularly those in parts of North Ameria, are extensively retouhed during their prodution phase, and thus, the retouh amount on the bifae has little or no meaning with regard to uration. We suggest that retouh indies should be speifially tailored to different kinds of tools and that we need to onsider the differenes between bifaial prodution and bifaial resharpening after use. To gather information on bifae retouh, we onduted a series of prodution and use experiments attempting to repliate bifaes similar to those reovered from Chalk Basin, a hert quarry workshop area on the Owyhee River in southeastern Oregon. Our experiment 86

3 88 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR. systematially gathered attribute information from both the bifaes being produed and used and the debit;,tge resulting from the experiment. THE EXPERIMENT Our experimental study involved the prodution of three "quarry bifaes" made from high-hipping-quality hert. Information op eah bifae was reorded after six arbitrary prodution and use-life events. The first two events were arbitrary prodution events and the last four were assoiated with resharpening episodes after tool use events. When the bifae was redued by approximately half of its starting weight during the prodution proess, we arbitrarily stopped and olleted debitage shatter for that prodution event. Resharpening episodes ourred when the edges of the bifae were retouhed enough so that it ould be used as a tool with a utting edge around the entire perimeter. The bifae edges were then dulled and resharpened again to reate a series of resharpening episodes of eah bifae. One of the authors performed all of the flintknapping over a drop loth using either a hard hammer or a soft hammer perussor, while the other author reovered and numbered eah flake as it was removed. All prodution and resharpening were done with perussion flaking (no pressure flaking). The greatest number of flakes olleted was from the first prodution event, whih yielded an average of twenty-nine flakes per bifae. This makes intuitive sense, beause the bifae was redued by the greatest amount during this episode. The smallest number of flakes olleted was from the first resharpening event, with an average of I2 flakes olleted for eah bifae. The resharpening events had the greatest amount of variability amongst all three bifaes. The average number of flakes olleted for eah bifae, after the first resharpening event, was nineteen flakes per event. The ores hosen for the experiment were all roughly the same shape and size (approximately weighing I,ooo g eah). However, one bifae had about twenty more flakes removed from it during the experiment than the other two bifaes. This was due to the presene of material flaws that had to be removed in order to maintain an effetive utting tool. After eah event, all of the shatter was olleted and the bifae was photographed and measured. For onsisteny, all of the measurements were done by just one of the authors throughout the experiment. Initially, all three bifaes were redued using a quartzite hard hammer to remove most of the ortex from the objetive piee. After the first half-life, a siltstone hard hammer and a soft hammer (i.e., antler billet) were used to shape and thin the bifaes. Gradually, throughout the experiment, the perentage of hard hammer flakes dereased whereas the perentage of flakes made by a soft hammer inreased. DEBITAGE PATTERNS WITH BIFACE PRODUCTION AND RESHARPENING In a previous study (Wilson afid AndrefSky 26), we explored the variability found in debitage harateristis between bifae prodution and bifae resharpening events from the experiment. From 256 proximal flakes analyzed, we found that debitage harateristis were signifiantly assoiated with differenes in prodution and resharpening events. Metri variables sensitive to these different retouh ativities inlude maximum length, width, thikness, weight, and platform area (maximum platform width multiplied by maximum platform thikness) (Table 4- I). Nominal attributes that were sensitive to retouh ativities were platform type and presene of ortex. Using platform types previously defmed (AndrefSky 25), we found that flakes made from bifae prodution exhibit more flat or ortial platforms than flakes made during resharpening events (Figure 4- I). Most of the flakes also had dorsal ortex and have a smaller width-to-thikness ratio, heavier weight, and larger platform area (Table 4- I). In ontrast, flakes that are the by-produts of resharpening events tend to have more omplex and abraded platforms. The flakes produed from resharpening events also weigh relatively less, with a smaller platform area, and have a higher width-to-thikness ratio. Even though the two omparative groups in the debitage study did have some overlap, the average sizes of the two groups were signifiantly different. Given the results of differenes noted in the debitage attribute analysis, we ould expet to see a positive orrelation between flake weight and platform area, and also between flake weight and widthto-thikness ratio. Intuitively, if the weight inreases, there should

4 9 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR. 91 Table 4. r. Comparison of attributes reorded from proximal flakes 12 Attribute Max Min Mean Std. deviation Prodution Weight (g) I2.784 IS-935 Width (mm) r Length (mm) I I3. I I32 I7.9I6 Thikness (mm) Platform width (mm) I9-499 I.622 Platform thikness (mm) I6.I r.o Platform area (mm) I oi Width to thikness (mm) I s.bb Resharpening Weight (g) Width (mm) Length (mm) Thikness (mm) Platform width (mm) Platform thikness (mm) Platform area (mm) 91.2!.7 Width to thikness (mm) s l.i I I 5 I ] I I7.6] IS I9 3.o6so 1 8 s...:::: Cl ii 6 :::: 4 2.t. Resharpening o Prodution - Unear (Resharpenlng) -Unear (Prodution) Resharpening: y =.231x R 2 =.1151 Prodution: y =.785x =.4671 Platform Area (mm 2 ) FIGURE 4.2. Platform area of proximal flakes plotted against their weight. 6 5 Q) 4 Q) abraded ortial rushed omplex flat Platform Types (Andrefsky 25) FIGURE 4.1. Platform types identified on proximal flakes. D Prodution Resharpening also be an inrease in platform area, given that bigger flakes us.ually have larger platforms, and there should also be a derease in the width-to-thikness ratio, assuming that the more a flake weighs the larger it should be in size, whih is expressed as a ratio. Figure 4.2 displays a sattergram that shows a strong and signifiant (R 2 =.4671, F = , p <.oor) relationship between inreasing flake weight and platform area with prodution flakes. From the resharpening episodes, flakes lustered together around the lower weights and smaller platform areas. This relationship was not as strong (Pearsons r =.336) as with prodution flakes but was still statistially signifiant (R 2 =.1151, F = 18.27, p <.ooo5). When flake weights were plotted against the width-to-thikness ratio, it appeared that the weight of the flake inreased as the ratio began to derease (Figure 4.3). On loser examination, however, this was a signifiant (R 2 =.43, F = 6.781, p =.oro) but weak orrelation for resharpening flakes. For the prodution events, there was an insignifiant relationship between the variables, where only o. 7% of the variane ould be explained (R 2 =.74, F = o.88o, p = -35).

5 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR , 1 5 CB r Weight (g) A Resharpening Prodution -unear (Resharpening) - Linear (Prodution) Resharpening: y =.5874x R 2 =.43 Prodution: y = -.136x R 2 =.74 FIGURE 4-3 Width-to-thikness ratio of proximal flakes plotted against their weight. These orrelations have shed light on how the weights of prodution and resharpening flakes relate to platform area and width-to-thikness ratio. There is more variation between the groups in regards to size (width to thikness) and weight, in omparison to the stronger orrelation with weight and platform area (i.e., as the weight of the flake inreases, so does the platform area for prodution and resharpening events). GENERAL BIFACE PATTERNS OF PRODUCTION AND RESHARPENING Based upon results gathered from our debita.ge pattern srudy, we expeted that bifae size, shape, and flake removal parrerns would also reveal differenes between retouh assoiated with prodution and retouh assoiated with resharpening. When graphed, it is apparent that all three bifaes show a ontinual derease in both surfae area and weight throughout the use-life events (hereafter alled use-life events) (Figures 4-4 and 4.5). This is what would be expeted given the fat that the use-life events follow a redutive proess, resulting in {:; E 3.e 4 Prodution Resharpening I -\ 25 i ---!. 1 I ta I!! <C Q) 2 ta t: :I 15 (/) Use-life Event FIGURE 4-4 Total surfae area of the bifaes throughout the experiment. progressively smaller bifaes. However, these data also suggest that the bifae use-life events I and 2 are responsible for the greatest amount of size redution and that bifae size redution is signifiantly less during the resharpening events (3-6). This pattern is lear when we graph the amount of surfae area lost during eah use-life event. Even though the amount of total surfae area of bifaes progressively dereased during the use-life events, the amount of surfae area lost stabilized after the prodution events I and 2 (Figure 4.6). Essentially, the resharpening events (3-6) show very ;: Cl Prodution i Resharpening - : 2 3 Uselife Event FIGURE 4-5. Weight of eah bifae after eah event throughout the experiment. --+-Bifae 1... s itae 2 _.._Bifae3

6 94 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR It \\ iii 12..J 11 ".. 8 " u 6 a "t: :I (/) 4 2 "" ".. Prodution l Resharpening ,._. - : : -r Use lile Event 1-+-Bifae 1--it-Bifae 2 _...,_Bifae sl FIGURE 4.6. Surfae area lost for eah bifae throughout the redution sequene. little lost surfae area; the average surfae area lost for eah bifae is roughly 5 m 2, ompared to about 2 m 2 lost during prodution. This pattern also suggests that there may be some observable differenes in bifae harateristis between prodution and resharpening events. However, lost surfae area is only effetive for disriminating suh events in a ontrolled experimental setting. It is not possible to effetively use suh a measure on exavated assemblages, beause surfae area lost an only be alulated based upon knowing the original size of the bifae. However, like the hange in debitage attributes, it does suggest that other bifae harateristis might help assess differenes between prodution and resharpening events. RETOUCH INTENSITY Other studies have shown that retouh intensity has been an effetive measure of uration on stone tools (Clarkson 22; Eren and Prendergast, this volume, Quinn et al., this volume; Hisok and Clarkson 25; Kuhn I99). We suggest that bifaes have a unique prodution life and use life and thus, retouh amount has to aount for these two phases of a bifae life yle. To assess our assumption, we applied Clarksons (22) index of invasiveness to our experimentally produed bifaes. Bifae 1 Side A 16 Bifae 1 Side B FIGURE 4-7 Illustration of Clarksons (22) grid used to alulate his index of invasiveness with numbered squares on eah side of the bifae. The gray areas on _ the bifae figure indiate the midpoint between the midline of the bifae and the edge. Flake sars originating from the edge that do not reah the midpoint would reeive a o.s and flakes that extend past the midpoint would sore a r for that segment. Eah side of the bifae was partitioned into eight equal segments (f. Clarkson 22), eah one aounting for 12.5% of the total area (Figure 4.7). After a redution event, eah segment was given a sore of either o,.5, or 1. Segments exhibiting no retouh would reeive a sore of o. If the flake patterning was evident but did not reah the midpoint area of the artifat, defined as the arbitrary line from the midline of the bifae to the edge, that square would have a value of.5. A sore of I was given to squares where retouh extended from the edge of the bifae and past the midpoint area. The sores from eah square were added up and then divided by I6 for the average retouh amount, whih was the index of invasiveness sore. If the invasiveness sore was lose to o, the bifae would be onsidered to exhibit little to no retouh. When the invasiveness sore approahed I, the tool is lassified as being ompletely retouhed. We found that retouh amount using this tehnique is not sensitive to resharpening after the prodution phase. Using this index, the bifaes were sored as heavily retouhed after the seond use-life event

7 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR. 97., iii " > )(,.,.E.95 / / :. l I! : l t. Prodution l Resbarpeniog -: Use-life Event Bifae 1... aifae 2.,_Bifae 31 FIGURE 4.8. Results of applying Clarksons index of invasiveness (22) to our experimental bifaes. (Figure 4.8). One of the bifaes even reahed a value of one (maximum retouh amount) after the first use-life event. This is interesting beause we know the bifaes were never used. However, the index reveals a maximum level of retouh and subsequently a maximum level of uration. This suggests that the index of invasiveness may not be a good indiator ofbifaial retouh as it relates to uration, and also that bifaes are produed, used, and resharpened differently than artifats suh as flake tools ( f. Andrefsky 26). The outome of this method is not surprising, as Clarkson (22: 72) does warn about the potential shortomings of the index of invasiveness when applied to artifats that have been "fully retouhed." Clarksons index was intended for appliation to bifaially retouhed flakes. RIDGE COUNT RETOUCH INDEX Clarksons index of invasiveness does not adequately segregate bifae prodution from bifae resharpening after use. These two use-life events are important in measuring retouh on bifaes. One of the things that intuitively appear to be ourring on the surfae of our experimental bifaes is a progressive inrease in the number of Bifae 1 Side A Bifae 1 Side B FIGURE 4.9. The analysis grid adapted from Clarkson (22) and used to ount ridges systematially for our study. The squares on the bifae are I x I em in size and indiate the loations where ridge ounts were analyzed throughout the experiment. flake removal sars from early prodution events to final resharpening events. To explore flake removal sar ounts, we developed a retouh index based upon a sample of the flake removal patterns found on the surfae of eah bifae. The average number of ridge ounts was used as a proxy for flake removals to derive this index. To test this retouh index, we olleted bifae data after eah bifae use-life event (weight, maximum length, width, thikness, and flake ridge ount). The flake ridgesrwere reorded in a systemati way that involved sanning the bifae at a high resolution (6oo dpi) and then sampling the bifaial surfae image using Denebas Canvas 8 drafting program. The analysis of eah bifae image was partitioned using Chris Clarksons grid for evaluating retouh invasiveness, whih partitioned eah side of the bifae into eight segments. One the grid was digitally superimposed on the bifae, six I X I em squares were drawn on the bifae and positioned in the same loation after eah use-life event (Figure 4.9). Three I x I em squares were sampled on eah fae of

8 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR , , , 2 3 Use-life Event Bifae 2 After Prodution 1-+-Bilae 1... Bifae 2 -+-Bifae 31 FIGURE 4. r r. Average ridge ount for eah bifae throughout the experiment. FIGURE 4.1. Image of one of the analysis squares from one of the experimental bifaes, showing how flake ridges were ounted. the speimen. By using a standardized size (I x I em) box, the same amount of surfae area was evaluated from the beginning prodution stages through the usage and resharpening episodes, regardless ofbifae shape. Dorsal flake ridges, or arrises, were ounted in eah of the sampled boxes. Dorsal ridges were defined as the raised areas that form between the intersetions of flakes that were removed from the bifae (Figure 4. IO). Flake ridges that form as a result of platform preparation, whih were present around the bifae edge, were not inluded in this analysis. Flake ridges were identified with the aid of a magnifiation lens (I 6 x) and by examining the sanned image of the bifae. By using the sanned image of the bifae to supplement the analysis, it was easier to determine the number of ridges present in the analysis square by fousing in on a partiular grid and by adjusting the brightness and ontrast of the iage. Beause the bifae surfae is not smooth, hanging the brightness and ontrast levels of the image allowed partiular ridges to beome more pronouned with different ombinations of light and ontrast. The ridges identified on the sanned image were heked on the atual bifae to ensure that the lines observed were not bifae fissures or ripple marks but atual flake ridges. One the number of ridges for eah square was onfirmed, all six ridge ounts were added up and divided by six. This resulted in an average ridge ount for eah bifae after eah use-life event. This retouh index was applied to our assemblage of repliated bifaes, with expetations that there would be signifiant differenes between prodution and retouh use-life events, as seen in the debitage data, and in the amount of surfae area lost on the experimental bifaes. The average ridge ount assoiated with eah experimentally produed bifae use-life event illustrates that the ridge ounts inrease throughout all of the use-life events before dropping at uselife event 5 during resharpening (Figure 4. I I). This pattern reveals some interesting aspets of bifae prodution and resharpening after use. First, the ridge ount measure seems to work as an effetive tool to assess use-life events from the beginning of the prodution yle through the fourth use-life event, and retouh seems to inrease as eah use-life event inreases. However, this progressive pattern ends at use-life event 5, where there is a drop in the retouh index. We

9 roo JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM AND REF SKY, JR. IOI., Q.?: Q; E...Q " "D 8 "D " e Q. j i! 1% 8% E :r 6% 4% 2% % : Use-life Event j-hard Hammer --Soft Hammer j FIGURE Graph of the perentages of flakes produed by soft and hard hammer perussion. also see that the retouh progression is not markedly different between bifae prodution and bifae resharpening, as noted in the debitage data. Sine this was not what we had expeted, we began exploring our experimental data to determine what might aount for the ridge ount drop at use-life event 5. One immediate pattern disovered was that the type of hammer used during the repliation experiments gradually hanged from hard hammer perussion to soft hammer perussion as the bifaes were progressively retouhed. Other studies also suggest that hammer type and density an be important for flake removal (Andrefsky 27; Cotterell and Kamminga 1987; Dibble I995; Hayden and Huthings 1989). Figure 4.I2 harts our experimentally derived use-life events against the relative proportion ofhard and soft hammer perussion used to remove flakes. The first three events are primarily hard hammer perussion; this hanges to approximately.p% during event 4 and down to 2% during event 5, and then it goes bak up to lose to 3% during event 6. The steep drop in hard hammer perussion from events 3 through 5 and the subsequent rise at event 6 mirrors the ridge ount pattern, and suggests to us that the ridge ount index is sensitive to the type of hammer used in bifae prodution and resharpening tehnology.... Q) E 1% ,4 Prodution Resbarpening E OS J: 8% >< "E J: >-.a :I 6% 2 "C (.).. u Q) :I "C 1.5 :E 2 4% a: D.. (/) Q)... OS u:: 2% % Use-life Event % Hard Hammer Flakes -Ridge Count Index FIGURE Graph of the average ridge ount and of the perentage of flakes made by hard hammer perussion. To explore this relationship further, we plotted the ridge ount index and hammer type along with the use-life events (Figure 4.I3). The ridge ount index for use life events 4-6 is indeed similar to the relative perentages of hard hammer perussion. However, it is also apparent that the ridge ount index is sensitive to previous flake removals on the bifae. For instane, use-life events I-3 have high values for hard hammer perussion, yet the ridge ount index shows a steady inrease from less than I.O to over 3.3. Essentially, the ridge ount index is inreasing as the original nodule is being progressively worked, even though the there is minimal hange in the perussion tehnology. However, we also feel that the ridge ount index is related to the existing flake removal pattern on the bifae and not solely assoiated with the type of perussion tehnology used. For example, Bifae 2 in event 5 and Bifae 3 in event 3 both have steep drops in the average ridge ount (see Figure 4 I I). During these partiular times of the experiment, these bifaes had irregular flaws in the material that.5

10 12 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR. 13 had to be removed in order to ontinue to use the bifae for usage and resharpening episodes. In doing so, a large portion of the bifae surfae was removed, inluding the previous flake ridges, whih may have greatly affeted the number of flake ridges for partiular analysis grids. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Although inomplete at this point, our analysis shows some interesting trends and potential avenues for further exploration with regard to retouh on bifaes. First, it appears that retouh on bifaes may not be the same as retouh on flake tools. Bifaes are retouhed throughout the redution sequene, even during the prodution phase. The bifae ore has to be redued in a fashion where the edge is ontinually being modified or retouhed. Thus, traditional measures linking retouh amount to uration amount may not be effetive for bifaes, beause they may have a high retouh sore without ever having been used, as illustrated with the appliation of Clarksons (22) index of invasiveness. Seond, overall flake removal amount may be a good indiator of the use life events for bifaes. For instane, our experiment showed that flake removal patterns of bifae surfaes tended to inrease as the bifae was progressively used and resharpened. However, flake removal amount is also sensitive to hanges in hammer type. As hammer types hange, so does the relative proportion of flake shapes and sizes, whih influenes the flake removal pattern found on the bifae, i.e., raw material flaws or "problem areas." The hammer type used, soft hammer versus hard hammer, is an idiosynrati hoie that is not a onstant. Depending on the skill and tehnique of the flintknapper, different types ofhammers will be used to address or redue the objetive piee into the desired form. The goal of the various flintknappers may be the same but the tehnique/method will vary from person to person and possibly from stone tool to stone tool (even when the same type of stone tool is being made). This means that flake removal patterns on bifaial surfaes may be effetive for interpreting redution only if hammer type is held onstant or an be aounted for in some other way. Finally, it is also apparent from our data that flake removal amount is not sensitive to hanges in bifae prodution events vs. bifae resharpening events. Even though these events are learly visible with debitage harateristis, they are not evident from the surfae ofbifaes, beause the flake removal pattern of bifaial surfaes is produed by a series of multiple tehnologial fators. As previously disussed, these an inlude flintknapper skill and tehnique, raw material quality, hammer type, and redution strategy. In summary, retouh indies reated for flake tools may not be suitable for understanding uration strategies for bifaes. As noted in everal other papers in this volume, retouh is partiular to different mol types (Andrefsky Eren and Prendergast; Quinn et al.) and to different tool funtions (MaDonald). Retouh does not always equate to tool uration. Retouh is a tehnique used to shape a tool within the ontext of tool prodution, use, and resharpening. All of these ontexts must be onsidered in attempting to quantify tool uration. REFERENCES CITED Andrefsky, William, Jr. 25. Lithis: MaiOsopi Approahes to Analysis. Seond edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 26. Experimental and Arhaeologial Verifiation of an Index of Retouh for Hafted Bifaes. Amerian Antiquity 71: The Appliation and Misappliation of Mass Analysis in Lithi Debitage Studies. journal of Arhaeologial Siene 34: Bamforth, Douglas B Tehnologial Effiieny and Tool Curation. Amerian Antiquity, 51:38-5. Barton, C. MihaeL Lithi Variability and Middle Paleolithi Behavior. International Series 48. British Arhaeologial Reports, Oxford. Binford, Lewis R Imerassemblage Variability: The Mousterian and the "Funtional" Argument. In J11e Explanation of Cultural Change: Models in Prehistory, edited by C. Renfrew, pp Dud "Worth,.. London. I979 Organization and Formation Proesses: Looking at Curated Tehnologies. Journal of Anthropologial Researh 35: Blades, Brooke S. 23. End Sraper Redution and Hunter Gatherer Mobility. Amerian Antiquity 68: Callahan, Errett The Basis ofbifae Knapping in the Eastern Fluted Point Tradition: A Manual for Flintknappers and Lithi Analysts. Arhaeology of Eastern North Ameria 7(r):r-r8o.

11 14 JENNIFER WILSON AND WILLIAM ANDREFSKY, JR. 15 Clarkson, Chris. 22. An Index oflnvasiveness for the Measurement ofunifaial and Bifaial Retouh: A Theoretial, Experimental, and Arhaeologial Verifiation. Journal of Arhaeologial Siene 29: Cotterell, Brian, and Johann Kamminga. I987. The Formation of Flakes. Amerian Antiquity 2: Davis, Zahary J., and John J. Shea Quantifying Lithi Curation: An Experimental Test ofdibble and Pekins Original Flake-Tool Mass Preditor. Journal of Arhaeologial Siene 25:63-1. Dibble, Harold L. I995- Middle Paleolithi Sraper Redution: Bakground, Clarifiation, and Review of Evidene to Date. Journal of Arhaeologial Method and Theory 2: I997 Platform Variability and Flake Morphology: A Comparison of Experimental and Arhaeologial Data and Impliations for Interpreting Prehistori Lithi Tehnologial Strategies. Lithi Tehnology 22: I 5D--7. Eren, Metin L., Manuel Dorninguez-Rodrigo, Steven L. Kuhn, Daniel S. Adler, Ian Le, and Ofer Bar-Yose 25. Defining and Measuring Redution in Unifaial Stone Tools. Journal of Arhaeologial Siene 32:II9D Hayden, Brian, and W Karl Huthings Whither the Billet Flake? In Experiments in Lithi Tehnology, edited by D. S. Amik and R. P Mauldin. International Series 528, pp British Arhaeologial Reports, Oxford. Hisok, Peter, and Chris Clarkson. 25. Experimental Evaluation ofkuhns Geometri Index of Redution and the Flat-Flake Problem. Journal of Arhaeologial Siene p:iois-22. Hoffinan, C. Marshall. I985. Projetile Point Maintenane and Typology: Assessment with Fator Analysis and Canonial Correlation. In For Conordane in Arhaeologial Analysis: Bridging Data Struture, Quantitative Tehnique, and Theory, edited by C. Carr, pp. s66-6i2. Westport Press, Kansas City. Kuhn, Steven L. I99. A Geometri Index of Redution for Unifaial Stone Tools. Journal of Arhaeologial Siene I7: Nelson, Margaret C. I99I. The Study of Tehnologial Organization. In Arhaeologial Method and Theory, volume 3, edited by M. B. Shiffer, pp University of Arizona Press, Tuson. Shott, Mihael J. I989. On Tool-Class Use Lives and the Formation of Arhaeologial Assemblages. Amerian Antiquity 54:9-3. I 996. An Exegesis of the Curation Conept. Journal of Arhaeologial Siene 27: Whitaker, John C. I994- Flintknapping: Making and Understanding Stone Tools. University of Texas Press, Austin. Wilson, Jennifer Keeling, and William Andrefsky, Jr. 26. The Debitage of Bifaial Tehnology: An Appliation of Experimental Data to the Arheologial Reord. Paper presented at the Fifty-Ninth Annual Northwest Anthropologial Conferene, Marh 29-April I, Seattle, Washington.