Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and Management in China

Transcription

1 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and Management in China Hongtao Wang & Yongfeng Nie To cite this article: Hongtao Wang & Yongfeng Nie (2001) Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and Management in China, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 51:2, , DOI: / To link to this article: Published online: 27 Dec Submit your article to this journal Article views: 4883 Citing articles: 76 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

2 Wang TECHNICAL and NiePAPER ISSN J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 51: Copyright 2001 Air & Waste Management Association Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and Management in China Hongtao Wang and Yongfeng Nie Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China ABSTRACT The purpose of this investigation is to evaluate the current status and identify the problems of municipal solid waste (MSW) management in China in order to determine appropriate remedial strategies. This is the first of two papers, discussing primarily the general characteristics of MSW and its management in China. The second paper focuses on specific remedial strategies. MSW generation in China has increased rapidly in the past 20 years from 31.3 million tons in 1980 to million tons in The annual rate of increase is 3 10%. The average generation per capita is 1.0 kg/day (0.38 t/year). Nearly one-half of the waste generated is dumped in the suburbs, where the accumulated quantity has reached 6 billion tons, which has caused heavy environmental pollution. This paper provides information on MSW management in China, such as MSW generation and its physical, chemical, and biological properties. Low calorific value and high moisture content characterize China s municipal waste. Other issues related to MSW management in China are also discussed, including the factors that influence MSW generation quantity and IMPLICATIONS With the rapid economic development in China, solid waste pollution is becoming more serious and has raised vast public concern. This paper discusses primarily the characteristics of MSW and the waste management systems in China. The Act of Prevention and Control of Solid Waste Pollution to the Environment, People s Republic of China, which was enacted in 1995, instituted that source minimization, recycling, and treatment/disposal in an environmentally sound manner is a primary principle of MSW management in China. To implement the law, the management systems require significant improvement. Before anything can be done, we must understand clearly what the current situation is in MSW management and what sorts of problems we have to face so that we can decide what to do and how to do it. Results of this investigation provide background information for the improvement of MSW management in China. quality, MSW collection, transfer and transport, treatment and disposal, material recovery, legislation, enforcement, and administration. INTRODUCTION China has enjoyed rapid economic development since it started reform and an open-to-the-outside-world policy in Urbanization in China is occurring rapidly, and the living standards are improving steadily. One of the negative results of this, however, is that more municipal solid waste (MSW) is generated, which causes heavy environmental pollution. MSW management has become a key issue in environmental protection and urban construction in China and has raised vast public concern. 1 It is also one of the key fields for international cooperation and investment. The Chinese government invested 60 billion yuan RMB (U.S. $7.2 billion, U.S. $1 = 8.3 yuan RMB) in environmental infrastructure construction in 1998, which is the greatest investment China has ever made in environmental projects. More investment is planned for the next few years. 1,2 In accordance with the growth of governmental investment, industrial sectors are becoming more interested in MSW management projects. 3 This provides a great opportunity for the improvement of China s current MSW management system. However, before anything can be done, the current situation in MSW management and the problems faced must be understood. Supported by the Project of the Municipal Solid Waste Management, which is funded by the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) of China, a series of investigations has been carried out. The map in Figure 1 shows the distribution of individual provinces and cities considered in this study. The purpose of this investigation is to evaluate the current status and identify the problems of MSW management in China in order to develop appropriate remedial strategies. As part of the project results, this paper discusses the general characteristics of MSW and the MSW management systems in China. 250 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 51 February 2001

3 Figure 1. Map of China showing the distribution of individual provinces and cities considered in this investigation. GENERATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MSW generation in China increased rapidly in the past 20 years from 31.3 million tons in 1980 to million tons in 1998, as shown in Figure 2 and in Tables 1 and 2. The annual increase rate is 8 10% from 1985 to 1995 and 3 5% after The average MSW generation per capita is 1.0 kg/day, which is close to that in developed countries. 4 6 Note that MSW generation shown in Figure 2 excludes the amount of materials recovered from MSW by individual collectors before collection, which is estimated to account for 8 10% of the total MSW. Many factors play significant roles in MSW generation, including urban population, economic development, rate of consumption, geographic location, and administrative systems. Among these, urban population and economic conditions are the two most important factors contributing to the quantity of MSW. China has experienced rapid urbanization in the past 20 years. As a result, the number of municipalities classified as cities has increased from 353 in 1986 to 668 in 1998, and the urban population has increased from 94.5 million in 1980 to million in 1996, making up 17% of the country s total population. 1,3 The relationship between urban population and MSW generation is shown in Figure 3. Waste generation generally increases with the improvement of living standards. For instance, in 1986, the average MSW generation per capita was 1.0 kg/day, but in 1998, it had increased to 1.42 kg/day (see the third row in Table 3). It should be noted that the actual population in the cities is larger than the official statistics, as many people live in the city and produce waste but are not registered as citizens. China has enjoyed rapid economic development in the past 20 years. The gross domestic product (GDP) increased from 896 billion yuan in 1985 to 7940 billion yuan in With the improvement of living standards, the quantity of MSW generation has increased, as shown in Figure 4. From 1985 to 1991, the quantity of MSW generated showed a sharp increase along with the GDP growth. After 1991, however, when the GDP reached the level of 2162 billion yuan, the increase rate of MSW generation slowed. This trend is similar to that experienced in industrialized countries. Regression analysis of MSW generation with urban population and economic development conditions expressed by the GDP yields the following regression equation (r 2 = ): G MSW = P Urban E GDP (1) Volume 51 February 2001 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 251

4 Figure 2. Distribution of MSW and urban population in China, where G MSW is the amount of MSW generated in 10 4 t/year, P Urban is the urban population in 10 4 capita, and E GDP is the GDP in 10 8 yuan. Equation 1 can be used to predict the quantity of MSW, as shown in Table 4, where the GDP is assumed to increase by 7% (the 1999 growth rate) and the population data is adopted from the China Energy Strategy It can be seen from this table that there will be 136 million tons of MSW in 2000 and 177 million tons in PROPERTIES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE The data show that among major cities in China, MSW has the following properties 2,8 (see Tables 5 and 6). The organic components on a wet weight basis make up 61 95% of the municipal waste where food waste accounts for 38 73%, paper and cardboard for 2 12%, plastics for 2 14%, textiles for 1 6%, and wood for %. Inorganic components make up 5 39% of the waste where dirt, ash, and so on account for %, glass for 0.8 4%, metal for %, and others for 0 15%. The lower calorific value is kj/kg (average: 4695 kj/kg); the specific weight is kg/m 3 (average: 353 kg/m 3 ), and the moisture content is 45 70% (average: 55.38%). Waste characteristics in mainland China differ from those in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 9 where recyclable materials account for more than 50% of the total waste with the average lower calorific value of 6179 kj/kg. Table 7 shows the typical data on the ultimate analysis of the degradable materials found in MSW in China. Typical data on the Table 1. Annual MSW generation in individual provinces, Province Amount 10 4 t Province Amount 10 4 t Province Amount 10 4 t Province Amount 10 4 t China a 10,671 Jilin 594 Hubei 667 Shan xi 160 Beijing b 440 Heilongjiang 991 Hunan 249 Gansu 180 Tianjin b 180 Jiangsu 398 Guangdong 846 Qinghai 131 Shanghai b 372 Zhejiang 490 Guangxi 165 Ningxia 57 Chongqing b 95 Anhui 215 Hainan 55 Sinkiang 198 Hebei 503 Fujian 175 Sichuan 647 Hong Kong 246 Shanxi 293 Jiangxi 232 Guizhou 96 Inner Mongol 348 Shandong 547 Yunnan 88 Liaoning 920 Henan 424 Tibet 10 a Excluding Hong Kong; b Provincial city. Table 2. Average municipal solid waste generation in kg/capita day, City Beijing Tianjin Shanghai Shenyang Dalian Hangzhou Shenzhen MSW Generation City Guangzhou Manshan Anshan Chongqing Nanjing Average Hong Kong MSW Generation Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 51 February 2001

5 Figure 3. Correlation between MSW generation and urban population in China. Figure 4. Correlation between MSW generation and GDP in China. volatile solids content, the lignin content, the biodegradable fraction, and the biodegradable degree of materials found in MSW are indicated in Table 8. Table 9 shows the change in the energy and moisture content of residential waste in Shanghai. Note that the sampling and analysis of MSW are primarily based on the following two national standards: (1) Sampling and Analysis Methods of Municipal Solid Waste (CJ/T ) issued by the Ministry of Construction in 1995, and (2) Solid Waste: Analysis Methods of Toxic Extractives (GB/T ) issued by SEPA in combination with the State Technology Supervision Agency in Because there is no national standard for chemical analysis of MSW, the Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste 10 is applied in most cases. As MSW has increased in the last 20 years, waste composition has also changed, revealing an increasing amount of organic and recyclable waste. In general, value of the waste in terms of reusability is increasing. Many factors have an impact on MSW composition, including domestic fuel used (gas or coal), living conditions with accompanying rates of consumption, sources of MSW (residential, municipal, institutional, or commercial), and city characteristics (size, location, and economic conditions). This is discussed in more detail below. Domestic Energy Structure The influence of economic development on the properties of MSW can be seen in many ways. For instance, economic development has caused a change in urban domestic energy consumption. Major fuel materials have changed from coal to gas (natural gas, coal gas, or liquefied gas, either in pipe systems or in tanks). In 1986, people who used gas as fuel accounted for only 28.5% of the total urban population, but in 1998, this percentage increased to 78.8%. 1,3 Gas is a clean energy source that produces almost no residual waste, whereas coal is a fuel that produces much residual waste, which then enters the solid waste stream. This is one of the main reasons why the inorganic component in MSW is much higher in coalusing districts than in gas-using districts. Living Standards and Rates of Consumption Living standards and rates of consumption influence not only MSW quantity but also its quality. As shown in Table 10, waste composition differs in districts of different economic conditions. The MSW in exclusive residential districts often has a higher recyclable content, so the percentage of kitchen waste and ash and dirt is lower than that in ordinary residential districts. Since kitchen residue makes up a higher portion of the waste in ordinary residential districts, the waste from those neighborhoods has Table 3. Gas fuel percentage, citizen expenditure, and average MSW generation. Year Gas, % Consum, yuan/capita Average, a kg/capita day Average, b kg/capita day a Averaged on the base of permanent city residents; b Averaged on the base of the total city population including those who work temporally in cities but are not registered as city residents. Volume 51 February 2001 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 253

6 Table 4. Prediction of MSW generation in China. Year Urban GDP MSW Generation MSW Growth Population yuan RMB 10 4 t Rate % ,000 93,321 13, , ,119 17, , ,473 22, a higher moisture content and lower calorific value. The impact of living standards on waste composition can also be seen historically. The amount of money spent by consumers increased 5.5-fold from 1986 to 1998 in China, and this led to a waste composition change. Table 11 compares the waste composition in Beijing in 1990 with that in 1998, indicating that the organic component increased from 76.5% in 1990 to 86.9% in 1998, and recyclable materials found in MSW (paper, cardboard, metal, glass, etc.) accounted for a much higher fraction than before. Figure 5 shows the waste composition in South City Guangzhou, where organic materials have replaced inorganic materials as the major content in the waste stream. Waste Generation Sources and City Characteristics Three primary sources of waste are classified: residential waste, municipal services waste (such as street and park cleaning waste), and institutional and commercial waste. According to the investigation made in Guangzhou, these three types of waste account, respectively, for ~68, 11, and 21% of the total. 9 Residential waste not only ranks first in quantity but also has the most complex composition, which is greatly influenced by time and season. Investigations in 1993 indicated that, in residential waste, rapid degradable organic matters made up 48% of the total. Coal residue, ash, and dirt accounted for 32%. Combustible content consisting of plastics, paper, cardboard, textiles, and leather made up 17%. The average moisture content was 49%, the specific weight 0.33 t/m 3, and the lower calorific value 4500 kj/kg. 3 Municipal services waste has a similar composition but contains more ash, dirt, leaves, grass, wood, and packaging and fewer rapid biodegradable matters, with lower moisture content and higher calorific value. Institutional and commercial waste refers to the refuse generated from institutions, organizations, schools, factories, and commercial enterprises. The composition of such waste, varying with different generation sources, is relatively stable for given sources. Because of the imbalance in economic development in different regions, waste composition and properties vary greatly and are closely related to a city s size, function, geographic location, and economic condition. Table 12 compares the composition of waste generated in the south to that in the north. The MSW in larger cities has a higher organic component, a higher percentage of recyclable matters, and a lower moisture content than that in smaller cities. MATERIAL RECOVERY FROM MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE AND RESOURCE EVALUATION Recycling is a significant industry in China. According to 1996 data, 11 this industry accounted for 5000 recycling Table 5. Constituents of MSW in some cities, Organic, % by Weight Inorganic, % by Weight City Total Food Paper a Plastics Textiles Wood b Total Ash c Glass Metal Others Beijing Tianjin Shanghai Shenyang d d d Dalian Hangzhou Shenzhen Guangzhou Manshan Anshan Chongqing Kunming Average Hong Kong d a Paper and cardboard; b Wood, grass, and leaves; c Ash, dirt, etc; d Included in Others. 254 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 51 February 2001

7 Table 6. Physical properties and energy data of MSW in some cities, City Lower Calorific Value Specific Weight Moisture kj/kg kg/m 3 Content % Beijing Tianjin Shanghai Shenyang Dalian Hangzhou Shenzhen Guangzhou Manshan Anshan Chongqing Kunming Average Hong Kong firms and 120,000 collection stations in China with 8 million employees. In the 44 years from 1950 to 1994, 238 million tons of recyclable materials, valued at ~134 billion yuan (U.S. $16.3 billion), was recovered from the MSW stream. Hong Kong exported 1.2 million tons of recyclable municipal waste to the mainland or other countries in 1997 and earned HK $2 billion. Major materials recovered from MSW are those that have a high economic value, including metal, paper, and cardboard. Those that do not have a high value, such as plastics, glass, and batteries, usually are not recovered but enter the waste stream and are disposed of via landfill. As an example, Table 13 indicates the recycling situation in Beijing from 1987 to It can be seen from this table that the percent of materials recycled from MSW was in the range of 7 10%. Starting in 1989, the percentage of materials recycled by individual collectors was higher than that of the collection stations. This is because individual collectors are more aggressive than the collection stations, as it is partially through collecting the recyclables that the individuals make a living. China generated 113 million tons of MSW in Based on the data of its physical, chemical, and biological properties and its quantity (see Figure 2 and Tables 6 8), it is estimated that the total landfill gas production could have amounted to billion m 3 if all MSW generated in 1998 had been landfilled. This is equal to billion m 3 of natural gas. Suppose that 1 ton of MSW can generate 300 kwh of electricity (20% generating efficiency). Then 113 million tons of MSW could generate 33.9 billion kwh of electricity. COLLECTION, TRANSPORT, TREATMENT, AND DISPOSAL A general flow sheet for MSW collection, transportation, transfer, treatment, and disposal in China is indicated in Figure 6. Though collection, transfer, and transport of municipal solid waste has greatly improved in the past 20 years in China, as shown in Table 14, waste collection and transport systems cannot adapt quickly enough to the rapid demands of city development. Only in large cities is the waste transported in sealed vehicles. Data from 1998 shows that the streets and parks actually cleaned occupy only 90% of the area that needs to be cleaned. Even in the large cities such as Beijing, one can find places where no one is responsible for waste collection. Treatment and disposal of MSW in an environmentally sound (ES) manner is one of the key issues for proper management of MSW in China. 6,12 Before 1990, China owned very few ES (well controlled with low risk of pollution) waste management facilities. The percentages of ES treatment and disposal of MSW were only %. This means that more than 97% of the MSW was simply dumped in the suburbs either without any or with very limited engineering standards. This situation has improved greatly since 1991, when China began to pay much more attention to the MSW pollution problem. The percentage of ES treatment and disposal of MSW increased Table 7. Typical data on the ultimate analysis of degradable materials found in MSW in China. Organic Moisture Percent by Weight (dry basis) Molecular Formula COD Component % % C H O N g O 2 /g org Food waste C 19 5 H 32 5 O 12 6 N 1.16 Fruit C 23 3 H 27 3 O 16 4 N 0.94 Paper C 68 H 88 O 49 N 1.05 Textiles C 61 H 82 3 O 47 3 N 0.76 Grass, leaves C 15 8 H 24 7 O 9 8 N 1.08 Wood C 289 H 420 O 187 N 1.03 Biodegradable C 22 7 H 32 1 O 16 3 N 1.07 Volume 51 February 2001 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 255

8 Table 8. Typical data of volatile solid content (VS), lignin content (LC), biodegradable fraction (BF), and biodegradable degree (BD) of materials found in MSW in China. Component VS LC BF BD % (dry basis) % of VS % of VS % Vegetable waste Animal food waste 93.2 < Fruit Paper Textiles Grass, leaves Wood Biodegradable to 49.1% in 1996, to 55.4% in 1997, and to 58.5% in 1998, and this percentage is continuously rising (see Table 14 and Figure 7). Reported percentages of ES treatment and disposal of MSW are listed in Table 15. Hong Kong has three large sanitary landfills, five transfer stations, and one waste incineration plant (shut down in 1997 because of pollution problems), and all kinds of waste are well disposed of or recycled. There are three primary methods for the treatment and disposal of MSW: landfills, incineration, and composting. 6,13 At present, 79% of the MSW enters landfills (including dumping) in China, 19% is composted or recycled, and only 2% is combusted. Table 16 compares China s situation with developed countries in terms of landfills, incineration, composting, and recycling. 14 There were 874 ES facilities for MSW treatment and disposal in China in 1996 with a treatment capability of 235 kt/day. Table 17 introduces some of the large MSW sanitary landfills in China. Landfills in many cities are not engineered or cannot meet required national standards with liners, drainage systems, landfill gas control systems, leachate treatment systems, and environmental monitoring systems. China has many composting plants. Municipal waste is usually composted with manure and agricultural waste, such as crop stalks. Technology used in most of the composting plants is rather traditional or out-of-date and can only produce low-quality compost that is not suitable for farmland applications. Hence, most of the plants have difficulty selling their products. Incineration is a new direction of development in MSW management in China and is encouraged by SEPA and local environmental protection bureaus (EPB). Combustion systems of mass-fired combustion, pyrolytic combustion, and fluidized combustion can all be used. Some economically developed cities, such as Shenzhen and Shanghai, have constructed or are constructing large-scale waste incineration facilities. It can be predicted that MSW incineration will be an important industrial sector in China in the near future. Waste characteristics have a great effect on its treatment and disposal. For instance, municipal waste in many cities has a high moisture content and low heating value, which makes the application of incineration technology Table 9. Energy and moisture property change of residential waste in Shanghai, Month: Lower calorific value, kj/kg Moisture contents, % Table 10. Distribution of residential waste constituent in different districts, Organic, % by Weight Inorganic, % by Weight District Total Food Paper a Plastics Textiles Wood b Total Ash c Glass Metal Others Ordinary Exclusive Institutional Commercial Hotel Hospital Public park a Paper and cardboard; b Wood, grass, and leaves; c Ash, coal residue, dirt, etc. 256 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 51 February 2001

9 Table 11. Comparison of change in MSW composition for different districts in Beijing. Percent by Weight District: Coal Gas Exclusive Commercial Hospital Year: Organic Food Paper Plastics Textiles Wood Inorganic Ash Glass Metal Others difficult. This is one of the reasons why the rate of waste incineration is so low in China. Waste properties are key in composting. Except for some communities within some cities, municipal waste is collected without any separation. This results in low-fertility compost with high sand and pollutant content. For example, the Beijing municipality has an advanced MSW composting plant with waste treatment capability of 400 t/day. The composted product, however, cannot be used by farmers because of its low quality, and it must be given away to the forestry sectors. ADMINISTRATION Institutions There are three governmental organizations that are responsible for the management of MSW in China: the Ministry of Construction, SEPA, and the Ministry of Domestic Trade, as shown in Figure 8. The national authority for MSW administration in China is the Ministry of Construction. Municipal Sanitary Bureaus operating in individual cities in combination with their enterprises take the responsibilities of collection, transfer, transport, treatment, and disposal of MSW generated in their own municipalities. They are also responsible for the monitoring, supervision, and enforcement of the legislation. Despite municipal sanitary organizations, the Ministry of Domestic Trade and its local supply and marketing systems are responsible for the material recovery from MSW. When environmental pollution caused by solid waste occurs, environmental protection organizations become involved as the responsible governmental authority for pollution Figure 5. Composition change of MSW over time in Guangzhou, showing the sharp increase in organic components and the sharp decrease in inorganic components. Volume 51 February 2001 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 257

10 Table 12. Residential waste constituent comparison between south and north and between coal-fuel districts and gas-fuel districts, Organic % by Weight Inorganic % by Weight Recyclable a % by Weight Region City Coal Gas Coal Gas Coal Gas South Nanning Nanjing Shanghai Chongqing North Taiyuan Jilin Tianjin Shenyang Harbin a Recyclable wastes, including paper, metal, plastics, glass, and textiles, are counted separately from organic and inorganic wastes. Table 13. Material recovery (MR) from MSW in Beijing, Year Total MR By Collection Firms By Individual Collectors Amount % Amount % of MR Amount % of MR 10 4 t control. Figure 9 illustrates the institutional structure of MSW administration in the Beijing municipality. Legislation The Act of Prevention and Control of Solid Waste Pollution to the Environment, P.R. China (1995), abbreviated as the Solid Waste Act, is the basic law on MSW management in China. 15 In addition, the State Council, SEPA, and the Ministry of Construction have promulgated many ordinances, regulations, standards, and roles, such as the Municipal and Environmental Sanitary Regulation (1992), the Municipal Solid Waste Management Ordinance (1993), the Technical Standard for Municipal Solid Waste Sanitary Landfills (CJJ17-88), the Sanitary Standard for Manure Treatment (GB ), the Pollution Control Standard for Municipal Solid Waste Landfilling (GB ), the Technical Assessment Standard for the Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste Composting Treatment (CJ/T ), the Technical Standard for Environmental Monitoring in MSW Landfills (CJ/T ), and the most recently issued Pollution Control Standard for Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (GB ). Different provincial and municipal environmental protection bureaus have also issued many related regulations and guidelines based on Figure 6. General flow sheet for MSW collection, transportation, transfer, treatment, and disposal. 258 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 51 February 2001

11 Table 14. Statistics on the treatment and disposal of MSW in China. ES Treatment and Disposal Collection/Transport Machinery Year Per Day Total (MSW + Manure) Total Total Power t/day 10 4 t Set kw ,832 1,166, ,418 1,311, ,793 1,572, ,076 1,719, ,658 1,885, , ,854 2,104, , ,835 2,449, , ,218 2,812, , ,256 the local conditions. These laws, regulations, standards, and guidelines are the legal basis for the management of MSW in China. At the national level, it is the People s Congress and the State Council that legislate concerning municipal waste management. Also, ministries and state agencies have their right to promulgate ordinances, regulations, guidelines, and standards. The Ministry of Construction and its local departments have the right to promulgate operational or administrative regulations and standards for municipal waste management, and they are also responsible for MSW planning. SEPA and local EPBs have the right to enact pollution control standards and regulations. The State Planning Committee, the State Committee of Economy and Trade, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Supervision, and other related governmental departments may also take part in the legislation process. The Financial Aspect MSW management has long been considered a public service in China and is, therefore, paid for by the government at the national or local levels. Table 18 and Figure 10 show the cost of MSW management in China over the past few years. It can be seen that in 1995, the cost to the government of MSW handling from collection to final disposal was 5.75 billion yuan (693 million USD). Beijing accounted for 12.5% of the total cost, Shanghai for 20%, and the other eight cities listed in Table 18 accounted for 50% of that figure. Excluding facility construction costs, cost for MSW collection, transportation, transfer, treatment, and disposal varies from 45.5 to yuan/t, with the average being 50.9 yuan/t. This situation has changed greatly in the past two years in two Figure 7. Percentage distribution of the treatment and disposal of MSW in China. Table 15. Percentage of the treatment and disposal of MSW in some cities, Beijing Tianjin Shanghai Chongqing Harbin Shenyang Xian Nanjng Wuhan MSW + Manure 10 4 t Collected/Treated 10 4 t Percent of Total Volume 51 February 2001 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 259

12 Table 16. International comparison of the treatment and disposal of MSW. where their waste goes. In Nation Year Generation 10 6 t Landfill % Incineration % Compost % Recycling % many cities, particularly in smaller cities, low public awareness creates problems. From time to time, Belgium Germany public waste collection France equipment is destroyed, Australia and some firms illegally Denmark Great Britain pour their waste into rivers Portugal Spain Japan Canada United States Hong Kong Mainland China or lakes. In the past few years, with the improvement of their living standards, people have begun to pay attention to the environment, including municipal waste problems. In addition, many approaches have been used to improve public awareness Table 17. Comparison of large MSW sanitary landfills in China. of environmental problems and to force the public to actively participate in Name Total Capacity Daily Service Period Investment waste management. More environmental 10 4 m 3 t/day Year 10 6 yuan programs and reports have been aired. Hangzhou Tianziling Landfill Shanghai Laogang Landfill Guangzhou Licun Landfill Guangzhou Datianshan Landfill Xian Jiangxicun Landfill Implementation of the municipal waste management fee system and waste separation in some communities or cities has had positive effects on awareness of the waste problems. Shenzhen Xiaping Landfill Baotou Qingshan Landfill Beijing Asuwei Landfill Beijing Liulitun Landfill Chongqing Changsheng Landfill aspects: (1) the Chinese government has increased expenditure for environmental protection infrastructure construction (60 billion yuan in 1998), and (2) some cities such as Beijing and Nanjing have implemented an MSW management fee. For instance, the Beijing municipality levies a 3 yuan tax per family per month for the treatment and disposal of MSW. This is 0.12% of the total average income of a 3-person family (the average income of a 3-person family was 2525 yuan/ month in 1998). Though this amount of money is not enough, it provides a new source of financing. Public Participation and Awareness Public participation in and awareness of solid waste management is of vital importance for MSW management, but unfortunately, not many people are conscious of the waste problems. Since most people consider municipal waste handling a public service, they do not care about CONCLUSIONS China generates a large amount of MSW. In 1998, 113 million tons of MSW was generated, with an average generation rate being 1.0 kg/day capita. Major contributing factors to increasing MSW generation are urban population growth and good economic conditions. The relationship can be expressed by G MSW = P Urban E GDP where G MSW is the amount of MSW generated in 10 4 t/year, P Urban is the urban population in 10 4 capita, and E GDP is the GDP in 10 8 yuan. Using this equation, it is predicted that in 2000, the total MSW will reach 136 million tons and in 2005, 177 million tons. High moisture content and low heating value characterize the MSW properties in China, but the waste composition has changed gradually in the last 20 years, with the percentage of recyclable material increasing. Inorganic components of MSW are much greater in coal-using districts than in gas-using districts. As gas, a cleaner fuel, 260 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 51 February 2001

13 Figure 8. Administrative structure for waste management in China. Figure 9. Administrative structure for waste management in Beijing. Volume 51 February 2001 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 261

14 Table 18. Environmental sanitary investment in China, Investment, 10 4 yuan RMB Year Total 107, , , ,785.7 Beijing 12,443 19, , ,275 Tianjin , ,673 Shanghai 19,356 38, , ,298.0 Chongqing Harbin ,052.0 Shenyang ,852.0 Xian Nanjing Wuhan ,658.0 Guangzhou , ,194.0 Sum of above cities 51, , , ,738.9 % of the total has replaced coal as the major fuel in China, the percentage of organic components in MSW has increased. Living standards and rates of consumption influence not only MSW quantity but also its quality. Exclusive residential districts often produce MSW with a higher percentage of recyclable materials and a lower percentage of kitchen waste and dirt compared with those in ordinary residential districts. Waste composition and properties vary greatly from place to place and are closely related to a city s size, function, geographic location, and economic conditions. From 1950 to 1994, 238 million tons of material was recovered from the MSW stream. This recovered material was valued at ~134 billion yuan. Individual collectors are becoming more aggressive than collection stations. Seventy-nine percent of the waste generated in China is disposed of by landfills (mostly simple dumping). Nineteen percent is recovered at the source or composted, and only 2% is incinerated. Cost of MSW collection, transportation, transfer, treatment, and disposal varies from 45.5 to yuan/t with an average of 50.9 yuan/t. Landfills in many cities are not engineered and cannot meet required national standards with liners, drainage systems, landfill gas control systems, leachate treatment systems, and environmental monitoring systems. The technologies used in most of the composting plants are rather traditional or out-of-date and can produce only low-quality compost, which cannot be sold. Waste incineration, though presently accounting for a very small portion of China s waste treatment, will be an important industrial sector in China in the near future. Environmentally sound facilities for the treatment and disposal of MSW are in great shortage. The current administrative system, an extension of the planned economy system, cannot manage MSW well in the market economy system. A major disadvantage of this system is that legislation and handling of MSW are managed by the same organization. Changes are taking place in MSW management in China. For instance, more money is available from the government and from the industry sectors for MSW management. Market mechanisms will be introduced into the MSW handling system. Low public awareness of solid waste management problems produces random discarding of waste and illegal pouring of waste into rivers or lakes. Discussed in the next paper are the problems and remedial strategies for management of MSW in China. 16 Figure 10. Cost of MSW management for all of China compared with the combined cost for Beijing and Shanghai. 262 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association Volume 51 February 2001

15 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to Professor Bai Qingzhong, Professor Xiuren Hu, officers in the Department of Pollution Control, SEPA, and especially to Mr. Shouren Hu, Mr. Hongchang Ma and Mr. Defu Peng for their advice and support of this project. We are also grateful to the graduate students involved in this study, especially to Ms. Xiaoyue Zhen, Mr. Xinyang Hao, Ms. Wei Tang, and Ms. Liyun Cao for their contributions on investigations and data collection. 12. Daskalopoulos, E.; Badr, O.; Probert, S.D. Economic and Environmental Evaluations of Waste Treatment and Disposal Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste; Appl. Energy 1997, 58 (4), Nie, Y.; Bai, Q.; Wang, H. Handbook of Solid Waste Treatment; Chemical Industry Publishers: Beijing, 1999 (in Chinese). 14. Bruck, W. Packaging Recycling Worldwide; Art-Nr 929; Duales System Deutschland GMBH, Department of Policy and Legislation, State Environmental Protection Agency of China. China s Laws and Regulations of Environmental Protection ; Chemical Industry Publishers: Beijing, 1997 (in Chinese). 16. Wang, H.; Nie, Y.; Remedial Strategies for Municiple Solid Waste Management in China; J. Air and Waist & Manag. Assoc. 2001, 15, REFERENCES 1. National Statistic Agency of China. China Statistic Yearbook ; China Statistic Publishers: Beijing, Editorial Committee of China Environment Yearbook ; China Environment Yearbook Publishers: Beijing, Ministry of Construction of China. Urban Statistic Yearbook ; China Construction Industry Publishers: Beijing, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1990 Update; EPA/530-SW-90-04; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, Daskalopoulos, E.; Badr, O.; Probert, S.D. Municipal Solid Waste: A Prediction Methodology for the Generation Rate and Composition in the European Union Countries and the United States of America; Resour. Conserv. Recyc. 1998, 24 (2), Rchobanoglous, G.; Theisen, H.; Vigil, S. Integrated Solid Waste Management; McGraw-Hill, Inc.: National Development and Planning Committee, China Energy Strategy ; Institute of Energy Resources, National Development and Planning Committee of China: Beijing, Wei, J.-B.; Herbell, J.D.; Zhang, S. Solid Waste Disposal in China Situation, Problems and Suggestions; Waste Manage. & Res. 1997, 15 (6), Chung, S.; Poon, C. Comparison of Waste Management in Guangzhou and Hong Kong; Resour. Conserv. Recyc. 1998, 22 (3-4), State Environmental Monitoring Station, Eco-environmental Research Center of China Academy of Sciences. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste; China Environment Publishers: Beijing, 1992 (in Chinese). 11. Fang, C. Integrated Development of Resources in Municipal Solid Waste in China; J. Nat. Resour. 1996, 4, (in Chinese). About the Authors Dr. Hongtao Wang (corresponding author) is an associate professor of Environmental Engineering in the Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing. He is also the vice-director of the Training Section, Asia-Pacific Regional Center for Hazardous Waste Management Training and Technology Transfer, Beijing; phone: ; fax: ; wanght@dns.ep.tsinghua.edu.cn. Yongfeng Nie is a professor of Environmental Engineering in the Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University. Volume 51 February 2001 Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 263