Micro catchment management planning for Tea small holders

Transcription

1 Micro catchment management planning for Tea small holders By Chandima Gunasena BSc. In Agriculture, MSc, in Green Technology MPhil in Integrated Water Resource Management

2 Table of Contents Session One Session learning objectives Tea small holdings as a natural resource management boundary Drainage basin Riparian zone Environmental flows... 6 Session 1.2: History of micro catchments Low Impact Development Concept Development of a micro catchment management plan for tea small holders Site delineation... 9 Selecting a model farm with a cluster of adjoing farm lands to represent a micro catchment Development of a national model Site analysis Identify actions and prioritize activates: Selection of appropriate interventions and technical solutions: Action planning and implementation: Session 2.2: Categories of techniques that are available for managing degraded sites Annex 1: Indicators for SWOT analysis in relation to ecosystem services Annex 2 Slope and soil classification Annex 3 Soil erodibility Annex 4 Soil Groups

3 Session One 1. Session learning objectives To consider tea small holdings as an ecological unit for managing ecosystems To introduce micro catchment management and low impact development principles To briefly discuss the micro catchment management planning and possible intervention methodologies To develop basic skills to handle a micro catchment management plan with low impact development principles and techniques Session 1.1: Introduction to tea small holdings, micro catchments and low impact development concept and development of a micro catchment management plan (45 minutes) Session 1.2: Principles and techniques those are available for managing micro catchments. (45 Minutes) Session 1.3: Case studies- Chances will be given to participants to present their problems and micro catchment management planning will be discussed with the application of low impact development principles (60 minutes) Session duration 150 minutes 3

4 1.1 Tea small holdings as a natural resource management boundary In order to improve the ecological resilience of tea grown areas, tea small holdings could be considered as one of the manageable ecological unit. As shown in the following table, tea small holders have been categorized based on the plot size by the Tea Small Holdings Development Authority (Annual report 2012). With reference to the above table, nearly 88 percent of the small holders have plots with the extent less than half a hectare. Therefore, plots having half a hectare could be selected as the manageable ecological unit. According to the annual report published by the Tea Small Holdings Development Authority in 2012, productivity of made tea Kg per hectare was 1.8 percent compared to the year According to the same report, average price received per Kg of green leaves and average cost of production in 1994 was 9.8 rupees and 8.85 rupees respectively. Similarly, in 2012, figures were given as rupees and rupees respectively. Average difference between price received and cost is around 7.3 rupees for the entire 18 year period. Same report, illustrates the price elevation of made tea received during Colombo auction in 1994 and 2012 as rupees per Kg and percentage contribution to the total export earnings in 1995 and 2012 were given as % and 14.1 % respectively. 4

5 Presently, tea small holders are confronted with several ecological problems due to low income levels, inappropriate soil, water, land and other natural resources management practices, over use and excess use of agro chemicals etc. Managing these issues with the existing administrative system has shown poor results due to lack of small holder participation at the implementation level. According to Wijeratne M.A 1996, there is a possibility of 10% increment in length of the dry and wet periods. Due to this phenomenon, higher soil losses could be observed in tea growing areas. Further to that, about 30 cm of soil has already been eroded from upland tea plantations. Brand K in 1993 pointed out that only about 30% of the applied N is utilized by the tea plant, the balance being lost by leaching, run-off, volatilization and denitrification. He has identified the major cause as the surface run off, due to which the broadcasted fertilizer ends up in the contour drains and is washed into the rivers. In order to improve the productivity of these tea small holdings, responsibilities of managing soil, water land and other natural resources must be principally taken up by the tea small holders with appropriate technical advice. Taking these responsibilities as a cluster of farmers within a micro catchment would be more practical than conducting individual cultural practices. Clustering is very important when considering managing environmental flows, which are directly responsible for carrying sediments, applied fertilizer and other agro chemicals along water ways causing infertile soils in tea lands and siltation and groundwater pollution in downstream rivers and reservoirs. 1.2 Drainage basin As shown in the Figure 1, a drainage basin or catchment basin could be defined as an extent or an area of land where surface water from rain, melting snow, or ice converges to a single point at a lower elevation, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another water body, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean. It is a natural boundary where all ecosystem services take place without disturbances Figure 1: River basin boundary and stream network of a basin Source: and Romania.jpg 5

6 1.2.1 Riparian zone An acceptable riparian zone includes a buffer strip of a minimum of 18 m (Barton et al. 1985), from the stream on either side. The acceptable width of the riparian zone may also be variable depending on the size of the stream. Streams over 4 m in width may require larger riparian zones and it is also a natural boundary Figure 2. (a) (b) Figure 2: (a) Arrow pointing out undisturbed riparian zone (b) Arrow pointing out lack of riparian zone Environmental flows (a) (b) Figure 3: Undisturbed stream which has a flow reaches to both stream banks (b) Disturbed stream which has a flow which reaches only one side of the bank 6

7 Environmental flows could be perennial or seasonal. Perennial flows are active throughout the year with a base flow during dry seasons. Seasonal flows active during rainy seasons and they carry sediments from bare lands to nearby streams. As shown in the Figure 3, undisturbed streams have flows those reach both banks and flow do not reach both banks in disturbed streams without riparian vegetation. This happens with the sediments coming form nearby sites. Session 1.2: Introduction to micro catchments and low impact development concept and development of a micro catchment management plan (30 minutes) History of micro catchments Micro catchment management concept was first known to Negev Desert of Israel, during the reign of King Solomon between the tenth and sixth centuries B.C. This concept was used by the people to collect runoff water and convey collected water to lower fields. They cleared the hillsides to increase runoff and built rock walls along the contours to collect runoff water. Then the water collected along these contours was conveyed to lower fields using ditches. This system was very successful even with an annual rainfall of 3-4 inches. Smallest micro catchments could be identified as ditches that concentrate surface runoff around a plant, thus reducing runoff and increasing infiltration to the plant roots. Historically in many parts of the world, people use these techniques to collect runoff water for many purposes including traditional agricultural activities. In Sri Lanka people living in dry zone areas construct small ponds like structure identified as Pathaha in areas having low elevation compared to surrounding landscape and let the environmental flows or runoff water to get collected during the rainy season for future use. This approach helps to increase the ground water hydrology of that area. Sri Lankan cascade system of reservoirs is the ideal example for the management of environmental flows practiced in many thousand years back in our history. They had many approaches to control the water flow velocity, discharge quantity and quality of water flowing form their fields as well as natural streams. As shown in the Figure 4, in a traditional village tank eco system, several non structural measures namely, tree belts and hamlet buffers, interceptors were used to control sediment transportation and overland flow velocity control. 7

8 Figure 4: Traditional village tank eco system in Dry zone of Sri Lanka Source: Dharmasena, P.B., As shown in the Figure 5, management of environmental flows and natural resources at micro catchment level was also identified under western philosophy in the year 1990 by several scientists in USA. Figure 5: Integrated site plan. Low-impact, environmentally sensitive development incorporates a combination of all natural resources protection options into a comprehensive, integrated site design 8

9 Source: Low-Impact Development Design Strategies, 1999, An Integrated Design Approach, Prince George County, Maryland Managing environmental flows and other ecosystem resources at micro scale would be more sustainable than macro scale approaches. With time and international experiences micro scale management of eco systems was well recognized by USA in 1990s under the Low Impact Development concept at Prince George s County Figure 2. It is evident that macro scale approaches, solve environmental problems using structural methods with minimum stakeholder participation. As an example, flood mitigation is carried out using large scale control structures at down stream. Due to clearing forest cover in upper reaches for agricultural and residential purposes downstream drainage systems are subjected to frequent blocking with the heavy loads of sediments coming form upper reaches Figure Low Impact Development Concept Basically, Low Impact Development methods are designed to use naturally existing site hydrological characteristics namely, infiltration, evaporation, percolation, sub surface flows and ground water flows to store and detention of runoff or overland flows ensuring adequate ground water recharge etc. at micro catchment level rather than larger catchments. Therefore, Low Impact Development helps to improve natural hydrologic functions or the water balance between runoff, infiltration, storage, groundwater recharge, and evapotranspiration within micro catchments. With this approach negative impacts in relation to the volume, frequency, and quality of runoff could also be minimized while maintaining base flows and manageable runoff conditions. LID has multiple benefits, such as protecting animal habitats, improving management of runoff and flooding, and reducing impervious surfaces. LID also improves groundwater quality and increases its quantity, which increases aesthetics, therefore raising community value. LID can also be used to eliminate the need for storm water ponds, which occupy expensive land. Incorporating LID into designs enables developers to build more homes on the same plot of land and maximize their profits. 1.3 Development of a micro catchment management plan for tea small holders Developing a common micro catchment management plan could be a difficult task due to higher variability in site characteristics at micro catchment level. Therefore, initial steps will be discussed with an intention to develop micro catchment managerial skills among participants. Initial steps to be considered during the development of micro catchment management plan could be illustrated as flows Site delineation Site selection for a model farm must be carried out with reference to the guide lines provided by the Tea Small Holder Development Authority. Site delineation with respect to topographic features Selected site must be visually observed prior to delineate the relevant micro catchment. As shown in the Figure Aerial photographs taken form a drawn copter with a camera could be used to identify relevant micro catchment. 9

10 Selecting a model farm with a cluster of adjoing farm lands to represent a micro catchment C B B B D A D E D B E B E E F Figure 6: Model farm with several other adjoin farm lands within a micro catchment 10

11 Legend for the Figure A. Selected Model farm B. Selected adjoin farms to form a cluster C. Micro catchment boundary D. Surface and sub-surface environmental flows E. Main flow goes towards the drainage point of the micro catchment F. Out let of the micro catchment As shown in the Figure 6 model farm with several adjoining farm lands could be selected within a micro catchment for the purpose of managing environmental flows and other natural resources to uplift the livelihood of tea small holders as well as to improve the resilience of dying highland sensitive ecological systems which nourish and furnish the hydrological network of the entire country. Development of a national model There are thousands of micro catchments in these hilly areas where tea is grown as small holdings. This micro catchment approach will help to cluster these individual farm lands for the benefit of them as well as the entire hill country which need immediate attention to improve the resilience of these dying eco systems. Micro catchments with the model farm arrangement for a hypothetical river basin Figure 7: Micro catchments with the model farm arrangement for a hypothetical river basin As shown in the Figure 7 micro catchments could be organized along major rivers of Sri Lanka to safe guard the tea small holders as well as dying hill country. A comprehensive database will improve the efficiency of the entire process. 11

12 1.3.2 Site analysis Location and access information: Table 2: Location and access information Site identity number Province, District, AGA division and GN Divisional information Site description (extent, number of tea plants, intercropping details, adjoining sites, distance to a processing factory etc. Contact person address and phone number Topographical description of the selected site Steepness and the length of the slope are important to determine the land capability and potential of soil erosion in a particular site. Use land capability classification and soil erodibility classifications given in annex 2. Longer and steeper slope will have greater erosion potential. Table 3: Topographical description of the site GPS data along the boundary Slope (Degrees) Annex 2 Slope length Annex 2 Soil type (Clay, loam, or sandy) Threat of land slides Land suitability Tracking environmental flows at the site As discussed in the session one, it is very important to trace all possible perennial and seasonal environmental flows or overland flows. This will provide valuable information about the hydrology of the site and direct the site analysis in to other adjoining site when site in hand receives heavy sediment loads, or flows having higher velocities from another area. This will help to manage natural environmental flows while maintaining the sediment transportation, flood flows, infiltration, and bio diversity improvements, minimizing health risks and balancing the relevant eco system processes like hydrological cycle, nutrient cycles and energy flows etc. 12

13 Environmental flows State reservation (Yes /No) Ownership of the land where flow is active Any constructions within the reservation (Yes/No) (Toilets, concrete walls, buildings) Cultivated at the middle of the stream (Yes/No) Effluent inlets (Yes/No) if yes number of inlets GPS data for inlets collected Yes/No Inlets belong to Government, private, agricultural or industrial Any health risks due to stagnation of water Any special ecosystem near by (Wetland, mangrove, Paddy, other agricultural sites) Details records of environmental flows Table 4 (a): Descriptions of environmental flows Perennial flows (Name or any identity) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Seasonal flows (Name or any identity) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 13

14 Environmental flows Dimensions (Length, Width and depth) Flow velocity m/s Date and GPS point data at the inlet to the site Flow velocity m/s Date and GPS point data at the outlet from the site Water Quality (Pure, slightly muddy, Moderately muddy, Heavily muddy) at the inlet to the site Water Quality (Pure, slightly muddy, Moderately muddy, Heavily muddy) at the outlet from the site Water users (Paddy, Other field corps, animal husbandry, natural forest cover, buffer zone, wetland, estuary, delta etc.) Any damages identified (Bank erosion, sediment deposits, Extent of the damage (Express in area or length) Natural space availability for temporary ponding during the rainy season Details of identified environmental flows Table 4 (b): Descriptions of environmental flows Perennial flows (Name or any identity) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Seasonal flows (Name or any identity) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 14

15 Serial No First reported /year Rehabilitated Yes or No /Year of rehabilitation Rehabilitation work in brief Causes for negligence Previous rehabilitation works carried out at the site: Table 5: Previous rehabilitation works Present condition Slightly degraded/moderately degraded/ Heavily degraded * (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Note: *if maps, photos and sketches are available annex those to the document 15

16 Risk assessment with SWOT analysis Site description and problem identified:.. Table 6: SWOT analysis Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats Land Land Land Land (i) (ii) Water Water Water Water (i) (ii) Air Air Air Air (i) (ii) Bio diversity Bio diversity Bio diversity Bio diversity (i) (ii) Health Health Health Health (i) (ii) Energy Energy Energy Energy (i) (ii) Waste (i) (ii) Waste Waste Waste Note: See annex 1 for guide lines 16

17 Contact Number Name and contact address Phone number Category (1) to (6) specify Stakeholder analysis: Stakeholder analysis is carried out to identify potential personal to hand over responsibilities to implement activities identified in the action plan. Since the site is a micro catchment, number of stakeholders could be limited to families. Therefore, entire population could be analyzed and interested parties could be selected and trained if needed. During the analysis, must identify following categories. Table 7: Stakeholder analysis Stakeholder commitment Logistics provider (transport, food and logging etc. specify the service Material provider Specify materials (Planting or construction) Financial assistance amount in Rs/= Labor To become a skilled personal for a specific task Note: (1) to (7) stakeholder categories (1) Educated people like, doctors (western and eastern), engineers, accountants, teachers etc. (2) Student community like school students and leavers, university students etc. (3) Business community like, large scale, medium scale and small scale individuals, companies, institutions etc. (4) Labor community like, manual labors, carpenters, masons (5) Volunteer groups (6) Environmental organizations and NGOs (7) Government contribution: from AGA, from Department of agriculture, From irrigation department etc. 17

18 1.3.3 Identify actions and prioritize activates: Considering the stability of the eco system in hand, information presented in table 6 and 7 have to be used to identify activities to minimize threats, improve weaknesses, exploits opportunities and appropriate use of strengths. Replenishment of environmental flows has to be carried out with reference to the data gathered during the site analysis. If the corrections are needed in other micro catchments, than the rehabilitation work to be carried out in the micro catchment in hand, activities must be prioritized considering the stability of selected eco systems. Example: If a planner is going to desilt drainage network or a reservoir, planer has to prioritize activities to minimize sediment transportation form other micro catchments Selection of appropriate interventions and technical solutions: Based on the technological interventions discussed under the session 2.2, appropriate interventions and technological solutions have to be selected for action planning process Action planning and implementation: During the action planning process, all identified actions have to be handed over to stakeholders with reference to the stakeholder analysis for a specified time period to finish the given task. Basically, action planning helps to identify problems, what needs to be done, when it needs to be done, by whom it needs to be done, and what resources or inputs are needed to do it? 18

19 Problem Description Site details:. Table 8: Problem description Problem Number Air Land Water Bio diversity Health Energy Waste 19

20 Action Plan Table 9: Action Plan Problem Category Problem description Sub activity description Time frame (Begin by complete by) Index Sub activities No Person responsible / contact details Cost involvement Land L/1 Air 1 Water 1 Bio diversity 1 Health 1 Energy 1 Waste 1 L/2 A/1 A/2 W/1 W/2 B/1 B/2 H/1 H/2 E/1 E/2 W/1 W/2 20

21 7. Progress monitoring and evaluation Depending on the site characteristics those are rehabilitated, appropriate parameters have to be selected for the monitoring and evaluation purposes. Example: Flow velocity variation, water quality variations, vegetative cover, reconstruction of stream banks etc. could be used as indicators. A comprehensive database with WEB GIS facilities will help AGAs to monitor the progress form the office environment if facilities are granted to trainees to enter data form their working point. Table : 10 Monitoring and evaluation Index No Description of the work done Any assistance needed Responsible person and contact details 21

22 Time frame Time frame given in gannet chart Table 11: Time frame Activity Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Sep Oct Nov Dec Sub Acti 1 Sub Acti 2 Sub Acti 3 Sub Acti 4 Awareness and training: Necessary awareness and training programs will have to conduct for stakeholders those who have shown interest to become trainees and carryout the monitoring program prior to implementation. Budget Budget is prepared based on the sub activities identified. Cost of external assistance needed will be given in the budget and it will be prepared after accessing the stakeholder commitment. Table 12: Budget Index No Equipment/materials/Resource personal needed Unit cost Total cost Remarks 22

23 Session 2.2: Techniques those are available for managing micro catchments (45 Minutes) Ecosystem serveries could be optimized with balanced ecosystems having environmental flows, flora and fauna, land, soils, water bodies, air etc. Furthermore, these services could be well managed at small scale than larger scale. As discussed in session 1 and 2.1, low impact development concept is more applicable at micro level namely, small sub catchments, residential areas, agricultural lands and even at industrial zones. Selecting micro level land parcels facilitate developers or planners to have aesthetically pleasing less expensive site management with on site hydrologic functions including infiltration, ground water recharge, depression storage, and interception, as well as a reduction in the time of concentration, with the help of stakeholders Categories of techniques that are available for managing degraded sites Running management programs In order to run a replanting program in a reserved forest area, it is desirable to select a manageable land area with a group of people who are willing to participate for the planning as well as ready to carry out post planting activities to monitor the site till plants get established. Conducting conservation activities within forest buffer zones are easy with the people who live near by the site. Managing riparian zones along streams, tributaries and rivers could be done by identifying a convenient length along the water way. Length to be managed depends on the number of stakeholder participation. It is always advisable to select manageable land area for the conservation activities based on the participation of interested stakeholders to ensure the long term sustainability of the conservation activities Major categories 1. Defining micro catchments 2. Impervious area management 3. Runoff management 4. Drainage management 5. Ground water recharging 6. Erosion control 7. Sediment control mechanisms 8. Streams, tributaries and river management 1. Defining micro catchments As discussed in the section 1.1, selecting a site having manageable area as a micro catchment is very much important when considering the implementing and monitoring an action plan with few stakeholders effectively. Minimum of ten to twenty families could be selected as stakeholders as a cluster for the conservation activity to be carried out at the model farm. 23

24 1. Impervious area management Figure 8: Bear soil surface present under tea bushes As shown in the Figure 8, in most cases there is no ground cover under tea bushes. Time to time they clean the grass cover especially during the fertilizer application. When rain comes fertile soil layer and the applied fertilizer are washed off with the overland flow. This scenario is prominent at lands having steep slopes. Main Drainage lines Figure 9: Contour and main drainage system of tea lands As shown in the Figure 9, Main drainage lines quickly collect the drained surface waters comes as overland flow through contours and drain to low lying areas. This will reduce the water absorption in to the soil matrix and quickly dry during dry spells. Streams and tributaries in these areas also get dried during dry periods of the year due to lack of sub surface water storage. 24

25 In order to address these issues, impervious area under tea bush must disconnect and flow velocities must be reduced. Following land management techniques could be adopted to discontinue these impervious areas Discontinue impervious areas Figure 10: Micro catchment boundaries Micro catchments could be easily delineated by connecting hill tops which forms a basin like structure which drains in to a common point Figure

26 Figure 11: Grass strips introduced within each micro catchments Number of grass strips will have to decide based on the slope and other topographical features of the site. Width of the grass strip must be at least one or two meters Figure 11. It is also advisable to grow some important traditional and local medicinal, fruits and vegetable plant species on top of each mountain Figure 11. This will minimize the seasonal soil damages on top of mountains and improve the productivity of the land. Area to be forested on hill tops could be 0.1 % of the total height of the mountain. 26

27 Introduction of natural forest buffer at the foot of the mountain Figure 12: Natural forest buffer strip at the foot of a mountain Natural forest buffer consist of native fruits, vegetables and medicinal plants could be grown along the foot of the mountain Figure 12. This buffer strip is needed to control the sediment load and the flow velocity coming in to the streams or tributaries going through tea lands. Overland flow control along contour plantings as well as across contour plantings Figure 13: Soil brims 27

28 As shown in the Figure 13, soil brims could be introduced along contours as well as across contours. This will reduce the flow velocity and therefore, reduce the soil erosion. Introduction of temporary ponding to improve the ground water recharging Figure 14: Temporary ponding areas Area shown in the Figure 14 blue lined area could be ponded three to four days temporary to increase ground water recharging. This practice has to be carried out if there are no threats of land slides. This temporary ponding will increase the water intake by the mountain soil mass and it will help to increase the soil moisture condition during dry periods. Furthermore, this practice will enhance the base flow of mountain streams and tributaries replenishing riverside ecological systems. 28

29 Runoff volume control Increase surface roughness to retard velocity (a) Figure 15: Reduction of flow velocity along the ground surface As shown in the Figure 15 (a) and (b) gravels or pebbles and grass cover could be used to retard the flowing velocity. This will reduce the soil erosion. Maximize sheet flow conditions (b) Figure 16: Use of grass covered surfaces to manage sheet flow Instead of open and bare drainage lines grass covered surfaces could be used to divert water from one area to another. This will maximize the contact surface area by water flow and increase the ground water recharging. Furthermore, use a network of wider and flatter channels will retards fast-moving water in channels and increase infiltration capacity Figure

30 Figure 17: Grass covered buffer zones and drainage lines As shown in the Figure 17 grass covered buffer zones could be placed either side of contour drains and main drains. This will help to minimize the sediment transportation. Erosion control Basically erosion could be controlled by reducing site clearing and grading. Minimal disturbing techniques to reduce site disturbances Soils: Consider, erodibility, permeability, depth to water table and bedrock, and soils with special hazards including shrink/swell potential or slippage tendencies before doing any conservation measures. Erodibility is a term that describes the vulnerability of a soil to erosion. The average particle size and gradation (texture), percentage of organic matter, and soil structure influence soil erodibility. The most erodible soils generally contain high proportions of silt and very fine sand. The presence of clay or organic matter tends to decrease soil erodibility. Clays are sticky and tend to bind soil particles together, which along with organic matter helps to maintain stable soil structure. By combining the soils information with information on the topography, drainage, and vegetation on the site, the planner can determine the critically erodible and sensitive areas that should be avoided if possible during any land preparation. These areas could be forested with fruits, vegetables and medicinal plants. Soil Erosion Control Practices Soil stabilization practices include a variety of vegetative, chemical, and structural measures used to shield the soil from the impact of raindrops or to bind the soil in place, thus preventing it from being detached by surface runoff or wind erosion. Representative soil stabilization practices include the following: Vegetative stabilization, both temporary and permanent Top soiling Erosion control mattings Mulching Tree protection Reduction and detention of the runoff 30

31 - staging operations - grading and shaping of soil surfaces - manipulation of slope length and gradient Interception and diversion of runoff - diversion berm or dike - reverse benches - drainage swales - vegetation buffers Proper handling and disposal of concentrated flow - vegetative swales - downdrain structures Man-made ditches, diversions, and waterways will become part of the erosion problem if they are not properly stabilized. Care should also be taken to be sure that increased runoff from the site will not erode or flood the existing natural drainage system. Irrigation and fertilizer application technologies Irrigation will improve the yield during dry spells. A cost effective sub surface fustigation technique will increase the yields, reduce the application rate of fertilizer and washouts with the overland flow. 31

32 Annex 1: Indicators for SWOT analysis Parameter Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Land 1.Availability of forest reserves 2. Desirable slope 3. Soil tests were carried out and results were satisfactory 4. Well drained soils 5. soil depth is high 6. Less stones and gravels 10. Availability of plant species which regulates air quality at home garden level 11. Availability of natural vegetation cover in steep slopes 12. hard soil structure in erosion prone areas 14. Well established natural land parcels without land slides 15. Community based organizations and NGOs involved in building up social relations among the community 16. Governmental and non governmental intervention for conservation 17. Interventions to improve soil fertility form governmental and non governmental organizations 1.Lack of natural forest cover 2.Lack of appropriate soil conservation practices 3.Lack of awareness 4.Lack of resource personal 5. Steep slopes 6. Shallow unfertile soils 7. lack of resource personal 8. Lack of planting materials 9. Seasonal soil disturbances for agricultural activities 10. Steep slopes with bare soils 11. Periodic landslides 12. Lack of knowledge about local environmental issues 13. Lack of soil rehabilitation at home garden level 14. Disturbed natural landscape 15. Unplanned development approaches Lac of soil erosion control practices 16. lac of land classification process to carry out development activities 17. Connected impervious areas and lack of ground cover 1.Possibilities to improve NTFPs 2 Land availability for reforestation with agro forestry systems 3.Availability of resource personal 4. Conservation oriented education system in nearby schools and addressing the local environmental issues 5. Eco conscious traditional knowledge systems 6. Land availability for reforestation 7. Willingness to participate and practical application of new technologies 8. Willingness to participate and practical application of natural hazard technologies 9. Availability of land zoning plans 1.Quick drying of top soil during dry seasons 2. Population pressure 3. Deforestation 4. Heavy use of agro chemicals in up stream areas 5. Overland fertilizer applications leading to higher rates of washouts 6. Agricultural sites without soil erosion control mechanisms 7. Unplanned construction 8. Reluctant to produce and use of organic fertilizers at home garden level and commercial agricultural purposes 9. Lack of interest shown in development programs about environmental conservation 32

33 Annex 1: Indicators for SWOT analysis Parameter Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Water 1. Non depleting ground water table during dry periods 2.Adequate water resources like wetlands, marshy lands, streams and reservoirs 3. Well managed landscape and environmental flows 4. Environmental laws, rules and regulations 5. Data availability in relation to water flow velocity, discharge quantity, quality etc. 6. Natural drainage lines with undisturbed vegetative cover 7. Groundwater reserves 8. Common traditional knowledge about water conservation among different cultural groups 1.Lack of buffer zones 2.Lack of appropriate conservation practices 3.Lack of awareness 4.Lack of resource personal 5.Unavailability of grasslands, marshy lands, wetlands 6.Not enough environmental flows in streams 7. Disturbed natural landscape and environmental flows 8. Large continuous impervious areas 9. Less opportunities infiltration and ground water recharging 10. Lack of buffer zones along streams and rivers 11. Drainage lines with bare surfaces 12. Use of natural recharging areas for construction and converted to impervious areas 13. Recharging polluted water in to soil matrix 1.Possibilities to improve ground water recharging with reforestation to increase infiltration 2.Availability of resource personal 3.Availability of grass lands, marshy lands, wetlands 4. Land availability for spread overland flow to regulate flow velocity 5. Natural drainage lines with vegetative covers to reduce flow velocity and control sediment transportation 6. Undisturbed natural landscape supporting environmental flows 7. Stakeholder willingness to correct and modify landscape and natural environmental flows 8. Land availability for ground water recharging at home gardens and other state lands 9. Land availability for temporary detention and retention of storm water at home garden level and other state lands 1.Quick drying of top soil during dry seasons 2. Dying of streams and reducing base flows 3.Land filling in grass lands, marshy lands and wetlands 4. Establishing construction sites blocking natural drainage patterns 5. Heavy disturbances on natural landscape and destruction of natural environmental flows with the unplanned development activities 6. Constructions and agricultural activities over ground water recharging areas, natural environmental flows 7. Over exploitation of streams for micro hydro power 8. Population pressure 9. Deforestation 10. Very high flow rates 11. Quick removal of storm water from upstream via drainage canals 33

34 Annex 1: Indicators for SWOT analysis Parameter Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Air 1. Presence of good proportion among forest cover, residential areas, agricultural and industrial areas, recreational areas 2.Data availability in relation to air pollution 3. Availability of rules and regulations to control pesticide applications 1. Lack of awareness among industries about emission standards issued by the authorities 2. Lack of awareness about available technologies to control emissions 3. Lack of resource personal 4.Lack of natural forest reserves to maintain air quality 1. Adequate forest cover to supply fresh air 2. Availability of certain plant species which add certain fragrance to the atmospheric air to improve the air quality and purify air 3. Stakeholder willingness for participatory approach to combat against any air pollution activities 4. Interested governmental and NGOs to establish and rehabilitate lost eco systems 5. Stakeholder willingness to rehabilitate eco systems with the participatory approach 1. Carrying out any emission activities without considering the environmental limits and permissible levels approved by governmental authorities 2.Construction sites emitting dust and other particles 3. Increase local air temperature 4. Increment in reported respiratory problems in the community 5. Increase particular matter in air 6. Over and excess use of agro chemicals 34

35 Annex 1: Indicators for SWOT analysis Parameter Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Bio diversity 1.Rules and regulations for establishing forest reserves, buffer zones, riparian zones and protecting wetlands, marshy lands 2. Protected forest reserves 3. Awareness about bio diversity and its importance 4. Awareness about natural pollinators 1.Lack of variability in bio diversity 2.Introduction of invasive species 3.Lack of awareness about traditional fruits, vegetables and medicinal plants 4.Lack of necessary planting materials 5. Lack of resources personal 6. Lac of plant species which control the water flow within streams, tributaries and rivers 7. Disturbed landscape, natural environmental flows, food chains 8. Lack of knowledge about pollinators 1.Stakeholder willingness to increase bio diversity in their home gardens and agricultural fields 2. Possibilities to improve NTFPs in buffer zones 3 Land availability for reforestation with agro forestry systems 4.Availability of resource personal 5. Undisturbed natural landscape 6. Availability of grass and other plant species, which could be used in soil erosion prevention technologies 7. willingness of stakeholders to apply techniques to control soil erosion at home garden level and in commercial agricultural fields 8. Willingness of stakeholders to grow relevant plant species at their residential areas to improve the flora and fauna 9. Availability of planting materials 10. Undisturbed water source areas and riparian zones 1.Clearing forest cover in hydrological sensitive areas 2. On going development activities without concerning the environmental impacts 3. In appropriate use of water source areas and riparian zones by private stakeholders 4. Eutrophication of wetlands and reservoirs 5. Excess and over use of agro chemicals 6. Unplanned agricultural and shifting cultivation in uplands 7. Land filling for rapid development 8. Lack of governmental and policy maker interest on protecting special and sensitive ecosystems 9. Water stagnation causing vector born epidemics 10. pest resurgence due to extensive mono cropping 35

36 Stakeholder willingness to rehabilitate water source areas and riparian zones 11. Stakeholder willingness to rehabilitate wetlands and marshy lands 12. Stakeholder willingness to participate for a community program to conserve bio diversity at home garden level and even at agricultural farming level 13. Stakeholder willingness to improve bio diversity in sites those need protections 14. Stakeholder willingness to reestablish lost food chains within their home gardens and agricultural eco systems

37 Annex 1: Indicators for SWOT analysis Parameter Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Health 1. Availability of traditional knowledge and educational values about health issues 2 Availability of modern health facilities 3 Awareness programs 4. Governmental and nongovernmental intervention with appropriate Resource personal 1.Unawareness of nutritional and medicinal values of flora available in eco systems 2.Lack of awareness about traditional fruits, vegetables and medicinal plants 3. Lack of resources personal 4. Lack of pre and post hazards management programs 5. Population pressure on natural landscape 6. Lack of land areas for future development 7. Shanty dwellers nearby streams and rivers 8. Lack of awareness about traditional knowledge about health issues 1. Stakeholder willingness to change their food habits which are now concern about the calorific value to get a balanced diet form natural eco systems 2. Awareness about managing natural environmental flows to avoid water stagnation more than a week 3. Stakeholder awareness and willingness to participate for hazards regulation programs 4. Stakeholder willingness to participate for a community program to improve health related issues 1. Excessive and over use of agro chemicals 2. Construction of toilets in steep slopes 3. Areas prone to land slides 4. Water stagnation causing vector born epidemics 37

38 Annex 1: Indicators for SWOT analysis Parameter Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Energy 1. Availability of fuel wood 2. Stakeholder willingness to change in to alternative energies 3. Availability of technical people 1. Lack of awareness about alternative fuels 2 Lack of alternative energy potential 1. availability of solid waste and biomass for bio gas production at residential level 2. Potential for solar, wind and other alternative energy sources 3. Stakeholder willingness to participate for a community program to improve energy utilization 1. Over exploitation of forest biomass for fuel wood 38

39 Parameter Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Waste 1. Residential level land availability for composting 1. Lack of interest in producing compost at home garden level 2. Lack of awareness about waste disposal 3. Lack of appropriate sites for waste disposal 4. Effluent water discharge without treatments to water ways 5. Shanty dwellers nearby wetlands, reservoirs 1. Availability of resource materials for fertilizer production 2.Willingness to produce organic manure at home garden level to improve soil conditions 3. Stakeholder willingness to treat effluent water before discharge in to natural waterways 4. Availability of lands for waste and effluent water disposal 5. Awareness about available technologies 6. Stakeholder willingness to participate for a community program to improve waste handling 1. Excessive and over use of agro chemicals 2. Waste open dumping sites and land fill areas which. generate methane 3. Effluent discharge in to streams without treatments 4. Negligence of environmental laws when disposing waste 5. Excess and over use of disposal sites 6. Uncontrolled industrial emissions 7. hazarders waste disposal sites 8. Water stagnation causing vector born epidemics 39

40 Annex 2 Slope and soil classification Figure 18: Slope and soil classification chart - Symbols for most intensive tillage or uses: C1 : Cultivable land 1, up to 7 slope, requiring no, or few intensive conservation measures, e.g. contour cultivation, strip cropping, vegetative barriers, rock barriers and in larger farms, broadbase terraces. C2 : Cultivable land 2, on slopes between 7 and 15, with moderately deep soils needing more intensive conservation, e.g. bench terracing, hexagon, convertible terracing for the convenience of four-wheel tractor farming. The conservation treatments can be done by medium-sized machines such as Bulldozer D5 or D6. 40

41 C3 : Cultivable land 3, 15 to 20, needing bench terracing, hexagons and convertible terracing on deep soil and hillside ditching, individual basin on less deep soils. Mechanization is limited to small tractor or walking tractor because of the steepness of the slope. Terracing can be done by a smaller tractor with 8 ft (2.5 m) wide blade. C4 : Cultivable land 4, 20 to 25, all the necessary treatments are likely to be done by manual labour. Cultivation is to be practised by walking tractor and hand labour. P : Pasture, improved and managed. Where the slope is approaching 25, and when the land is to wet, zero grazing should be practised. Rotational grazing is recommended for all kinds of slopes. FT : For food trees or fruit trees. On slopes of 25 to 30, orchard terracing is the main treatment supplemented with contour planting, diversion ditching and mulching. Because of steepness of the slopes, interspaces should be kept in permanent grass cover. F : Forest land, slopes over 30, or 25 to 30 where the soil is too shallow for any of the above-mentioned conservation structures. (a) Slope classification Slopes are divided into six categories, each having its implications for conservation treatments and the kind of tools to be used: < 7 Flat to gently sloping. Broadbase terraces or other simple conservation treatments can be used up to 7. Full mechanization for cultivation is applicable in this category. This slope class may not be common in hilly watersheds Moderately sloping. Medium-sized machines such as a Bulldozer D5 or D6 can be employed for bench terracing. Four wheel tractor mechanization for cultivation can be applied Strongly sloping. Small-sized machines such as b4 can be employed for conservation treatments. Small tractors, or walking tractors can be used for cultivation Very strongly sloping. Manual for building the structures Hand labour and walking tractor for cultivation Steep. Only for permanent tree crops such as food trees, fruit trees, forest or agroforestry. Manual labour for treatments. >30 Very steep. Needs forest cover. b) Soil depth 41

42 Soil depth is divided into four classes. Here the depth refers to the effective depth of the soil which machine or manual labour can cut for conservation treatments and which plant roots can penetrate. < 8 in Very shallow. Only on nearly level land can cultivation be (20 cm) practised in Shallow. Only below 20 slopes can this be cultivated with (20-50 cm) conservation treatments in Moderately deep. On a 25 slope, for instance, it needs about (50-90 cm) 30 in (76 cm) of soil to make narrow terraces of 8 ft (2.5 m) wide. > 36 in Deep. No further soil depth classification is needed because (90 cm) the riser or terrace is limited to 6 ft height which is 3 ft cut and 3 ft fill. Reference: HOW TO MEASURE DEGREES OF SLOPE - USING A PROTRACTOR Figure 19: Measuring degree of slope Slope angle could be measured using an inexpensive protractor, string and a small weight (in this case a ballpoint pen). 1. Attach the string to the protractor at the midpoint between the zero and 180 degree marks (the vertex of the angle). 42

43 2. Hang a small weight on the end of the string to make a plumb bob. The string should hang over the 90 degree mark when the protractor s flat edge is parallel to the ground. 3. To measure the slope angle from the top of the slope, put your eye by the zero degree mark and sight along the flat edge of the protractor toward the bottom of the hill. If you re at the bottom, put your eye at the 180 degree mark and look up toward the top. 4. Check the new angle where the string falls when the plumb bob is hanging straight down. 5. To get the slope measurement in degrees, subtract 90 degrees from the new vertical angle. In this example, the new angle is 120 degrees, so the slope angle is 30 degrees ( = 30). 6. If you look up from the bottom, slope will be (90-60 = 30). To be as accurate as possible, you should sight along the protractor s edge to a point the same height above ground as your eye. (Use a wooden pole having height equals to your eye site and ask somebody to hold it at the bottom of the slope and look at the top of the wooden pole through the protractor (as described in 3 rd paragraph). Over a long distance, this discrepancy won t matter much. Reference: 43

44 Annex 3 Soil erodibility Slope category Erosion hazard Critical slope length 0% - 7 % Low erosion hazard 300 feet 7% - 15 % Moderate erosion hazard 150 feet 15 % or over High erosion hazard 75 feet Reference: Low-Impact Development Design Strategies, An Integrated Design Approach, Prince George s County, Maryland, June

45 Annex 4 Soil Groups Soil properties influence the relationship between rainfall and runoff by affecting the rate of infiltration. Following table shows the four hydrologic soil groups based on infiltration rates (Groups A-D). Reference: Wijeratne. M.A, 1996, Vulnerability of Sri Lanka tea production to global climate change, Regional Workshop on Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation in Asia and the Pacific, Manila, PHILIPPINES (15/01/1996), vol. 92, n o 1-2 (253 p.) (19 ref.), pp Reference: K. Brand, 1993, Inventory of water pollution potentials in the Upper Mahaweli Watershed Project, Report for the maps of water pollution potentials around the Kothmale reservoir, Data registry, Planning and Monitoring Unit, Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka 45

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