Martin Pehnt, Martin Cames, Corinna Fischer, Barbara Praetorius, Lambert Schneider, Katja Schumacher, Jan-Peter Vofi

Transcription

1 Martin Pehnt, Martin Cames, Corinna Fischer, Barbara Praetorius, Lambert Schneider, Katja Schumacher, Jan-Peter Vofi Micro Cogeneration Towards Decentralized Energy Systems With Contributions by Michael Colijn, Jeremy Harrison, Yasushi Santo, Jon Slowe, and Sylvia Westermann With 59 Figures SOF J Sozialokologische Forschung Springer

2 Contents Contents Introduction V XI 1 Micro Cogeneration Technology Defining Micro Cogeneration Conversion Technologies Reciprocating Engines Stirling Engines Fuel Cells Other Technologies Grid Integration, Communication Technology, and Virtual Power Plants Summary of Technologies 16 2 Dynamics of Socio-Technical Change: Micro Cogeneration in Energy System Transformation Scenarios Introduction Driving and Embedded: Micro Cogeneration and the Dynamics of Socio-Technical Change Pluralism of Prophecies: Scenarios of Transformation in Electricity Systems Types of Energy Scenarios Forecasting Technology Foresight Policy Scenarios Explorative Scenarios Conclusions 45 3 The Future Heating Market and the Potential for Micro Cogeneration Current Situation of Micro Cogeneration in Germany Demand Drivers in the Heat Market The Technical Micro Cogeneration Potential: Scenarios for Germany Future Heat Demand in the Residential Sector 58

3 VI Future Heating Supply in the Residential Sector 61 4 Economics of Micro Cogeneration Micro Cogeneration Technologies Reference Buildings Heat and Electricity Supply Scenarios Economic Parameters Energy Prices and Subsidies Economic Losses or Benefits for Distribution Network Operators Economic Perspectives of Different Operators Micro Cogeneration Electricity Generation Costs Economic Performance of Micro Cogeneration in Different Buildings Independent Operators' Perspective Perspective of Vertically Integrated Utilities Societal Perspective Conclusions 85 5 Environmental Impacts of Micro Cogeneration Life Cycle Assessment of Micro Cogeneration Considering the Co-product Input Data for Micro Cogeneration Systems, Fuels, and Conventional Power Plants Impact Assessment Results of the Life Cycle Assessment Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction of Natural Gas Micro Cogeneration Pollutant Emissions Local Impacts from Air Pollutant Releases From Gas to Renewables: Other Micro Cogeneration Fuels Beyond the Single Micro Cogeneration Unit Avoided Grid Losses Connecting Micro Cogeneration to Create Virtual Power Plants Indirect Ecological Impacts through User Behavior Ill 5.4 Conclusions From Consumers to Operators: the Role of Micro Cogeneration Users 117

4 Contents VII 6.1 Data and Literature Socio-demographic Characteristics Attitudes Political Attitudes Technology Attitudes Environmental and Energy Attitudes Conclusions on Attitudes Motives, Goals, and Interests Reasons for Considering Fuel Cell Micro Cogeneration Requirements for Home Energy Supply Micro Cogeneration Technologies in Comparison The Pioneers as Multipliers Uncertainty as a Barrier Summary and Conclusions: Pioneers for Promoting Micro Cogeneration Micro Cogeneration - Setting of an Emerging Market A Changing Environment for Micro Cogeneration Energy Prices The Electricity Market The Gas Market Tackling High Transaction Costs and Small Margins The Actor's Perspective: Strategy, Motivation and Institutions Technology Developers Gas Supply Industry Large Electricity Companies Local Energy Companies Customers Energy Contracting and Service Companies Distribution Network Operators Incentives and Disincentives for Micro Cogeneration Institutional Framework and Innovation Policy for Micro Cogeneration in Germany Institutional Structures Liberalization of Electricity Markets and Grid Access Energy Taxation Combined Heat and Power Law European CHP Directive Energy-Saving Decree Emissions Trading Local Air-Emissions Standards 186

5 VIII Institutional Barriers Institutional Framework: Discrepancy Between Formal Rules and Actual Effects Innovation Policy Status of Micro Cogeneration in Policy Strategies Research and Development Investment Subsidies for Energy Efficiency Promotional Networks Informational Measures Innovation Policy: Overshadowed by Large CHP, Outshone by Fuel Cells Embedding Micro Cogeneration in the Energy Supply System Challenges to Security of Energy Supply Potential Impacts of Micro Cogeneration Embedding Micro Cogeneration in the Electricity Network Equipment Capacity Voltage Variations Protection Issues Voltage and Current Transients Transmission and Distribution Losses Ancillary Services and Impacts on Peak Loads Perspectives for Using Renewable Fuels Conclusions The Micro Cogeneration Operator: A Report from Practical Experience Starting Situation Options of Operating a Micro Cogeneration Unit Practical Experiences with the Concrete Operation of Micro Cogeneration Practical Experiences with the Regulatory Framework Public Acceptance Conclusions Micro Cogeneration in North America Micro Cogeneration Status in North America Previous Attempts to Develop Micro Cogeneration The Market Today U.S. Department of Energy Action Framework for Micro Cogeneration 234

6 Contents IX Heating and Cooling Markets Electricity Industry Micro Cogeneration Policy and Incentives U.S. Department of Energy Micro Cogeneration Policy Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance U.S. Cogeneration Policy Net Metering State-level Incentives Development of Micro Cogeneration Products in the U.S Conclusions Micro Cogeneration in Britain Political and Economic Framework UK Energy Policy Implementation of Policy Support Measures Independent Bodies and Lobbying Activity Current Issues Legislation and Regulation Energy Prices Market Context Housing Stock and Energy Use Climate Heating Systems Boiler Market Technology Developments Major Commercial Activities and Actors in the Country UK Energy Industry Structure Routes to Market Market Status Micro Cogeneration in Japan The Energy Situation of Japan Primary Energy Supply and Power Generation Electric and Gas Utilities Energy Market Deregulation The Reciprocating Engine Micro Cogeneration Market in Japan Micro Cogeneration for Commercial Use Micro Cogeneration for Residential Use Development Initiatives Prospects for Gas Engine Micro Cogeneration in Japan.273

7 X 13.3 Fuel Cell Development Conclusions Micro Cogeneration in the Netherlands Introduction Potential Micro Cogeneration Developers in the Market Micro Cogeneration Developers Trialling Other Developers Manufacturers Gasunie Electricity Utilities Projects Government Actions Energy Transition Eco Innovation Regulations Right to Connect Fit & Inform Meter Changes Feed-In Tariff Certification Expectations Summary and Conclusions Towards a Decentralized Energy Supply: Summary International Experience Conclusions References, Links, Authors and Abbreviations References Internet Links The Authors Abbreviations 340