Water Resources And Water Consumption Pattern In Saudi Arabia

Transcription

1 Water Resources And Water Consumption Pattern In Saudi Arabia Shakhawat Chowdhury *, Muhammad Al-Zahrani * Department of Civil Engineering, Water Research Group, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; Tel: ; Fax: SChowdhury@kfupm.edu.sa Abstract Rapid growth of population, limited water reserves, insufficient recharge and extensive agricultural and landscaping activities have increased pressure on the water resources in Saudi Arabia. Understanding of water resources and trends of water consumptions is important to offer sustainable water resources management strategy. In this research, water resources and trends of water consumptions in Saudi Arabia were investigated. The nonrenewable ground water reserves were estimated to be billion cubic meters (BCM) with an effective annual recharge of 886 million cubic meters (MCM). The total internal renewable water was estimated to be 2.4 BCM/year. Approximately 1.4 BCM/year of runoff is stored by 302 dams across Saudi Arabia, from which MCM is recharged to the shallow aquifers, MCM is used for drinking and 51.5 MCM is for agriculture. The country produces approximately 1.06 BCM desalinated water annually, which is blended with groundwater for domestic water supplies. The wastewater treatment plants treat approximately 0.58 BCM/year domestic wastewater from which 0.33 BCM is recycled. The total water demand in 2009 was BCM in which 83.5% were used for agriculture. From 2004 to 2009, agricultural water demand was decreased by 2.5%/year (17530 MCM to MCM), while the domestic and industrial water demands were increased by 2.1%/year and 2.2%/year, respectively. Between 1999 and 2008, domestic water subscribers were increased by 22.7%, while the annual domestic water consumption was increased from 1391 ( ) to 3818 ( ) m 3 /subscriber (274%). The industrial water demands were increased from 56 MCM/year in 1980 to 713 MCM/year in Following characterization, nonlinear equations were developed to predict the domestic, industrial and agricultural water demands. The predicted water demands were within 1-10% of the historically reported values. The findings of this study might be useful in understanding the water sources, water demands and identifying new sources for sustainable water resources management. Keywords: Water resources, water availability, water consumption, water management, Saudi Arabia. Page67

2 Introduction The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in an arid region, which have relatively low average annual rainfall (114 mm/year) [1]. The Kingdom has an oil based economy, covering approximately 90% of foreign export earnings, which has accelerated a comprehensive development coupled with population growth and living standards [2-3]. The population has increased from 6.9 million to 26 million in 39 years (1972 to 2011), resulting in significant increase of water use [4]. The total water consumptions in 1990, 1992, 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2009 were reported to be approximately 27000, 31500, 18500, 20500, and million cubic meter (MCM), respectively [5-7]. The high water demands in the early 1990s were due to extensive agricultural activities during these periods; the agricultural water demands represented 83%, 90%, 83%, 89%, 86% and 83% of the total water demands in these years, respectively. To address the water issue, Saudi Arabia has adopted a strategy to reduce agricultural water demands by reducing agricultural productions and/or by introducing advanced irrigation techniques, which has resulted in 2.5%/year reduction in irrigation water demands in the period 2004 and 2009 [7]. Conversely, the domestic and industrial water demands were increased by 2.1% and 2.2%/year, respectively, during this period [7]. The water demands in the Kingdom are satisfied by the non-renewable groundwater sources, renewable surface and groundwater sources, desalinated water and treated wastewater, in which the non-renewable groundwater sources supply the most, followed by the renewable surface and groundwater sources, desalinated water and treated wastewater [7]. The source specific data show that the supplies from renewable surface and groundwater sources were increased from 5410 MCM in 2004 to 5541 MCM in 2009 (0.5%/year increase). The nonrenewable groundwater supplied approximately MCM and MCM water in 2004 and 2009, respectively (3.1% decrease/year). The desalinated water supplied approximately 1070 MCM and 1048 MCM water in 2004 and 2009, respectively (0.4% decrease/year). Use of treated wastewater was increased from 260 MCM to 325 MCM during this period [7]. The available water sources are limited in Saudi Arabia, which can be further affected by the impacts of climatic change [8]; a recent study has indicated that the reference evapotranspiration could increase from m/year to m/year from 2011 to The loss of soil moisture was estimated to be m/year (0.042 m/year m/year) during this period. Increase in temperature was estimated to be 1.8 C 4.1 C during this period, which could raise agricultural water demands by 5% 15% to maintain the current level of agricultural productions. To develop a sustainable water resources management strategy, it is important that the available water sources are characterized, trends of water uses are identified and possible new sources of water are investigated. In this research, available water sources, current water demands and trends of water uses are investigated, and predictive equations were developed to assess future water demands. Possibility of developing new sources for water has been investigated. Finally, an approach to obtain sustainability in water resources has been outlined. Page68

3 Resource Characterization Non-renewable ground water sources In Saudi Arabia, the shallow alluvial and deep rock aquifers are the two major sources of groundwater. The deep rock aquifers are sedimentary in origin, usually sandstone and limestone, extending over thousands of square kilometers with poor natural recharge through upland and foothill zones where the rocks have surface outcrops. These aquifers include the major formations of Saq, Tabuk, Wajid, Minjur-Dhurma, Biyadh-Wasia, Umm er Radhuma and Dammam, which are known as the principal aquifers [9-10]. The groundwater in these aquifers is non-renewable or fossil water, which was formed approximately 10 to 32 thousand years ago [11]. This fossil groundwater is confined in sand and limestone formations of a thickness of about 300 m and are located at a depth of m. Most of the fossil groundwater in Saudi Arabia is stored in the principal aquifers in the eastern and central parts of the country (Figure 1). Past studies have reported variable amounts of fossil water reserves in Saudi Arabia. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that the groundwater reserves were BCM as the proven resource, while the probable and possible reserves were estimated to be 405 BCM and 705 BCM, respectively [1]. Abderrahman [5] reported groundwater reserves of 2185 BCM to a depth of 300 m from the ground surface. The Ministry of Planning reported that the groundwater reserves were approximately 338 BCM with a probable reserves reaching to 500 BCM (noted in [1]). The natural recharge to these aquifers is approximately 1.28 BCM per year [9], while approximately 394 MCM/year of water drains out from Saudi Arabia to Jordan (180 MCM), Bahrain (112 MCM), Iraq (80 MCM), Kuwait (20 MCM) and Qatar (2 MCM). Using the data from the Water Atlas and Ministry of Planning [9-10,12], the proven, probable and possible groundwater storage are presented in Table 1. The proven, probable and possible groundwater water reserves in the major aquifers are 259.1, and BCM, respectively [10-12]. The estimated reserves were based on the data from 1984 [9]. However, a previous study indicated that approximately BCM groundwater was used from the principal aquifers between 1984 and 1996 [10]. Figure 1. Principal aquifers for groundwater in Saudi Arabia Page69

4 Table 1. Fossil groundwater in Saudi Arabia (a: proven; b: probable; c: possible) [10,12] Aquifer Depth Water Quality Reserve (BCM) a b c Saq Thickness: m Moderately mineralized: TDS <1000 ppm Wajid Thickness m TDS < 1000 ppm Tabuk Thickness: ~1070 m TDS: ppm (Tabuk); ppm (E); ppm (N) Minjur/ Dhurma Depth: m Salinity increases with depth: TDS: Thickness: Minjur: ppm m; Dhurma: m Wasia-Biyadh Biyadh: m thick. Dissolved solids: ~ 150,000 ppm Wasia: m thick. Umm er Radhuma Depth: m Heavily mineralized Dammam-Neogene Depth: m Dissolved solids: < 1000 ppm Some aquifers showed significant drops in their water levels. For example, the piezometric level in Minjur aquifer reduced from 45 m to 170 m below surface between 1956 and 1980 [13]. The water level in the Wasia aquifer declined at well M1-1-W from +131 m above the land surface in 1978 to +125 m above land surface in 1982, a net decline of 6 m in water level during four years [11]. During the past 15 years (1996 to 2011), it is likely that significant amount of groundwater from the remaining reserves have been extracted and/or drained out from the Saudi Arabian aquifers [1]. The data in the Ninth Development Plan show that the withdrawals of groundwater from the non-renewable sources were 13.5 BCM and 11.6 BCM in the year 2004 and 2009, respectively [7]. Abdurrahman [5-6] reported that groundwater withdrawals were 24.5, 28.6 and 15.4 BCM in 1990, 1992 and 1997, respectively. At these rates of extraction, the available reserves may not last for a long time. It is important that the currently available economically viable reserves in these aquifers and their yields be better understood. Renewable surface and groundwater sources The source of surface water in Saudi Arabia is the seasonal precipitation. The largest quantity of runoff occurs in the western region, which represents approximately 60% of the total runoff although it covers only 10% of the total area of the country [1]. The remaining 40% of the runoff occurs in the far south of the western coast (Tahama), which covers 2% of the total area [1]. The total runoff in Saudi Arabia has been estimated to be 2.2 BCM/year [5], most of which infiltrates to recharge the shallow alluvial aquifers located along the river valleys and beneath the alluvial fans and plains in various areas. These aquifers are generally unconfined, small in area and have water tables that respond rapidly to local precipitation conditions. Some of the shallow aquifers are Khuf, Tuwail, Aruma, Jauf, Sakaka and Jilh in basalt and alluvial areas. The shallow aquifers have been tapped for years. In most of the shallow aquifers, water is being used at a much faster rate than these can be replenished [10]. An example of these shallow aquifers is the Jubaylah aquifer in Riyadh, which is about m thick, where many water wells (e.g., city wells) were suspended due to falling water levels [10]. To facilitate the storage and recharge of surface runoff, a total of 302 dams in the country where build. These store about 1.4 BCM of surface runoff annually [7]. Among these, 275 dams are used for groundwater recharge and control, which recharge about MCM/year water (Table 2). A total of 25 dams stores MCM water annually for drinking purposes, Page70

5 while 2 dams are used to store 51.5 MCM water annually for agricultural purposes (Table 2). Some of the major dams are King Fahd dam in the Asir (capacity: 325 MCM), Wadi Abha in the Asir (capacity: 213 MCM), Rabigh dam in Makkah (capacity: MCM) and Bish dam in Jizan (capacity: MCM). Details on the dams are available in literature [14]. The total internal renewable water resources are estimated at about 2.4 BCM/year [1]. The Kingdom has low average annual rainfall [5,8]. In the north, annual rainfall varies between < mm. However, in the south, 500 mm/year rainfall is not uncommon [1]. The long term average of rainfall across the country was estimated to be about 114 mm/year [1]. The country has an area of 2,149,690 km 2, which results in approximately 245 BCM rainfalls annually [1]. However, most of the rainfall occurs in the west, south and south-western parts, which cover less than 13% of the total area [1]. Currently (year??), the total freshwater requirement in Saudi Arabia is approximately 20 BCM/year [7,15]. The rainfall in the west, south and south-westerns parts can provide an opportunity to harvest rainwater, leading to substantial support toward achieving sustainability in water resources. Table 2. Summary of the dams and their storage across Saudi Arabia (MCM/year) [14-15,17] Storage Control Drinking Irrigation Province Dams Capacity Dams Capacity Dams Capacity Dams Capacity Riyadh Makkah Madina Asir Jazan Najran Baha Qassim Tabuk Hail Northern borders Jouf 4 Column Total Desalinated water Desalination of sea water has been practiced in many countries. Saudi Arabia produced 7.65 MCM desalinated water in 1980 [16]. In 31 years ( ), the Kingdom has 30 desalination plants in operation along the coasts of the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, producing the largest amount of desalinated waters in the world [7]. The Ninth Development Plan of the Ministry of Economy and Planning (MOEP) reported that the Kingdom produced approximately 1070 and 1048 MCM of desalinated water in 2004 and 2009, respectively [7]. This reflects a 0.4%/year decrease in desalinated water. The annual report of the Ministry of Water and Electricity (MOWE) shows that the desalinated water supply was MCM/year for the year?2008? [15]. The plant specific production, desalination approaches, commissioning dates and design lives are presented in Table 3 [16]. The total production of desalinated water was MCM in 2009 [16]. Table 3 shows that the design lives of thirteen plants have already been expired. For example, the Jubail 2 plant, which produces the largest amount of desalinated water (297.5 MCM/year), was commissioned in 1983 with a design life of 25 years (Table 3). To produce more desalinated Page71

6 water, two new plants are being constructed in Jeddah and Ras Al-Zor, and there is a plan to construct more plants in the near future [16]. The plants use different approaches for desalination: First Stage, Second Stage, Third Stage, Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Multi-effect (MED) respectively [16]. These plants also produce approximately 3355 MW electricity/year (Table 3). Desalinated waters are mainly used for domestic purposes in the major cities (Riyadh, Madina, Mecca, Jeddah, etc.). Among these cities, Riyadh, Makkah, Madina and Eastern province consume approximately 90% of the desalinated water. The desalinated water is generally blended with the groundwater prior to supply to the consumers. Overall, desalinated water supplies approximately 50% of the domestic water needs in the country (~1000 MCM/year), while remaining demands are satisfied from the non-renewable groundwater sources [15]. Plant Table 3. Summary of desalination plants in Saudi Arabia [16] Supply Plant total Commission (MCM) Service Area (MCM)/yr /yr date End of Elec. life (MW) Stage Jubail Riyadh, Jubail, Jubail Naval base st * Jubail and Royal Commission in Jubail nd * Jubail RO Riyadh, Qassim, Sudair RO Khobar 2 70 Khobar, Dammam, Qatif, Dhahran nd * Khobar airport, Saihat, R. Tanura, Hofuf rd Khafji Res Al-Khafji nd * Jeddah rd * Jeddah Jeddah th * Jeddah RO RO Jeddah RO RO Shoaiba 1 70 Makkah and Taif st Shoaiba Makkah, Jeddah and Taif nd Yanbu Yanbu, Medina and nearby st * Yanbu villages nd Yanbu RO RO Shoqaia Abha / Khais Mushait, Rafidah, 1989 military city, nearby villages st Haql RO Field and nearby villages nd Duba RO Duba and nearby villages rd AlWajih Face and nearby villages rd, MED + Umlujj RO Trowel RO * Umlujj Trowel and its villages rd, MED Rabigh Rabigh and nearby villages st * Rabigh Trns Rabigh and nearby villages RD * Rabigh Rabigh, covert, Thule nd, MED Alazizia Island Azizia st Albirk RO Ponds and nearby villages st, RO * Farasan Knights Island st * Farasan Trns Knights Island RD * Laith Laith st, MED Al-Qunfutha Qunfudah, Al-Quoz-Costume st, MED (*) Design life expired; RO: Reverse Osmosis; MED: Multi-effect; RD: Redeployed Treated wastewater Application of treated wastewater is in practice in many countries [1]. Treated wastewater (TWW) is generally used for agriculture, landscaping and industries. Saudi Arabia has been using a fraction of TWW in agriculture and industries. Wastewater is treated in sewage Page72

7 treatment plants (STP) distributed across the country. Following treatment, a fraction of the TWW is recycled for reuse while the remaining is discharged into water bodies (e.g., Arabian Gulf or Red Sea) or into empty wadies. Previous studies [5] reported that TWW effluents were 110, 185 and 185 MCM in 1990, 1992 and 1997, respectively. Elhadj [3] reported that about 475 MCM/year of wastewater was treated in Saudi Arabia. The FAO data showed that about MCM wastewater was treated in 2002 [1]. Generation of wastewater was higher than the TWW. For example, the generation of wastewater in 2000 was reported to be 730 MCM [1]. The plant specific TWW volume, the treatment types and disposal methods for some major STP are summarized in Table 4. The data shows that the annual wastewater treatment capacity of these plants is approximately MCM/year, while these plants treated approximately MCM/year. Among these plants, two plants in Riyadh (Riyadh North and South) treated approximately 146 MCM/year [3]. Table 4 shows that significant fractions of the TWW from many STP are discharged into the Wadi, lagoons, the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf. The FAO data shows that about 166 MCM of TWW was reused in 2006 [1]. However, the Ninth Development Plan of the MOEP reported that the total reclaimed TWW (including agricultural wastewater) were 300 and 347 MCM in 2004 and 2009, respectively, which represented an increase of 3.1%/year [7]. The MOWE reported that the per capita domestic water consumption is approximately 226 L/day [15]. The total population in Saudi Arabia is 26 millions [4], requiring approximately MCM/year of domestic water. Assuming the coefficient for wastewater generation of 0.7, then approximately 1500 MCM/year of domestic wastewater is likely to be generated [15]. This indicates that approximately 37.8% of the wastewater is collected for treatment by the STP. Significant fraction of the remaining wastewater is likely to be discharged into the natural system without or with minimal treatment. Consequently, there is a risk of contamination of the groundwater aquifers, which can be reduced by reducing the discharges of wastewater. On the other hand, reuse of TWW must satisfy certain regulatory criteria to prevent microbial infections [18-19]. Human exposure to contaminants from TWW can occur through direct and indirect pathways [20-21]. To minimize such risks, wastewaters are treated to secondary and/or tertiary levels prior to reuse. In the secondary treatment, TWW typically have MPN (most probable number) fecal Coliform/100 ml water, while the tertiary treatment produces effluent of 1-7 MPN fecal Coliform/100 ml [22]. Saudi Arabia follows stringent regulation that requires tertiary treatment to reuse wastewater effluent. Table 4. Summary of major wastewater treatment plants in Saudi Arabia Sl. City Plant Name Design (m 3 /day) Treatment Scheme Actual (m 3 /day) Disposal 1 Buraidah Buraidah FP+MP To sand dunes 2 Unaizah Unaizah 7080 AL 9900 To Wadi 3 Al-Kharj Al-Kharj AL+SF To Wadi 4 Qatif Sanabis stage FP Gulf 5 Qatif Ges h stage FP Gulf 6 Qatif Awamia stage FP Gulf 7 Qatif Qatif OD Gulf + L.I. 8 Al-Hasaa Oyoon stage FP To Lagoon 9 Al-Hasaa Emran stage FP To Lagoon 10 Al-Hasaa Hufuf-Mubarraz stage FP To Lagoon Page73

8 11 Khafji Khafji stage FP 5190 Gulf 12 Jeddah Al-Khomra TF (stone) Red Sea 13 Jeddah Plant C PCS L.I. + Lagoon 14 Jeddah Plant A PCS L.I. + Red Sea 15 Jeddah Bani Malik 8000 PCS 6500 L.I. mostly 16 Jeddah Al-Jamia 8000 PCS 7000 Red Sea + L.I. 17 Jeddah Tertiary (Al-Khomra) TF+O+C+SF+RO Red Sea L.I. 18 Jeddah Al-Iskan 3000 AS 3, Makkah Old plant TF (stone) Wadi +A.I. 19 Makkah New 50,000 PF+AC+NDN 20 Riyadh Al-Hayer old (South) 200,000 TF + PL+ASD 200,000 Wadi + A.I.+Ref. 21 Riyadh Al-Hayer new (North) AS + NDN+F Wadi + A.I.+Ref. 22 Riyadh Refinery C+F+RO+IE KSU KSU Plant 8000 Settling, TF 8000 L.S. + power plant 24 Riyadh Diplomatic Quarter 9300 Screening, AS 9500 L.I. 25 Dammam Dammam OD Gulf + L.I. 26 Al-Khobar Al-Khobar OD Gulf 27 Madinah New AS Wadi + L.I. + A.I. 28 Safwa Safwa 7570 CM 8600 Gulf 29 Khamis-Mushait Al-Dhoba 7500 OD 10,000 Wadi + L.I. + A.I. 30 Abha Abha 9000 Aeration Wadi 31 Taif Taif AS+NDN+F+ACF L.I. + A.I. 32 Jubail Jubail Industrial city Tertiary A.I. 33 Saihat Saihat Secondary Aramco 9 plants Saudi Aramco Variable A.I. + Sea L.I.: Landscape irrigation; A.I.: Agricultural irrigation; Ref: Refinery; FP: Facultative ponds; MP: Maturation ponds; AS: Activated sludge; TF: Trickling filters; SF: Sand filters; RO: Reverse osmosis; IE: Ion exchange; OD: Oxidation ditch; PCS: Package contact stabilization; AL: Aerated lagoons; O: Ozonation; C: Clarification; NDN: Nitrification-Denitrification; PL: Polishing lagoons; ASD: Anaerobic sludge digestion; F: Filtration; CM: Completely mixed; ACF: Activated carbon filters: PF: Plug flow Trends of Water Consumption Domestic water demand Saudi Arabia has a relatively high population growth rate [4,23]. The population has increased from 6.9 million to 26 million from 1972 to 2011 [4,24]. The population increase coupled with improved lifestyle has increased the domestic water demands significantly. The MOEP reported that the domestic water demands in 2004 and 2009 were 2100 and 2330 MCM, respectively, reflecting an average increase of 2.1%/year [7]. The FAO reported that the domestic water demand in 2006 was 2130 MCM [1]. The Saudi Statistical Year Book (SSYB) presented the water demands based on the total number of subscribers in different regions [2]. The total number of subscribers to the municipal water systems increased from to (22.7% increase) between 1999 and 2008 [2]. Using data from the SSYB, the growth of subscribers for the entire country can be approximated as: Log ( Ys ) Co K( X 1) (1) 10 Where, Y s = number of subscribers at X years from 1999; C = coefficient of Equation 1 (e.g., for Saudi Arabia); K = slope of Equation 1 ( for Saudi Arabia); X = no. of years after The R 2 of Equation 1 was Page74

9 In 1999, average water consumption per subscriber was 1391 m 3 ( m 3 )/year. In 2008, average water consumption per subscriber was increased to m 3 ( m 3 )/year. To predict the per capita consumption in 1999 and 2008, the subscribers were compared with the populations. In 1999 and 2008, total populations in Saudi Arabia were estimated to be and million, respectively [4,23-24]. The persons per subscriber was in 1999, which was increased to in 2008 (0.7%/year) [2,23]. The increase in persons/subscriber can be approximated as: P X P ( 1 rx) (2) o Where, P X = persons per subscriber at X years from 1999; P = persons per subscriber in 1999 (e.g., persons/subscriber for Saudi Arabia); r = rate of increase per year (e.g., 0.007/year for Saudi Arabia); X = number of years after The R 2 value for Equation 2 was Equations (1) and (2) represent the generalized forms of predicting subscribers and persons per subscriber for the entire country. The parameters for Equations (1) and (2) to predict the domestic water demands on regional basis are presented in Table 5. Following the predictions of subscribers and persons/subscriber, water demands can be predicted as: WD DOM W P Y (3) USE X s Where, WD DOM = domestic water demands (m 3 /year); W USE = water demands per person per year (m 3 ); P X = number of persons/subscriber in year X after 1999; Y s = number of subscribers for that year. To estimate W USE, historical rate of domestic water use has been considered. Elhadj [3] reported that the per capita water use was approximately 250 liter per capita per day (LPCD). The MOWE reported that the average use of domestic water in 2009 was 226 LPCD [15]. The SSYB presented the consumption of municipal water per subscriber as m 3 and m 3 in 1999 and 2008, respectively [2]. These data showed that the use of municipal water was approximately and LPCD in 1999 and 2008, respectively. The overall average use of municipal water between 1999 and 2008 was estimated to be LPCD, while the averages for different regions varied in the range of LPCD [2]. The minimum use of domestic water was m 3 /subscriber (50.2 LPCD) in Taif in 2001 and the maximum use of domestic water was m 3 per subscriber (629.5 LPCD) in Dammam in 2007 [2]. Using Equations (1-3) and the per capita water use of 219 LPCD (W USE ), domestic water demands were predicted from 2012 through The results are presented in Figure 2. Page75

10 Table 5. Equations for predicting domestic water demands Equations State/Country Parameter values R 2 Saudi Arabia [C = 5.817; K = ]; [P = 31.08; r = 0.007] 0.89; 0.76 Qasim [C = 4.654; K = 0.020]; [P = 28.02; r = 0.005] 0.98;0.66 Asir [C = 4.172; K = 0.012]; [P = 34.7; r = 0.004] 0.94;0.67 Al-Khobar [C = 4.384; K = 0.016]; [P = 27.34; r = 0.009] 0.69;0.62 Dammam [C Log10 Y s = 4.57; K = 0.014]; [P = 28.06; r = 0.006] 0.98;0.81 C KX Taif [C = 4.569; K = 0.008]; [P = 33.2; r = 0.006] 0.96;0.73 P X P 1 rx Makkah* [C = 4.773; K = 0.007]; [P = 30.3; r = 0.015] 0.96*;0.72 Yanbu [C = 3.899; K = 0.016]; [P = 34.7; r = 0.009] 0.86;0.66 Madinah [C = 4.699; K = 0.008]; [P = 29.08; r = 0.011] 0.63;0.62 Jeddah [C = 5.133; K = 0.008]; [P = 30.3; r = 0.012] 0.81;0.57 Riyadh [C = 5.384; K = 0.013]; [P = 29.8; r = 0.009] 0.89;0.74 *X should be replaced by (X-1) Equations (1-3) have predicted the domestic water demands for 2004 and 2009 as 1966 and 2307 MCM, respectively (Figure 2). In these years, actual water demands were 2100 and 2330 MCM, respectively [7]. The predicted demands are fairly consistent with the actual demands (1% 6.4% variation). Furthermore, the MOEP estimated the domestic demands as 2583 MCM in 2014 [7]. Equations (1-3) have predicted the domestic water demands in 2014 as 2704 MCM, which is 4.5% more than the MOEP estimates (Figure 2) [7]. For the year 2020, the domestic water demand was predicted to be 3268 MCM (Figure 2). At this year, total number of subscribers is predicted to be million for the entire country (Figure 2) and persons/subscriber is estimated to be To predict the domestic water demands for different provinces, Equations (1-3) and the coefficients in Table 5 can be used. S: x000; WD: MCM S WD Year Figure 2. Domestic water demands in Saudi Arabia (error bars show the Std. Dev; S: Subscribers in thousands; WD: Water demands in MCM; dotted lines for future forecast) Industrial water demand The industrial water demands in Saudi Arabia are less than half of the domestic water demands [7]. The industrial demands were 56 MCM/year in 1980 [6]. The FAO reported that the industrial demand was approximately 710 MCM in 2006 [1]. In 2009, this demand was reported to be 713 MCM/year [7]. The MOEP reported that the industrial demand increased Page76

11 by 2.2%/year between 2004 and However, for the period , the growth in industrial water demand was estimated to be 5.5%/year, leading to probable industrial water demands of 930 MCM/year in 2014 [7]. Using the long term industrial water consumption data ( ), the trend of water use has been characterized using the power law equations as: IND b WD a ( Y 1) (4) Where, WD IND = water demands for industrial purpose (MCM/year); a = (range: as the 95 percentile C.I. value); b = 0.43 (range: as the 95 percentile C.I. value); Y = year after Equation (4) was applied to predict the industrial water demands. The predicted demands were compared with the reported demands. These are shown in Figure 3. The predicted demands are in agreement with the actual demands (Figure 3). For example, actual industrial water demand in 2000 was 550 MCM/year [6], while the predicted water demand was ( ) MCM/year (9.9% inflated). In 2006, the reported industrial demand was 710 MCM/ year [1], while the predicted water demand was ( ) MCM/year (6.0% inflated). For 2014, industrial demand was forecasted to be 930 MCM/ year by the MOEP [7], while the forecast by Equation (4) was ( ) MCM/year (2.7% lower). This study predicts the industrial water demand as 1000 MCM/year (range: ) in WD-Ind (MCM/Year) Avg X+1 (X: Year after 1992) Figure 3. Industrial water demands in Saudi Arabia (Avg: Mean demands; Min: Minimum demands; Max: Maximum demands; Actual: The historical water demands) Agricultural water demand The agricultural water demands depend on the extent of agriculture, crops and type of irrigations. In Saudi Arabia, the cultivable land was estimated to be 52.7 million hectares (Mha) [1]. In 1971, total cultivated land was less than 0.4 Mha [25]. In 1992, the cultivated land was expanded to about 1.62 Mha [25]. The SSYB reported that the total cultivated lands Page77

12 were 1.11, 1.07 and 1.07 Mha in 2005, 2006 and 2007, respectively [2]. Most of these lands were used for wheat, fodder crops, fruits, dates and vegetables productions [2]. For example, 0.489, and Mha land area was used for wheat productions in 2005, 2006 and 2007, respectively [2]. Different types of crops (wheat, fodder crops, barley, dates, vegetables, fruits, etc.) are produced through various irrigation practices [1]. Water demands are significantly different among various crops and types of irrigations [10]. For example, 1 ha land for wheat production requires about m 3 water, while the same area for dates production requires about 9100 m 3 water [10]. Generally, the water demands vary in the range of 9,100 39,000 m 3 per ha [10]. The agriculture sector is the largest consumer of water in Saudi Arabia, consuming more than 80% of the total water demands [5,7]. The historical data showed that agricultural water demand was 1850 MCM/year in 1980 [5]. In 1992, agricultural water demand reached MCM/year [5]. Since then, a policy has been taken to conserve water in the agricultural sector, which was reflected in reduction in water use in the following years. For example, the SSYB reported that the agricultural water demand was and MCM/year in 2004 and 2009, respectively, reflecting a decrease of 2.5%/year [7]. The MOEP has undertaken a plan to reduce the agricultural water demands to MCM/year in 2014, which will reduce the agricultural water by 3.7%/year [7]. Using past data, trend of agricultural water use has been characterized by the exponential relationship as: b( Z 1) WD a e (5) AGR Where, WD AGR = water demands for agriculture (MCM/year); a = (range: as the 95 percentile C.I. value); b = (range: as the 95 percentile C.I. value); Z = year after Equation (5) was applied to predict agricultural water demands. The differences between the MOEP [7] and predicted demands were between 1-6%. It is to be noted that the agricultural water demands can be significantly affected by the climatic change [26-27]. Studies have predicted the overall increase in temperature in the range of 1.8 C 4.1 C from 2011 to 2050, while an overall increase in the reference evapotranspiration was predicted to be 10.3% 27.4% [8]. A recent study showed that an increase in the temperature by 1 C may increase agricultural water demands by 2% 4% in Saudi Arabia [26]. Another study reported possible increase in agricultural water demands by 5% 15% by This implies that to maintain the current level of agriculture, water demands will be increased from X MCM/year to 1.05X 1.15X MCM/year [8]. In developing long term predictive models for agricultural water demands, it is essential that implications from various factors be adequately understood, including: i) policy on reducing agricultural crop productions in future; ii) implications of climatic change on agricultural water demands; iii) types of crops, effective area and crop specific water demands; and iv) irrigation practices. Sustainable Water Resources Management The data on water availability and water consumptions show that Saudi Arabia needs to act on sustainable water resources management. The available non-renewable and renewable water sources, desalinated water and treated wastewater may not be enough to satisfy the Page78

13 domestic, industrial and agricultural water demands in future. It is imperative that alternative resources be discovered. The options may include extensive desalination and importing water through channeling from other countries. However, feasibility of these options needs to be evaluated in context to regional political stability, cost, bilateral relationships and environmental impacts. In Saudi Arabia, a total of 30 desalination plants are already in operation, producing approximately 1 BCM of water annually [16]. It is important to know the number of new plants along with their capacities those can be supported in the coasts of the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf. Further, increasing the capacities of the existing plants is another option. However, the costs and environmental implications need to be evaluated in extensive expansion of desalination plants. Recently, Libya and China have started projects for water transportation from one region to another region within the country through channeling [28]. However, this option needs adequate water reserves and significant cost, which might not be feasible in Saudi Arabia. Any option using the locally available resources may be the most dependable one. Zuhair et al. [29] demonstrated that rainwater harvesting (RWH) can provide significant amount of freshwater in the Arabian Gulf States. Chowdhury and Al-Zahrani [8] showed that the averages of rainfall in the northern and southern parts of Saudi Arabia were 70.1 and mm/year, respectively, with the countrywide average of 125 mm/year [8]. The western and south-western regions of the country often have intense rainfall [1,8]. This may provide an opportunity to collect and store substantial amount of freshwater, which can be transported through channeling and/or pipelines [28]. In addition to the surface runoff, direct harvesting can be done through the employment of the residential rooftop collection systems. However, comprehensive investigation is warranted in context to water demands in various sectors, rainfall intensity and patterns, effective runoff, rooftop collection area and cost of water transportation and treatment prior to selecting this approach for sustainable water resources management. Conclusion and Recommendations This study characterized the water sources and water demands in various sectors in Saudi Arabia. The domestic and industrial water demands have been increasing, while the agricultural water demand has been decreasing. However, decrease in the agricultural water demands might be due to the policy of the country and/or advanced irrigation practices. If adequate water reserves can be ensured, this policy might be changed. Trends of water demands were investigated. Nonlinear equations were developed to predict water demands in various sectors. The equations predicted the water demands with reasonable accuracy. The available water resources and trends of water uses show that the country must act on sustainable water resources management through developing additional sources of water supplies. Among the few possibilities, rainwater harvesting can be the promising one. There is an immediate need to understand the overall water resources through comprehensive studies. Further, preventing water loss through the leakage in the water distribution networks can save significant amount of water. Understanding these factors is essential to achieve sustainable water resources management. Page79

14 Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM) for funding this work through project No. RG and RG References [1] FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), 2009, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figures. FAO Water Reports 34, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. [2] SSYB (Saudi Statistical Year Book), 2008, Water Consumption and Subscribers, Chapter 8. [3] Elhadj, E., 2004, Household water and sanitation services in Saudi Arabia: an analysis of economic, political and ecological issues. Occasional Paper 56, SOAS Water Research Group. [4] CIA, 2011, CIA Fact Book: At: [5] Abderrahman, W. A., 2000, Water demand management in Saudi Arabia. In: Farukui et al., eds., Water Management in Islam. The Int. Development Research Centre (IDRC), [6] Abderrahman, W. A., 2000, Water demand management and Islamic principles: A case study. Water Resources Development, 16(4): [7] MOEP (The Ministry of Economy and Planning), 2010, The Ninth Development Plan, KSA. [8] Chowdhury, S., and Al-Zahrani, M., 2011, Implications of climate change on water resources in Saudi Arabia. Arabian J. for Sci. and Eng. (In Press). [9] MOP (Ministry of Planning), 1985, Fourth Development Plan: , MOP, Riyadh. [10] FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), 1998, Proceedings of the Second Expert Consultation on National Water Policy Reform in the Near East, Cairo, Nov., [11] MAW (Ministry of Agriculture and Water), 1984, Water Atlas of Saudi Arabia, MAW, Riyadh. [12] Water Atlas, 1995, Water Atlas, Ministry of Water, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia [13] MAW (Ministry of Agriculture and Water), 1982, Census of Agriculture: , Riyadh. [14] MOWE (Ministry of Water and Electricity), 2011, Saudi Arabia: Dams. At: [15] MOWE (Ministry of Water and Electricity), 2009, Annual Report 2009, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. [16] SWCC (Saline Water Conversion Corporation), 2011, General Organization of Water Desalination. Available at: [17] Aquastat, 2011, Aquastat Geo-referenced Database of Dams in the Middle East. Available at: [18] Ayres, R. M., and Mara, D. D., 1996, Analysis of Wastewater for Use in Agriculture: A Laboratory Manual of Parasitological and Bacteriological Tech., World Health Organization Page80

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