Waste Recycling Policy

Transcription

1 International Conference on Solid Waste 2011 Moving Towards Sustainable Resource Management Waste Recycling Policy

2 THE INFORMAL RECYCLING MARKET IN ORMOC CITY, PHILIPPINES: EVALUATION OF OPTIONS TO ENHANCE RESOURCES RECOVERY AND TO REDUCE GHG EMISSIONS K. Hetz 1*, J.G. Paul 2, J.C. Alfaro 3, A. Lemke 1 1 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Philippines 2 GIZ-AHT, SWM4LGUs Project, Iloilo City, Philippines 3 Local Government of Ormoc City, Philippines * Corresponding author: karen_hetz@hotmail.com, Tel: ABSTRACT In many developing countries the informal sector significantly contributes to resources recovery and with that assists to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, an international agreed major target manifested within the Kyoto-Protocol. Besides resources recovery, GHG savings and their assessment are part of the presented study as well. Analyzing detailed waste generation and recycling market studies from Ormoc City/Philippines and by applying a GHG emission calculator developed by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), the presented paper closes knowledge gaps in the Philippines, where the importance of informal sector involvement for successful Solid Waste Management (SWM) is neglected respectively underestimated so far. Based on this research it is recommended to integrate the informal sector in SWM rather than excluding it during modernization of SWM systems. Examples of fruitful cooperation between public and informal sector are briefly introduced and further potentials for resource recovery and GHG savings are discussed. Keywords: Informal sector, Resources recovery, GHG emission reduction, Governance Introduction In many developing countries, the existing informal recycling sector (IRS) is a main actor to extract recyclables out of the waste stream. It recovers high quantities of recyclables due to a variety of comparative advantages [1]. Therefore, IRS contributes to resource efficiency and related direct and indirect savings of GHG in Solid Waste Management (SWM). Nevertheless, the mentioned effects are difficult to quantify and especially in the Philippines, no such data is available yet. It was therefore tried to get a first idea of the amount of recyclables that are recovered by actors of the informal sector. Furthermore, the GHG-calculator developed by GIZ and KfW-Entwicklungsbank was applied to get an estimate of the informal sectors contribution to the reduction of GHG in SWM. Options for further enhancements in these fields are briefly introduced. Materials and Methods The study took place in Ormoc City, a Local Government Unit (LGU) of 170,000 inhabitants and economic hub for interregional export of recyclables from Leyte and Samar Provinces to the Philippines main economic centres Manila and Cebu. The LGU Ormoc is partner to the German Development Cooperation in SWM since In Ormoc, a waste generation analysis of household waste accompanied by interviews of selected households regarding the handling of their recyclables was conducted with 100 households in 10/2010. Interviews with scrappers, waste pickers and junkshop operators followed, which allowed getting an insight in the spatial coverage of informal sector activities, material specialisations, traded quantities, material flow chains and business relationships. Also, formal waste collectors offered insights in the amounts and kinds of recyclables informally taken out by them during the City s waste collection along selected collection routes in 10/2010. Recovery rates of certain recyclables were determined based on the analysis of mentioned data collected. The recovery rates were later used as input for a GHG-calculator in order to quantify potential GHG savings achieved due to informal sector activities. The calculator was developed by IFEU Heidelberg on initiative of a KfW Entwicklungsbank and GIZ and financed by funds provided by German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). The results provide an estimate of direct and indirect savings of GHG using available data for treatment and recovery technics common in Germany. Further insight to the methodology is given in a manual [2]. In this case study, only the recovery of dry recyclables was considered since the IRS in Ormoc is not engaged in the recovery of bio-waste. 163

3 Results and Discussion Contribution of the Informal Recycling Sector to Resource Recovery through Recyclable Collection The collection of recyclables by the informal sector is a precondition for making recyclables hidden in residual waste available as secondary resources for further energetic or material use and thereby ensuring substitution and reduction effects. In Ormoc, three types of actors recover recyclables out of the waste stream. All of them can be categorised as informal: (1) Scrappers go from door-to-door and buy material from households in all districts of the city. In the city centre and along main highways, collection of residual waste is offered by the city. In these areas, (2) formally employed waste collectors extract recyclables from mixed household waste during collection. Since they do it without formal authorisation, it is regarded as informal activity. At the dumpsite (3) waste pickers search the mixed waste for recyclables. All mentioned groups sell their collected material to informal or semi-formal junk shops that provide the recovered material through a business chain of middlemen and wholesaler to industry, mainly outside the Philippines. The scrappers contribution of extracting recyclables is 20% of the total household waste generated, while waste pickers achieve a smaller share of 1-2% and the waste collectors a share below 1%. Beside the re-use of material by households no further extraction of recyclables by any other actor group is known in Ormoc. Resource recovery rates achieved by the IRS vary a lot depending on the availability of a market and the potential price of a certain recyclable. Ferrous metal and Polyethylenterephthalat (PET) achieve the highest recovery rates due to high prices on the world market. Glass bottles achieve similar high recovery rates of above 80% partly thanks to both, an established deposit system that is served by the informal sector and the re-usage of glass bottles which is hidden in the recovery rate. Hard plastic, tin cans and cartoon are at times rejected by scrappers during door-to-door collection due to high opportunity cost for collection and transport of higher price material, thus the recovery rate is lower. The rejection of recyclables is mainly observed in remote rural-like districts of the city, especially if the closest located junk shop is far in distance and cannot be reached easily. These materials are however taken out by waste pickers at the dumpsite and later on picked up there by buyers directly. In Ormoc, broken glass, plastic bags and paper are not recovered by the informal sector due to the absence of a market. These materials remain mixed in residual waste and are later burnt, buried, or if collected, disposed at the City s dumpsite. Table 1. Estimated material recovery rates in Ormoc City in per cent Material Plastic Glass Paper/ Metal PET Hard plastic Bags Bottles Broken glass Cartoon Tin cans Other Recovery Rate In total, 18% to 24% of the total generated household waste was diverted due to the extraction of dry recyclables by the informal sector. Given a share of dry recyclables of 32% to 36% of the generated residual waste, the IRS accounts for the recovery of more than 50% of all recyclables found in the municipality s residual waste. Estimation of the Informal Sectors Contribution to the Reduction of GHG GHG emission savings (credits) from recovering recyclables from household wastes are estimated to be as high as -7,750 t CO 2 equiv./year. Since Ormoc City still has a low composting rate of only 2%, GHG-emission savings from composting are still too low to cause an appreciable effect. Therefore, the stated credits account completely to the recovery of dry recyclables by the IRS. Although Ormoc is undergoing a process of modernisation of municipal SWM, there are further treatment and recovery of resources planned but not available yet. Consequently, the GHG debits from disposal are as high as 8,400 t CO 2 equiv./year with no GHG-emission savings achieved at this stage. As a result, the informal sector provides the only significant contribution to GHG emission savings in the City today. 164

4 Options to Enhance Resource Recovery and GHG Emission Reduction in SWM by Municipalities According to results of the GHG calculator, further appreciable GHG credit potential is found mainly in recovering plastics (remaining debit of 2,100 t CO 2 equiv./year). Reminding the reader of the high recovery rates of PET and hard plastic (Tab. 1), it becomes clear that the biggest reduction potential is seen in recovering plastic bags which already account for 10% of the weight of generated residual waste. Since there is no demand for plastic bags in Ormoc, its recovery is likely to remain untouched by the informal sector. Therefore, new markets need to be accessed with support of LGUs. Successful attempts were made by opening up cooperation with the industry in the Philippines already. With assistance of GIZ-AHT, a partnership between LGU Iloilo and cement producers was initiated. There, plastic bags and other unrecovered waste materials are now utilized in co-processing with positive effects on resource recovery and GHG savings [3]. Recyclable materials that are only partly recovered by scrappers due to high opportunity costs need to be extracted from the mixed waste before disposal. Here, the LGUs should build partnerships with organised waste pickers and increase the recovery rate by improved segregation practices. In this regard, in Iloilo, remaining recyclables are extracted from mixed waste and sold by organized waste pickers, who are supported by the LGU and GIZ-AHT with technical expertise. For more than 2 years already, the waste pickers run a mechanized material recovery facility successfully at the local disposal site. Composting and the disposal of residual waste on sanitary landfills by LGUs is also advised and even required by the law. Nevertheless, its effects on GHG savings are not as high compared to recovering recyclables from waste, which so far is only conducted with high efficiency by the informal recycling sector. Conclusions Using Ormoc as example, it was demonstrated that the informal recycling sector s contribution to resource recovery is very high, resulting in the only appreciable direct and indirect GHG emission savings of the City in SWM at this stage of development. Since the Solid Waste Management Act (RA 9003) of the Philippines does not consider the informal sector as partner in SWM, the aspired modernization of SMW systems in the Philippines can now be a threat to the informal sector with related negative effects on GHG reduction and resource recovery. Due to comparative advantages, the informal sector receives higher recovery rates than the formal or public sector [1]. The Philippine National Solid Waste Management Commission is therefore advised to promote partnerships between LGUs and the IRS. Besides that, LGUs are to be encouraged to open up new markets for recyclables in cooperation with the formal private sector. Then, positive and lasting effects on waste reduction, resource recovery, and GHG emission savings in SWM can be expected. References [1] Wehenpohl, G.; Kolb, M The Economic Impact of the Informal Sector in Solid Waste Management in Development Countries. International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, 1.-5.Oktober 2007, Cagliari; Sardinia. 10 pages. [2] Giegrich, J.; Vogt, R SWM GHG calculator Tool for calculating Greenhouse Gases (GHG) in Solid Waste Management (SWM). Frankfurt/Main: KfW Entwicklungsbank, GTZ. 55 pages. [3] Paul, J.; Soyes, K Enhancement of Municipal Solid Waste Management by Integrating Climate Mitigation Options in Iloilo City, Philippines. Waste Safe nd International Conference on Solid Waste Management in the Developing Countries February 2011, Khulna, Bangladesh. 165

5 MODERN REFUSE COLLECTION CONCEPTS AS A CHALLENGE FOR MORE SUSTAINABILITY A. Vogel FAUN Umwelttechnik GmbH & Co. KG, Germany Tel: , Fax: , DrArminVogel@FAUN.com ABSTRACT Within the last decade the global demand of resources increased dramatically due to the economic rise of merging markets, e.g. BRIC countries. Each branch is asked to contribute a part to more sustainability in terms of the utilization of resources. Especially the solid waste industry and the solid waste itself bear an enormous potential of resources which can help to lengthen the availability of limited resources such as oil, gas and rare earth or metals by the reuse and recycling of waste. There is a vast choice of waste collection equipment, which may fulfill the primary task of waste collection, but probably is not always the advanced technology to meet the requirement to be sustainable and economical at the same time. Total costs of ownership as well as After-Purchase Costs are only two issues which can make a refuse collection fleet reliable and thus create a lasting value. The presentation on modern refuse collection concepts will give an impression on rational waste collection concepts which should be utilized in order to meet the requirements in terms of economy & sustainability. It is absolutely essential that decision makers on waste management and collection concepts always review the regional situation of the waste management situation. Over and above that the presentation will give an example on the economical chances of waste collection, e.g. by the expansion of activities towards trade of recyclable materials. Creating added values by using refuse collection bodies in different purposes will be presented in the last part of the speech, but probably is one of the most interesting parts, due to the huge choice of possibilities from a waste management company with innovative collection concepts. Keywords: Refuse collection concept, Sustainable resources 166

6 DO ECONOMIC INCENTIVES AFFECT ATTITUDES TO SOLID WASTE SOURCE SEPARATION? EVIDENCE FROM GHANA V. Owusu 1*, E.A. Addo 1, M. Mensah 1, C. Sundberg 2 1 Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana 2 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden * Corresponding author. Tel: , vowusu.agric@knust.edu.gh ABSTRACT This paper examines the willingness of urban households in Ghana to accept economic incentives to participate in household waste source separation with the double-bounded dichotomous choice approach. The empirical findings indicate that household-level solid waste separation is positively influenced by human capital, gender and sorting or health-related perceptions on source separation. We found statistically significant positive effects of the existence of an open space in the household. About 80% of the households are willing to accept cash incentive of GH per month (US$1.1462) to participate in source separation, and the mean cash incentive is GH (US$0.8402) per month. Keywords: Africa, Economic incentives, Household source separation, Sample selection, Willingness to accept Introduction Poor solid waste management is a threat to public health and reduces the quality of life for urban residents. Available evidence shows that effective and efficient ways of managing the large amounts of solid waste generated can best be done by taking an integrated view on waste management, beginning at the source of waste generation [1]. The main disposal method of solid waste in Ghana, as well as most Sub-Saharan African countries is the land disposal without prior treatment and organized resource recovery. This indiscriminate and improper dumping of solid waste, often mixed with hazardous untreated materials such as medical waste, raises several serious environmental health concerns. A sustainable solution requires that the waste management system is economically viable, technically appropriate, socially functional and environmentally acceptable. For successful adoption of alternative methods such as composting and other recycling methods, organized solid waste separation, particularly source separation at the households, is a key factor [2]. Separation of recyclables at the source is better than the recovery of materials from mixed wastes, because source separation produces cleaner, higher-quality materials [3]. Solid waste separation by households ensures various benefits to municipalities, recycling industries, farmers, compost producers and other stakeholders of waste management. Since source separation of waste has all these benefits, but requires extra work from households, it is reasonable that households are compensated for their contribution to improved waste management. This could be done through reduced collection fees, direct monetary compensation for delivery of source separated materials, or free provision of waste bins. The main objective of the paper is to explore the socioeconomic factors as well as household attitudes and awareness which affect the willingness of households to accept cash and non-cash incentives to sort their solid waste at the household-level in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. The study contributes to the existing literature by exploring empirically the factors that would promote household solid waste separation. Materials and Methods The present paper employs the double-bounded dichotomous contingent valuation framework proposed by [4]. With the double-bounded dichotomous choice technique, the household is presented with the first cash SL F SL F incentive M and if the responds is " YES " M, the second cash incentive i ( Mi Mi ) is set lower, but if the responds to the first cash incentive is " NO" then the household is presented with a second higher SH F SH M cash incentive i ( Mi Mi ), giving four possible outcomes: YES-YES, YES-NO, NO-YES and NO-NO. Households WTA may be expressed as a function of a vector of cognitive and socioeconomic factors: 167

7 Gij Z i ij, ( j RC, FB) (1) where G ij is a binary variable indicating 1 if the household i is willing to accept a cash incentive j such as reduced collection fee ( RC ) or non-cash incentive such as free solid waste storage bin ( FB ) to Z participate in source separation and 0 otherwise, is a vector of household-level and socio-economic characteristics and ij is the error term capturing unobserved factors that influence households WTA. Equation (1) is efficiently jointly with the bivariate probit model [5]. Another issue which is empirically addressed is sample selection bias which arises from zero WTA observations in the sampled data [6]. The minimum mean WTA is estimated by specifying a Tobit model: G Z Z (2) SS irc i irc SS where G irc denotes the cash incentives or reduced collection fees the households are willing to accept to participate in household source separation, Z i is a vector of explanatory variables, is the vector of parameters to be estimated and irc is the error term. The estimates from equation (2) are obtained from maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) approach. The data employed in this study come from a double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation survey conducted in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana in 2008 among 384 households. A stratified random sampling procedure was used to obtain about 86 households the first class residential areas, 117 from the second class and 181 from the third class residential areas making a total sample size of 384 households. The households that responded to the cash incentives were offered a monthly cash incentive of GH 2 (US$1.4). Those who responded YES to the first cash incentive were presented with a lower cash incentive of GH 1.5 (US$1.05). Those who responded NO to the first cash incentive were offered a higher cash incentive of GH 2.5 (US$1.75). Health and sorting-related attitudes of the households toward source separation were also investigated with perception indices averaged from coded responses such as disagree (-1), neutral (0) and agree (1). Results and Discussion The attitudes of the respondents on health benefits of household-level solid waste separation were positive. The perception indicators suggest a higher participation in source separation if the households have positive attitudes toward environmental and health effects and practical work of source separation. The descriptive statistics of the variables are provided in Table 1. The statistics show some significant differences between the households that expressed willingness to accept cash incentives to participate in solid waste separation and those that declined the proposed cash incentives. The bivariate probit estimates on the probability to accept cash and non-cash incentives are presented in Table 2. The positive influence of age and education on the willingness to accept economic incentives confirms the widely-held view that human capital endowed households easily understand issues of environmental management and sustainability [7]. The ethnicity variable has positive relationship with households participation in source separation. The variables representing the mother, children and househelps all have statistically positive significant effects on the willingness of the households to accept economic incentives. The willingness of men to participate is negative and statistically insignificant even at the 10% level. Participation by first and third class residential households were significantly different from zero at the 1% and 10% levels respectively. Having an open space (or backyard) or semi-detached housing unit makes it easier for households to participate not only in source separation but in other recycling activities (see for instance [3]). The positive effect of the health-related perception index indicates that participation increases in households where source separation is perceived as hygienic and environmentally healthy. 168

8 The Tobit estimates on the extent of households participation in source separation for cash confirm most of the bivariate probit estimates. The extent of households participation in source separation for cash increases with the number of years of schooling, and households with open spaces. Participation in source separation for cash increases if mother, children, and househelps are solid waste disposers, and households do not perceive source separation as unhygienic, time consuming and difficult. The median WTA estimate is larger than the mean WTA estimate. The households are willing to accept mean cash incentive of GH (US$0.840) per month. Table 1. Descriptive statistics and definitions of variables WTSP UWTSP Mean Variable Definition Mean Mean difference AGE Age of household head (in years) 40.95(10.78) 38.03(8.91) 2.92 *** EDUC Number of years of formal education (years) 11.64(4.46) 10.26(4.42) 1.38 *** ETHNIC 1 if household head is an Akan, 0 otherwise 0.86(0.35) 0.74(0.44) 0.12 *** MAN 1 if man is in charge of waste disposal, 0 otherwise 0.02(0.12) 0.06(0.25) ** MOTHER 1 if mother is in charge of waste disposal, 0 otherwise 0.32(0.46) 0.40(0.45) CHDREN 1 if children are charge of waste disposal, 0 otherwise 0.41(0.49) 0.29(0.46) 0.10 ** HHELP 1 if house help disposes waste, 0 otherwise 0.259(0.44) 0.256(0.43) CLASS1 1 if household resides in a first class area, 0 otherwise 0.26(0.44) 0.17(0.38) 0.08 * CLASS3 1 if household resides in a third class area, 0 otherwise 0.42(0.49) 0.54(0.50) ** OPENSP 1 if household has an open space, 0 otherwise 0.77(0.43) 0.44(0.50) 0.33 *** STOREY 1 if household resides in a multi-storey, 0 otherwise 0.14(0.34) 0.10(0.30) 0.04 SDTCHD 1 if household has a semi-detached house, 0 otherwise 0.19(0.40) 0.17(0.37) 0.03 DTCHD 1 if household has a detached house, 0 otherwise 0.35(0.50) 0.31(0.50) 0.04 * MEDIA 1 if household heard of solid waste separation 0.06(0.23) 0.02(0.13) 0.04 ** through the media, 0 otherwise HLTHPER Health perception index 0.89(0.31) 0.69(0.47) 0.20 *** SORTPER Sorting perception index 0.60(0.49) 0.17(0.37) 0.44 *** WTSP denotes households that were willing to separate solid waste and UWTSP denotes households that were unwilling to separate solid waste. Figures in parentheses are standard deviations. ***, ** and * are statistical significances at 1%, 5% and 10%. Conclusions The study investigated the willingness of households to participate in solid waste separation. The households are willing to accept a mean cash incentive of GH (US$0.8402) per month. The empirical estimates indicate that human capital, ethnicity, gender, health-related and sorting perceptions of households are relevant factors that policy makers must consider. Policy instruments which must be implemented by stakeholders to improve solid waste management including provision of free separation bins and reduced collection fees. Authorities should consider pricing waste collection based on weight of separated wastes. Future studies should explore the economic viability of solid waste separation in Ghana. 169

9 Table 2.Bivariate probit estimates of household participation in solid waste source separation Variables Cash incentive Non-cash incentive Coefficient t-value Marginal prob Coefficient t-value Marginal prob CONSTANT *** *** AGE * ** EDUC *** ** ETHNIC * * MAN MOTHER *** ** CHDREN *** *** HHELP * * CLASS *** CLASS * OPENSP *** *** STOREY * SDTCHD ** DTCHD ** MEDIA HLTHPER *** * SORTPERC *** *** Rho (1,2) *** (7.08) Number of observations 384 Likelihood ratio *** denotes significant at 1%, ** denotes significant at 5%, * denotes significant at 10%. References [1] UN-Habitat Solid Waste Management in the world s cities. Earthscan, London, [2] S. Suttibak, V. Nitivattananon Assessment of factors influencing the performance of solid waste recycling programs. Res. Cons. Recyc. 53: [3] E. C. Bennagen, G. Nepomuceno and C. Ramil Solid waste segregation and recycling in Metro Manila: Households attitude and behavior. Resource, Environment and Economic Centre for Studies (REECS), Quezon City 1109, Philippines. [4] M. W. Hanemann, J. B. Loomis and B. Kanninen Statistical efficiency of double- bound dichotomous choice contingent valuation. Amer. J Agric. Econs. 73: [5] A. Abdulai, P. Monnin and J. Gerbe Joint estimation of information acquisition and adoption of new technologies under uncertainties. J. Inter. Dev. 20: [6] S.H. Yoo, H.-J. Yang Application of sample selection model to double-boundeddichotomous choice contingent valuation studies. Environ. Resour. Econs [7] L. Parrot, J. Sotamenou and B.K. Dia Municipal solid waste management in Africa: Strategies and livelihoods in Yaounde, Cameroon. Waste Manag. 29:

10 ASSESSMENT OF A SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM: SOCIAL IMPACTS ON FORMER WASTE PICKERS. CASE STUDY: SAN CARLOS CITY, PHILIPPINES M.A. Quiroga 1*, J. Hamhaber 1, U. Nehren 1,J.G. Paul 2 1 Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Germany 2 AHT GROUP AG, Iloilo City, Philippines *Tel: , Fax: , alejandra_qp@yahoo.com.mx ABSTRACT Solid waste represents a major problem in developing countries due to the lack of regulations and inappropriate management among others, thus calling for integrated Solid Waste Management (SWM) systems as a possible solution. San Carlos, a small city in the Philippines, implemented a SWM system to improve the environmental and health situation in the commune. However, the overall beneficial closure of the open dumpsite also meant the loss of the livelihood activities of many informal waste pickers. The government has recognized the skills of these people and hired some of them as workers in the new waste processing center, but the remainder was left without a source of income and employment perspectives. This research analysed the impact of the project implementation on the two groups through the Sustainable Livelihood Approach, in presenting the measures applied, the reaction of the affected groups, and the changes in their respective livelihood assets. Keywords: Solid waste management, Waste pickers, Sustainable livelihoods Introduction San Carlos City, located in Northern Negros Island with a population of approximately inhabitants (Census 2007), has recently (2003) developed and implemented a new SWM system. Replacing an unregulated system and dump, it aimed at economically viable technologies and positive environmental impacts. However, in the first planning phase, waste pickers who had previously based their livelihoods on the open dumpsite were not considered. During the further development of the system, the city decided to integrate some members of the informal sector, specifically the waste pickers, into the formal work system, mainly to take advantage of their knowledge and skills in the waste segregation and recuperation. They were hired as municipal workers in the Eco Center, the newly established waste processing and final disposal facility [5]. This marked a significant change in the city s strategy and exerted a major impact on the informal sector, thus raising the necessity to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of this integration process. In doing so, this research proposes that starting from the initial planning stage through all phases of development, socio-economic aspects particularly with regard to the livelihoods of the affected poor must be a central concern. Methodology The research was developed following the Sustainable Livelihood Approach (Figure 1). The work was designed to understand, explain and analyze the social impacts of the new SWM system on a group of former waste pickers due to changes in their livelihood activity. Figure 1. General analytical framework (DFID, 2005, adapted by Author) 171

11 The first step was to set a baseline, describing the structures and processes. The evolution of the system could be systematically recognized as it split the group of informal waste pickers into two new ones: formal workers and people rendered unemployed. These two represent the target groups of the analysis. The consequences of the interventions were described based on their respective livelihood assets profiles; their comparison will render the most important alterations due to the project implementation. In operationalization for each capital, assets parameters were defined (Table 1). The livelihood assets were visualized in pentagon form, with the length of each axis depicting the level of assets gain or loss. After the analysis of the livelihood assets the vulnerability context was determined, and the livelihood strategies and outcomes signified. With only a small sample available (i.e. six people from the first and twenty from the second group) qualitative methods are used. Table 1. Assets parameters chosen for the research based on the Sustainable Livelihood Approach (compiled by Author) Human Social Physical Financial Natural Awareness Access to education Skills Access to trainings Health Relationship of trust/reciprocity Access to social support mechanisms Networks Housing/ security of tenure Access to public infrastructure and services Access to information Major Source of income Other sources of income Access to credits Living and working environment Resources needed Access to resources Transforming Structures Due to a new national legislation regarding SWM, the Republic Act 9003 of San Carlos city designed a plan to develop an integral SWM system. The main objectives were: the establishment of a local regulatory entity, population involvement, implementation of reuse, recycling and composting programs, efficient collection, and management of residuals at final disposal sites, and the closure of open dumpsites. After one year already, the new system was functioning. Population s response was good, the percentage of waste segregation at household level rose to 85%, the percentage of deviate garbage reached 70%, more than the 30% stipulated by law [4, 5]. Material recovery facilities (MRF) were constructed in all neighborhoods (barangays) and a new recycling, treatment and disposal unit called Eco Center was built and operating. Besides all the positive impacts, one group of people directly involved was strongly affected: the informal waste sector. This group was comprised of collectors at source and collectors at the disposal site (open dump). The closure of the site left the latter group strongly affected, without their habitual working place and livelihood activity. The first group can still collect in public spaces. Thus, for the analysis, three different groups can be differentiated: a) Waste pickers before the closure: Approximately 35 families that lived next to the open dump site in an informal settlement. The place was lacking of all basic services and due to high contamination levels it was a risky environment to work and live. Inhabitants showed high incidence of skin problems and respiratory diseases. Workload was high, with an average of 13 hours per day. The income varied according to the working hours and family members involved. b) Unemployed people, who lost their livelihood activity due to the closure: they are still living in the settlement. Despite other casual and informal works, their income is considerably lower than before. c) Eco Center workers: the Eco Center offers a safe, clean and well-developed working environment. Therefore working conditions for this group have improved. They have a fixed schedule and salary. They are now part of the formal sector. Livelihoods Assets Profile and Vulnerability Context The assets parameters (Table 1) were used to evaluate the changes and are represented in the pentagon s (Figure 2) as a summary of the changes in the people s livelihood assets. 172

12 Human Capital For the waste pickers, their bodily strength, the competence to segregate the wastes and their capacity to negotiate with the medium traders were the aspects that determined the level of profits. However, their weak health status, high exposure to risks, and adverse work environment reduced their human capital assets [6]. Also, their levels of education are low, with most of them having attended primary school or being without any formal education. Thus their expertise and skills in the segregation activities proved their most important asset. This situation has improved for both emerging groups: due to the dumpsite closure the living conditions and subsequently the health status ameliorated. Unfortunately the conditions in the new work environments cannot be comparably measured or classified due to the big differences in activities, schedules and locations. For the Eco Center workers, a main advantage is their access to trainings offered by the local government, which may increase their assets and thus their human capital continuously. Natural Capital The most significant resource of the informal waste pickers was waste itself and their non-restrictive access to it endowed them with significant capital. This is not true anymore for the unemployed people who have completely lost access to that resource with the closure of the dumpsite and due to a new state law which defines scavenging in the (new) dump as an illegal activity. For the Eco Center workers waste has lost significance as capital for as it has transformed into a mere raw material for their work. Figure 2. Livelihood assets dia grams for zero stage waste pickers (left), unemployed former waste pickers (right), and EcoCenter workforce (far right). (Source: Author 2010) Financial Capital It is considered one of the most relevant in urban areas due to a highly monetary economy [2]. Currently the two groups have less monetary income but the Eco Center workers now receive a fixed and reliable salary while the other group is still involved in informal activities with intermittent incomes. The relative security of the Eco Center workers allows them to save and invest money for hard times, while the unemployed have to live more than ever in uncertainty. Physical Capital Housing ownership status determines the quality of services available which is rela-ted with the health status and the security and the capacity to save money [2]. Both emergent groups still live in an informal settlement close to the former dumpsite and lacking of basic services. This keeps affecting their health and also requires expenditures in money and time. In these conditions, housing only represents minor physical capital value. Even if the closure brought positive changes for the settlement, reducing contamination levels and eliminating the risk of accidents, injuries and animal attacks, there are still many uncertain environmental impacts. The Eco Center workers received the most significant improvement due to a safe working place with basic services and free transportation. For the people now relying other sources of income the new working conditions cannot be valued or compared, as they are highly diverse. Social Capital Typically, waste pickers maintain strong organizations that represent and claim rights for them, thus achieving benefits or improvements for this sector. However, in San Carlos, the group was not organized. The strongest social linkages are families and friends. The reorganization of the SWM system has forced 173

13 former waster pickers to include more family members into generating income, some have moved abroad to send remittances. For the Eco Center workers the social assets have strongly increased due to the representation and inclusion, in becoming part of the formal workers. They are now recognized and receive benefits and representation from the local government. Vulnerability Context With the changes in the assets profile the vulnerability context has also changed, because vulnerability is not a steady state but an evolving process created by cumulative conditions [1]. These changes can improve or aggravate with time. Despite the positive impacts in their living environment, both groups remain vulnerable regarding their informal housing conditions, absence of tenure rights and lack of basic services. This affects their health status, reduces their work capability and requires considerable expenditures. Even not paying rents, the main part of their income goes in purchasing water and fuel reducing available funds for children s education or savings. Their low education levels and short range of skills (more in the case of the unemployed people who did not have access to training programs) represent an obstacle in the search of better job opportunities, mostly in the formal sector, or other livelihood enhancing occupations. The unemployed people s risk related to their informal work status has not fundamentally improved: they are still being affected by all drawbacks of informal work like low salaries, uncertainty of unemployment, unreliable income and lack of institutional protection or representation. Livelihood Strategies and Outcomes A wider set of assets augments the coping capacity and provides opportunities and alternatives for livelihood strategies, thus enabling to fulfill needs and achieve objectives. Many of the strategies implemented by low income groups with limited access to assets are short term or just emergency response. However, long-term strategies better enhance resilience and sustainable livelihoods. In the study region several livelihood strategies could be observed, partly in response to the system shift: Asset substitution: As an answer to losing their main resource, waste, unemployed people replaced it with social capital, in that more family members and in particular children have to contribute to family incomes. Asset diversification: undertaking more than one activity stabilized incomes and both groups use it as a protective measure against uncertainty. Disposing or selling some assets: in particular savings in the form of goods such as jewelry or animals that had to be sold to get cash. Expected outcomes for part of the city were different as the one expected by the directly affected people. The city wanted improvement in the living and environmental conditions. The informal sector expected a secure income and inclusion. These different perceptions of the same project demonstrate the need for consultative and participatory programs. Conclusions and Recommendations The lack of stakeholder s participation in the early planning process resulted in the exclusion of certain sectors such as the informal waste pickers, leaving aside their knowledge as well as their needs. Later incorporation triggered benefits for both, public sector and former informal workers: on the one hand the SWM system benefits from their work and skills, on the other hand their range of livelihood assets and their coping capacity have strongly improved. Yet, in the same process a large group has been further excluded and suffered from additional deterioration of their livelihoods. In order to mitigate the impact of substantially reducing the workforce in waste picking, the proper distribution of advantages among the families in stage zero groups should be considered. Acknowledgements To the (Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst) DAAD and the Local Government of San Carlos City, Philippines. References [1] Alwang, J. Jorgensen, S. Siegel, P Vulnerability: A view from different disciplines. Social Protection Unit. Human Development Network. The World Bank. [2] Farrington, J. Ramasut, T. Walker, J Sustainable Livelihoods Approaches in Urban Areas: General Lessons, with Illustrations from Indian Cases. Overseas Development Institute (ODI). 174

14 London, UK. [3] Quiroga, M Social impact Assessment of a Solid Waste Management system: Social impacts on former waste pickers. Case study: San Carlos City, Philippines. Master thesis University of applied sciences Cologne [4] Republic Act 9003, The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act. Environmental Management Bureau. Republic of the Philippines (EMB). [5] Sanchez, L Solid Waste Management Plan. The San Carlos City Solid Waste Management Board. San Carlos City, Philippines. [6] Sharpe, A The Development of Indicators for Human Capital Sustainability. Centre for the Study of Living Standards. Montreal, Canada. 175

15 IMPLICATIONS OF RECYCLING ACTIVITIES ON SUSTAINABILITY OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THAILAND S.N.M. Menikpura, S. Bonnet, S.H. Gheewala * The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut s University of Technology Thonburi, 126 Pracha-Uthit Road, Bangmod, Tungkru, Bangkok 10140, Thailand Corresponding author. Tel.: ; fax: address: shabbir_g@jgsee.kmutt.ac.th ABSTRACT At present, only 22% of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is being separated for recycling in Thailand while the rest is being open-dumped and landfilled. Such poor MSW management methods create severe environmental, economic and social problems. The development of a sustainable MSW management system is therefore, crucial and should be based on an integrated approach. The inclusion of recycling as one of the processes of an integrated MSW management system is necessary to ensure maximum reclamation of useful materials. Therefore, in this study, the environmental, economic and social implications of recycling activities as part of a MSW management system have been assessed for a particular municipality in Thailand using sustainability indicators. The evaluation results revealed that recycling can contribute bringing substantial socio-economic and environmental benefits when integrated as part of a MSW management system. Keywords: Municipal Solid Waste, Sustainability, Indicators, Recycling, Thailand Introduction Open dumping and non-engineered landfilling are the two predominant waste disposal methods used in most developing countries in Asia. Such poor MSW management methods create severe environmental, economic and social problems. Similar situations can be observed in Thailand. According to the Pollution Control Department (PCD), 22 % of generated MSW is being recycled in Thailand while the remaining fraction is being disposed in sanitary landfills and open dumps [1]. In this study, Nonthaburi municipality was selected to evaluate the implications of recycling activities on the sustainability of its MSW management system. Nonthaburi has put significant efforts in maximizing recycling and minimizing waste under the Kitakyushu Initiative Network Program via community approach, and public awareness and participation. As a result of this program, the recycling rate has increased from 22% in 2006 to almost 25% in Public participation and awareness raising campaigns were recognised as key factors for such successful achievements as well as the strong political will of the local administration [2]. Overview of recycling activities in Nonthaburi The municipality of Nonthaburi is located in the central region of Thailand and covers an area of 39 km 2 with a population of 0.27 million inhabitants [2]. The average amount of MSW generated in the municipality amounts to 370 tonnes per day, with a daily per capita MSW generation rate of 0.8 kg. Approximately 90 tonnes of recyclable waste are being separated at the household level and 38 small companies are involved in collecting those recyclables. The collected materials in the recyclable mix include five major categories which are paper, plastic, glass, aluminium and steel. These recyclables are pre-processed (cleaned, shredded and baled) at a sorting facility and then transported via heavy duty trucks to various recycling facilities in different provinces [2]. In this study, a detailed assessment was performed to evaluate the socio-economic and environmental implications of recycling as part of the MSW management system set in Nonthaburi. Methodology Life cycle assessment To evaluate the environmental, economic and social impacts related to recycling, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was used as the basic tool. To quantify the above mentioned impacts, the functional unit was defined as recycling of one tonne of waste in a recyclable mix. The system boundary includes raw material 176

16 extraction (crude oil extraction) and production of energy carriers (diesel production for transportation), collection and transportation of recyclables (by light duty trucks), pre-processing at the sorting facility (cleaning, size reduction, compaction and bailing), transportation of pre-processed recyclables to recycling facilities (by heavy duty trucks) and recycling processes. In addition, system expansion was used to account for material recovery. Thus, for instance, credits were provided to account for avoided virgin production of materials which had been recovered as a result of recycling. Inventory data was collected from individual recycling processes based on socio-economic and environmental considerations. Information related to material and energy consumptions, costs and revenues, as well as employment opportunities related to recycling processes were collected from various sorting plants and recycling facilities in Thailand. In addition, appropriate databases such as Ecoinvent and BUWAL 250) [3-4] were used to quantify life cycle emissions and resources consumption from recycling as well as virgin production processes. Indicators for sustainability assessment In order to assess the implications of recycling activities on sustainability, relevant socio-economic and environmental indicators were identified. According to the inventory data collected, it was found that recycling activities are associated with fossil energy consumption in the form of diesel fuel, electricity and thermal energy. This contributes to abiotic resources depletion and greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. In contrast, the materials recovered as a result of recycling enable to gain benefits from the avoided virgin production of such materials and related GHG emissions. In order to quantify the environmental impacts of recycling activities, global warming potential (GWP) and abiotic depletion potential (ADP) were therefore identified as the most relevant environmental indicators. To estimate GWP, the GHGs considered include carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) [5]. GWP is expressed in the unit of CO 2 equivalent. Fossil fuel and mineral resources consumption are characterised in terms of ADP which is expressed in the unit kg of antimony (Sb) equivalent. The sustainability of a MSW management system is influenced by its capital and operating costs. A detailed financial analysis via a Life Cycle Cost (LCC) is an appropriate option to deal with such an economic assessment [6-7]. Hence, LCC was selected as the economic indicator to perform the evaluation. The concept of community well-being is one factor considered for social sustainability assessment. Poverty alleviation and economic development are major aspects related to improvement of communities well-being. As recycling activities can contribute to uplifting living standards by facilitating employment and providing income generation opportunities, the income based community well-being was selected as the indicator for social impact assessment. Results and Discussion Composition of the Recyclable Mix in Nonthaburi The composition of the recyclable mix and the recyclability of the different materials it is composed of are important factors to assess the amount of materials that can be recovered from recycling. In Nonthaburi, the recyclable mix consists of five major categories that are paper, plastic, glass, aluminium and steel in the proportion of 23%, 3%, 7%, 27%, and 40% respectively. Based on the recyclability of those materials, from one tonne of paper, plastic, glass, aluminium and metal, 850 kg, 900kg, 950kg, 760kg and 900kg of recycled products can be recovered respectively [2, 3-4]. Environmental Sustainability Assessment From the inventory data collected, GWP and ADP were estimated as shown in Figure 1 (a) and (b). It is observed that in comparison to other recyclable materials, the benefits of aluminium recycling are outstanding for both the environmental impacts considered. Virgin aluminium production is responsible for higher GWP and ADP because of the large amount of fossil fuel consumption required for its production and related emissions. Thus, the credited impacts from recycling of aluminium influence considerably the reduction in net GWP and ADP values. The estimated net GWP and ADP from recycling of one tonne of recyclable mix amount to kg CO 2 equivalent and kg of Sb equivalent respectively. The 177

17 negative values obtained express the environmental benefits arising from recycling activities and therefore its advantage as an environmentally sustainable option for MSW management. GWP (kg of CO2 eq/tonne) 1.40E E E E E E E E+00 Paper Recycling Plastic Aluminium Type of recyclables Steel Virgin production Glass Recyclable mix ADP (kg of Sb eq)/tonne 7.00E E E E E E E E+00 Paper Recycling Virgin production Plastic Aluminium Type of recyclables Steel Glass Recyclable mix (a) (b) Figure 1. (a) GWP (b) ADP from recycling of waste materials and corresponding virgin production of such materials Economic Sustainability Assessment For the LCC assessment, all cost elements were identified in a systematic way including capital expenditure, operation and maintenance costs, and environmental cost (monetary value for the environmental emissions). To calculate the gross LCC for the recycling operations, cost at the sorting plant and cost at the recycling facility were added. From the results obtained it was observed that operation and maintenance costs share a major fraction of the gross LCC mainly because of the high labour, electricity and primary energy costs associated with recycling operations. In fact, operation and maintenance costs represent 86%, 65%, 59%, 93% and 75% of the gross LCC for paper, plastic, glass, aluminium and metal respectively. The selling price of all the primary products recycled and the monetary value of the credited environmental emissions were taken into account to calculate the revenues generated from recycling activities. For each category of recyclable materials, the net LCC was determined by subtracting revenues from the gross LCC as shown in Figure 2. It is observed from the above figure that revenues from recycling are much higher than gross LCC for all recyclable materials. The estimated net LCC was determined to amount to -11,700 baht/ tonne of waste for the recyclable mix in Nonthaburi (30.8 baht = 1 US$) see Figure 2. The negative values obtained express the potential of net earnings from recycling. In fact, 1.02 million baht can be expected as net earnings from the daily amount of recyclable (90 tonnes) generated in Nonthaburi municipality. Such figures highlight the 178

18 potential benefits offered by recycling activities as part of a MSW management system and how important it is to promote such activities as an economically attractive business. Cost & revenue (baht/tonne) 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20, ,000-40,000 Paper Gross LCC Revenue Net LCC Plastics Glass Aluminium Type of recyclables Steel Recyclable Mix Figure 2. Gross LCC, revenue and net LCC of recycling Social Sustainability Assessment At the community level, recycling was found to contribute income generation from the selling of recyclables as well as employment opportunities. Thus for instance, from the daily selling of recyclables (90 tonnes), the indirect income generation potential in the community was estimated at 1.57 million baht which corresponds to 17,440 baht/tonne. In addition, recycling activities were found to contribute to the creation of 675 skilled employment opportunities in the community at various positions from waste collectors to managing directors. The estimated total labour power (skilled and unskilled) requirement per tonne of recyclable mix works out to 7.5 labour days. Based on this, the average wage-based income generation potential for the community was estimated to amount to 2,900 baht/tonne of recyclable mix. From the above figures, total income generation potential amounts to 20,300 baht/tonne of recyclable mix. Such income generation provides direct benefits to the community in uplifting their living standards. Conclusions The Nonthaburi municipality in Thailand was identified as an interesting case study to assess the implications of recycling on the sustainability of its MSW management system since it has been involved in a program promoting such activities. For the assessment, relevant environmental, economic and social indicators were identified to quantify the ultimate effects of recycling. The results obtained clearly show that recycling offers important prospects since it provides non negligible socio-economic and environmental benefits and therefore contribute to improve sustainability of the entire MSW management system in place. The results of this study could be used as a probing tool to convince all stakeholders involved in waste management of the benefits of recycling and to promote and strengthen recycling activities in Thailand. Acknowledgements Research grant from The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment is acknowledged. The authors would like to also express their gratitude to the Nonthaburi Municipality and recycling facilities in Thailand for providing the necessary information and data to perform this study. References [1] PCD Status of Municipal Solid Waste. The Pollution Control Department, Thailand. Available in [2] Nonthaburi Municipality Bangkrasor, Thailand (Personal communication). [3] Pre Consultants BUWAL 250, SimaPro 7.1 Manual. Amersfoort, Netherlands. 179

19 [4] R. Hischierand and E.M.P.A St. Gallen Life cycle inventories of packaging and graphical papers. Eco-invent report no.11, Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf. [5] IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T., Tanabe, K. (Eds.). Published: IGES, Japan. [6] J. Lutz, A. Lekov, P. Chan, C.D. Whitehead, S. Meyers and J. McMahon Life-cycle cost analysis of energy efficiency design options for residential furnaces and boilers. Energy, 31: [7] M. C. Reich Economic assessment of municipal waste management systems case studies using a combination of life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC). J of Clean Prod, 13:

20 SOME EXPERIENCES ON PROMOTING CARBON FOOTPRINT LABELS OF PRODUCTS Y.W. Cheng 1*, J. Wu 2 1 General Education Center, St. John s University, Taiwan, ROC 2 Taiwan Environmental Management Association, Taiwan, ROC * Corresponding author: ywcheng@mail.sju.edu.tw, Tel: ABSTRACT Saving energy and reducing carbon emission has been symbolizing how human society should respond to climate change due to excessive discharge of greenhouse gases. It is recognized that consumer behavior needs to be overturned to realize resource conservation and GHG reduction. One of the strategic tools being developed with international interests is the carbon footprint (CFP) calculation and labeling of products. This paper briefly introduces the mechanism and platform promoted by Taiwan EPA in concord with the international development, mainly PAS 2050 and ISO 14067(CD), in Eleven products have been approved for the Carbon Labels and three products completed Product Category Rules for demonstration during trial-run of the system in the first year. Business is designed to apply for the label jointly with related trade association so major market sharers are informed and opinions exchanged. Self-commitment on future reduction has been an important part of the approval criteria. Keywords: Carbon footprint, Products and services, ISO 14067, PAS 2050 Introduction It has been acknowledged that carbon dioxide emission contributes to the increase of averaged global temperature and abrupt climate effects. As a global tactic to respond to the crisis, saving energy and reducing carbon emission become a priority task. In the meanwhile, endless demand from human consumption has lead to rapid exhaustion of earth resources in recent decades. The life cycle thinking of product carbon footprint (PCF) enables a comprehensive evaluation of industrial production with respect to energy saving as well as material and resource management, which extends from industrial inventory studies to entire life cycle of specific products. All stages in the product life cycle, from retrieval of raw materials, manufacturing and processing, transportation/distribution, usage and consumption, to disposal of used item, are taken into account rather than looking at individual life stage traditionally. Calculation of carbon footprint for products and services was initiated by Department of Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (Defra), Carbon Trust, and British Standards Institute (BSI) in UK. The specification, PAS 2050, was published accordingly to provide the operation basis and guidance for this instrument [1-2]. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is also in process of developing the ISO/CD 14067, for quantification and communication of PCF which demonstrates the international interests. Studies and researches have been dedicated on this emerging subject. Some addressed the manipulation of the methodology and some discussed on its scope and application as an environmental indicator [3-6]. There are about a dozen countries have established domestic carbon labeling system of one kind or another. Methods and Approaches Carbon Footprint Label (Carbon Label) in Taiwan The Carbon Label consists of two parts: the logo and an information box, Figure 1. The PCF logo in Taiwan bears two green leaves to resemble the shape of a footprint and a heart to precious the environment. Information box reveals the proportion of PCF in the five stages of product life cycle. It also, if applicable, indicates the title of Product Category Rule (PCR), life cycle analysis (LCA) tool, and standards adapted in the calculation. It is preferred to indicate the potential for CFP reduction in terms of seasonal differences, waste and recycling schemes,etc. Commitment on reducing PCF through waste and recycling practice are most often anticipated by the applicants. 181

21 Figure 1. Sample Carbon Label The Committee for Promoting and Review of Carbon Footprint Label Application To ensure smooth communication on administrative procedures with governmental offices and stakeholders, a guidance committee is installed for review and consulting mechanism. Composition of the committee members is illustrated in Figure 2. The committee sets three task groups to perform preliminary reviews before monthly meeting of the Committee, in which issues from planning and promoting on the labeling system to technical decisions are discussed. Carbon Label Review Committee Chairperson Deputy Administrator, EPA EPA delegates (1~2) MOE (1); ABRI, MOI (1) IDB, MOEA (1); BOE, MOEA (1) DOC, MOEA (1); BSMI, MOEA (1) COA (1); DOH (1); CPC (1) NGOs for environmental protection or consumer rights (2) Industrial representative (2) Business representative (1) Academic specialists/experts (3~6) Executive secretary and staff Technical group Investigation group Advocating group Abbreviations: ( ) number in the parenthesis is the number of delegates MOE: Ministry of Education ABRI(MOI): Architecture and Building Research Institute(Ministry of the Interior) IDB(MOEA): Industrial Development Bureau(Ministry of Economic Affairs) BOE(MOEA): Bureau of Energy(Ministry of Economic Affairs) DOC(MOEA): Department of Commerce(Ministry of Economic Affairs) BSMI(MOEA): Bureau of Standards, Metrology, and Inspection(MOEA) COA: Council of Agriculture DOH: Department of Health CPC: Consumer Protection Commission Results and Discussion Figure 2. Structure of the Guidance Committee Demonstration Products Table 1 lists some facts of eleven products approved for the Label. The Carbon Label is for issuing B2C products. Business is designed to apply the Carbon Label with trade association to facilitate opinions exchange with major market sharers so that the PCR will be followed by similar products. For businesses willing to acquire the label for B2B products are advised through other projects for PCF calculation. Demonstrative CF-PCR are prepared for three products, namely, 4-in-1 integrated computer, bottled water, and shampoo. Carbon Footprints of Approved Products Table 1 also shows the PCF of each life-cycle stage which varies with product types. Determination of emission coefficients is critical to resulted PCF. Opportunities for further carbon emission reduction are examined. Materials recycling and recovery, if not within the in-plant process, are not included directly in the LCA calculation for PCF. Contribution on carbon emission after the end-of-life stage is considered by allocating different routes for waste disposal and treatment. 182