LATRINE TECHNOLOGY MANUAL

Transcription

1 partition wall 1800mm 150mm 928mm 1422mm 672mm 225mm 1500mm 100/150mm vent pipe 225mm reinforcement concrete beam faeces hole end of pit or chamber line foot rest urine hole partition wall urine tank 150mm 450mm 2200mm 450mm 3100mm PLAN Foundation Plan 525mm 522mm 150mm 1100mm 2800mm 50 x 50mm 900mm c/c 100 x 50mm 900mm c/c 750mm Roof Details LATRINE TECHNOLOGY MANUAL

2 Consultant s Team Dr. Kwabena Biritwum Nyarko Dr. Richard Buamah Francis K.N. Nunoo Eugene Appiah-Effah Kobina Mensah Afful Nehemiah Addae Samwini Abigail Owusu-Boakye 2 Latrine Technology Manual

3 Contents 1 Introduction Sanitation in Ghana Benefits of a latrine Why this handbook? Who is this handbook for? Useful conversion factors 6 2 Consideration for Latrine Construction Guidelines for Latrine Site Selection Sizing of Household Latrines pit 7 3 Latrine Technology Options Dry Systems Simple Pit Latrine Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIP) Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit (KVIP) Enviro Loo waterless Toilet Ecological sanitation (EcoSan toilet) Composting latrine Urine Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT) Wet Systems Pour-flushed toilets Pour-Flush Toilet without Water-Seal, Installed On Direct Pit (Ventilated Pit) Pour-Flush Toilet without Water-Seal, Connected to Single Indirect Pit (Off-Set Pit) Pour-Flush Toilet with Water-Seal, Installed On Ventilated Pit Pour-Flush Toilet with Water-Seal, Connected to Single Off-Set Leach-Pit Pour-Flush Toilet with Water-Seal, Connected to Twin Off-Set Leach-Pits Water Closet (WC) Toilet, Connected to Septic Tank Biofil Toilet Ecosafe Toilet Biogas Digester Aqua privy Simplified Sewerage Other Prefabricated Toilets Sanergy Global Latrine Sun dome Plastic septic tank Portable Toilets BoP Potti: In-house Toilets Porta Potty Mobile Toilet Clean Team Toilet 83 4 Emergency Sanitation Options Technologies and stage of emergency 84 5 Latrine Features for Physically Challenged Type of Disabilities Ramp Design Ramp Dimensions 88 Latrine Technology Manual 3

4 6 Handwashing Handwashing Facilities/Technologies Handwashing Sinks Oxfam Buckets The Tippy Tap Tap Up Hand Sink- Simple but Requires Manufactured Fittings Emerging Technologies for Handwashing The LaBobo The SpaTap 93 7 Operations and Management of Latrine Operation and Maintenance of Latrines Emptying of pits Treatment and Disposal of Faecal Sludge 95 8 Estimates for Latrine Construction 96 9 Annexes: Engineering Drawings of Latrine Technology Options References Latrine Technology Manual

5 1 Introduction 1.1 Sanitation in Ghana The World Health Organization defines sanitation generally as the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. As per this definition several communities in Ghana can be classified to be among populations without basic sanitation. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of diseases world-wide and improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in households and across communities. the transmission pathway. The use of an improved latrine and practise of good hygiene creates an effective barrier to faecal-oral transmission of pathogens (Figure 1). A latrine is a safe and private place used for defecation. A wide range of latrines are used in households, schools and other institutions. Improving sanitation is of paramount importance to reduce risks of disease transmission in and around the home and to improve the quality of the environment beyond household level. It also enhances a productive and dignified life. Access to basic sanitation, linked to proper use and disposal, can substantially reduce diarrhoeal disease, intestinal worm infections and vectorborne disease. Basic sanitation is the lowest-cost technology ensuring hygienic excreta disposal and a clean and healthy living environment. Currently only 15% of individuals in Ghana have access to improved sanitation services. Although access to improved sanitation has been steadily improving over the past two decades, Ghana still lags behind most of the developing countries despite steps by government and other development partners to address the sanitation challenge. 1.2 Benefits of a latrine There are several transmission routes by which faecal-oral pathogens can cause infection and illness including diarrhoea (See Figure 1). The number of excreta related diseases is large due to the complex and often inter-related nature of Source: Water 1st International, 2015 Aside the health benefits the use of hygienic latrines accrues economic gains to users A study by the Water and Sanitation Program in 2012 estimated that the annual economic cost of poor sanitation in Ghana was US$290 million (WSP, 2012). The breakdown of the estimated cost (Figure 2). The estimated cost is underestimated as epidemic outbreaks, funeral, water pollution, cognitive development, tourism and re-use costs which are more difficult to estimate were excluded. Latrine Technology Manual 5

6 *1US$ = GHC (2010 Average) GDP Source: World Bank US$19 million lost each year in Access Time: Each person practicing open defecation spends almost 2.5 days a year finding a private location to defecate leading to large economic losses. This cost falls disproportionately on women as caregivers who may spend additional time accompanying young children or sick or elderly relatives. This cost is likely to be an underestimation as those without toilets, particularly women, will be obliged to find a private location for urination as well. a US$215 million lost each year due to Premature Death: Approximately 19,000 Ghanaians, including 5,100 children under 5, die each year from diarrhea nearly 90% of which is directly attributed to poor water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). b In addition poor sanitation is a contributing factor through its impact on malnutrition rates to other leading causes of child mortality including malaria, ALRI and measles. US$1.5 million lost each year due to Productivity Losses whilst sick or accessing healthcare: This includes time absent from work or school due to diarrheal disease, seeking treatment from a health clinic or hospital, and time spent caring for under-5 s suffering from diarrhea or other sanitation-attributable diseases. US$54 million spent each year on Health Care: Diarrheal diseases directly, and indirectly via malnutrition (and its consequences for other diseases such as respiratory infections and malaria) are all leading causes of morbidity. Costs associated with health seeking behaviour include consultation, medication, transport and in some cases hospitalisation which place a heavy burden on households and government spending. technologies. This manual presents sanitation technology options with designs of range of products. 1.4 Who is this handbook for? The handbook will serve as a guide for engineers, planners, masons, carpenters, etc. The handbook will enable people to make informed choices and facilitate carpenters and masons during construction. It will also serve as a reference document for officials at the national and local government levels. Given the technical level of this resource, readers need to have a basic skill set and previous construction experience. This manual contains information on various available latrine designs, the materials needed for the construction of the latrine and guidance information to select any particular latrine technology for any given location. Figure 2: True Cost of Sanitation in Ghana (Source: WSP, 2012) 1.3 Why this handbook? A technology assessment of household latrines by UNICEF in urban and peri-urban areas revealed a number of technical challenges encountered during construction of household latrines. These challenges included high water table, groundwater contamination, difficult ground conditions, accessibility, lack of trained latrine artisans, lack of construction guidance/manual, public and environmental health risk among others. The key challenge in achieving basic sanitation in urban and peri-urban areas is to provide sustainable and affordable sanitation technology options for both poor and non poor households in different geographical locations and also how to bring a change in households willingness to construct safe latrines. To address these challenges, it is important to provide user friendly sanitation technology options handbook with designs of range of latrine 1.5 Useful conversion factors 1 Foot (ft) Metres (m) 1 Inch (in) 25.4 Millimetres (mm) 1 Metre (m) 1000 Millimetres (mm) 6 Latrine Technology Manual

7 2 Consideration for Latrine Construction 2.1 Guidelines for Latrine Site Selection Getting the location right is very important in ensuring the use of the facility, reducing its risk to public health and nuisance to the environment. Right positioning of the facility away from adverse environmental conditions can enhance the operational life, e.g. positioning the toilet system outside the course of run-off can help prevent the effects of erosion that have been witnessed in some parts of Northern Ghana. In selecting a site for a latrine, the location of wells and surface water sources, for example ponds, swamps, creeks, rivers etc. must be clearly established. The following guidelines shall be used for the siting of latrines: A latrine must not be located over a surface water body and should be at least 100 feet (30 m) from the edge of the flood plain of a surface water body. Public latrines shall be at least 50 meters from nearest residence or as far as practicable. Latrines shall be sited away from trees to prevent obstruction of vent pipes. Latrines shall be constructed with enough space for vehicle access and movement during desludging. In the selection of soil conditions on which to construct the latrines, avoid (if possible) rocky outcrops, unstable ground conditions and depressions with shallow water table. Latrines shall be constructed with adequate drainage to ensure that rain water does not flood the pit. For wet latrines, hydrological expertise should be sought. 2.2 Sizing of Household Latrines pit To determine the depth of pit required, the total number of people who will use the facility and the desired operation period is needed. Table 1 below indicates various household sizes and based on the desired operation period presents minimum required depths. Pit volumes presented in this manual/handbook is based on a household size of 10 people and design life of 8 years. Sample Calculation for Sizing of latrine Pits Solids accumulation For a household of 6 persons, in one year, the volume of accumulated sludge (using sludge accumulation rate of 70 litres /capita/year) = 6 x 70 litres = 420 litres = 0.42 m 3 (This allows for materials used for anal cleansing; reduced aerobic and decomposition over the chosen 5 year operational period). Using a basic internal pit area of 1.2 m wide x 2.15 m long = 2.58 m 2 Resulting depth of sludge = (0.42 * 5)/ 2.58 =0.814 m Free board Additional safe space above solid to allow for covering with soil when pit is full; minimum free board = 0.3m Total depth of pit = = 1.1 m Latrine Technology Manual 7

8 Table 1: Various depths of latrine pit corresponding to Household sizes and operational periods Number of Persons in Household Operational Period (years) Depth of latrine pit has been calculated based on an area of 2.58 m 2. All dimensions are in metres (Source: Authors Computations, 2016) 8 Latrine Technology Manual

9 3 Latrine Technology Options 3.1 Dry Systems A Dry Toilet is a toilet that operates without water. The Dry Toilet may be a raised pedestal that the user can sit on, or a squat pan that the user squats over. In both cases, excreta (both urine and faeces) fall through a drop hole or are separated for reuse Simple Pit Latrine Simple pit latrines are one of the oldest forms of formal sanitation in the world. The pit latrine is based on the use of a single dug pit to collect and store excreta. It consists of a square, rectangular or circular pit dug into the ground, covered by a slab with a hole through which excreta and sometimes anal cleansing material fall into the pit. A seat or a squat hole with foot rests may be installed depending on the user preference. The latrine may be covered with a superstructure with a door to provide privacy and protection from bad weather and unwanted guests eg snakes and other reptiles. A latch may be provided or improvised to ensure privacy. This latrine technology is best suited to rural and peri-urban areas where there is land available for possible relocation when pits get full. Graphical Representation Air flow (ventilation) Door Dugged Pit Latrine Non linned pit Preferred sitting type A two dimensional view of simple pit latrine Use block or brick to line pit if soil is loose Latrine Technology Manual 9

10 Principles of operation Excreta and anal cleansing material in the pit decompose through bacterial action, fungal attack and consumption by other organisms. The decomposition process may take place in the presence of oxygen (aerobic) or without oxygen (anaerobic). In most pits fresh excreta is initially decomposed aerobically but as it is covered by new layers of excreta conditions rapidly turn anaerobic. There are several options for managing the sludge when the pit is full. If there is space, the pit can be filled with soil and planted with a tree, as per the fill and Cover, and a new pit latrine built. This is generally only possible when the superstructure is mobile. Alternatively, the Faecal Sludge that is generated from the pit is manually removed and buried or may be transported for further treatment by composting. This latrine technology is best suited to rural and peri-urban areas where there is land available for possible relocation when pits get full. Front view ( constructed from wood boards) Side and back View Advantages and disadvantages No Advantages Disadvantages 1 Can be built and repaired with locally available materials 2 Does not require a constant source of water 3 Low (but variable) capital costs depending on materials Poor design and prone to collapse because pits are not lined. Collapse is common in areas where the soil is unstable. Nuisance from flies and mosquitoes (and sometimes cockroaches); Bad odours; 4 Easy to operate and maintain Difficulty with emptying pits once they are full. 5 Slab and shelter can be reused Low reduction in BOD and pathogens 6 Possible groundwater pollution 7 Not suitable for areas where land is scarce 10 Latrine Technology Manual

11 Applicability Suitable where people use solid/ hard materials for anal cleansing. These cleansing materials can be directly deposited into the toilet pit. Suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water supply is not regular. Suitable where the ground is easy to dig, where the water table is low, places where there are no issues with water-logging and flooding. Suitable where there is space to dig a new pit and move the superstructure when the old pit becomes full, hence not suitable for urban areas. Because of possible movement of superstructure the construction materials need not be concrete or sandcrete blocks Suitable for remote areas where transportation of imported materials is difficult and costly. Suitable for places where the inhabitants cannot afford to build a costly latrine system, easy to build with local materials only. Construction 1. Pit cover-slab/ floor: This can be made out of round timber logs or concrete. 2. Walls: Walls can be of wood planks, palm fronds or raffia. 3. Mud walling built up to 300mm (0.3m) above ground level will help avoid rotting of the wood. Advisably, wood must be treated with dirty engine oil. 4. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanized Iron sheets, or thatch over wood rafters and purlins. The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 5. The pit can be lined with stones 400mm to 450mm thick to prevent collapse of the earth. The minimum depth of the pit should be at least 1200mm. Latrine Technology Manual 11

12 Engineering drawings roofing material(thatch etc.) 2100mm 50 x 75mm purlin 50 x 100mm rafter 1800mm 1400mm 25 x 200mm fascia board gl 2400mm A 1200mm 950mm 700mm 125mm 1400mm 1650mm foot rest squat slab 125mm squat hole 800mm Squat Slab 1200mm Plan View 2475mm 1200mm 1:3:6 mass concrete in trench 2450mm A 1500mm 1850mm 2150mm Pit Foundation Plan 150mm 12 Latrine Technology Manual

13 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Tower bolt 1 Number 2 Handle 2 Number 3 Nails 3 Kilograms 4 Hinges 3 Number 5 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 6 Wood 2 x 3 5 Pieces 7 Stone 2 Cubic meters 8 Skilled labour 10 Work-day 9 Roofing material (thatch, etc) As needed 10 Unskilled labour 3 Work-day Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet should be built at least 30meters away from the house. 2. The location should be chosen considering wind direction. 3. The toilet should be located at a minimum distance of 30 meters from any type of water source. 4. For the air to be able to flow, use of a drop-hole cover is not recommended during day time. 5. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 6. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 7. Repairs should be carried out immediately problems are identified. 8. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. Latrine Technology Manual 13

14 3.1.2 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (VIP) The VIP technology comprises of a pit, cover slab, privy room and a vent pipe with fly trap/screen. The pit and cover slab forms the sub structure with the privy room and vent forming the superstructure. The pit may be lined or unlined depending on the stability of the soil. Also the pit may be elevated above ground based on the level of the water table. Continuous airflow through the top-structure and above the vent pipe removes smells and vents gases to the atmosphere. A darkened interior is maintained causing insects entering the pit to be attracted towards the light at the top of the vent pipe and trapped by the fly screen. May not be appropriate for highly urbanised settings. Graphical Representation Mozambique Front view Mozambique Side and back View Air flow (ventilation) Door Vent pipe Preferred sitting type Dugged Pit Latrine Use block or brick to line pit if soil is loose Regular VIP Front view Regular VIP Side and back View Non linned pit A two dimensional view of VIP 14 Latrine Technology Manual

15 Principles of Operation Excreta and anal cleansing material drops into the pit where the organic material decomposes and excess liquids percolate into the surrounding soil. Natural airflow through the window or opening on top of the door and moving across the top of the vent pipe removes smells and vents gases from the pit to the atmosphere. A darkened interior is maintained causing insects entering the pit to be attracted towards the light at the top of the vent pipe and trapped by the fly screen. The faecal Sludge that is generated from the pit is manually removed and buried or may be transported for further treatment by composting. This latrine technology is best suited to rural, peri-urban and some parts of urban areas where there is land available for possible relocation when pits get full. Advantages and disadvantages No. Advantages Disadvantages 1. Can be built and repaired with locally available materials 2. Low (but variable) capital costs depending on materials and pit depth 3. Flies and odours are significantly reduced (compared to non-ventilated pits) Flies and odours occur if structure is not built to design specifications Low reduction in BOD and pathogens with possible contamination of groundwater Cost to empty may be significant compared to capital costs 4. Sludge requires secondary treatment and/or appropriate discharge Applicability Suitable where people use solid/ hard materials for anal cleansing. These can be directly deposited into the toilet pit. Suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water supply is not always dependable. Suitable where the ground is easy to dig, where the water table is low, places where is are no issues with water-logging and flooding. Suitable where there is space to dig a new pit and move the superstructure when the old pit becomes full, hence not suitable for urban areas Easy to build with local materials only. Construction 1. Pit cover-slab/ floor: This can be made out of timber with fine earth on top or Reinforced Concrete slab using bamboo/ other wood logs or steel reinforcement. The floor should be smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. 2. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia or blockwork. Mud walling built up to 300mm (0.3m) above the ground level will help keep the wood substructure from rotting. Advisably, wood must be treated with dirty engine oil. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm/150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must be fitted with a fly-screen, it must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend at least 0.5 meter above the roof. 5. The pit can be lined with dry hammer-dressed stones 1 4 thick to prevent the collapse of the earth. The maximum depth of pit shall not be below 2.5 meters with a 0.3 meter freeboard but will vary depending on the depth of water table and the nature of the soil. Latrine Technology Manual 15

16 Engineering drawings Mozambique VIP 225mm 1800mm 50 x 75mm 700mm c/c 100mm vent pipe with fly screen roofing material(thatch etc.) 150mm 1800mm 1350mm 2775mm 2400mm 1050mm 2775mm 2400mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 1050mm 1350mm 225mm SECTION (A-A) VIEW-SLAB ON LINED PIT SECTION C-C 225mm 600mm 600mm 400mm FOOT REST MOULD vent slab 675mm 600mm PLAN VIEW - SLAB foot rest squat slab 600mm 1800mm 1800mm A 1650mm 1350mm A C 1650mm 1350mm C 1350mm GROUND FLOOR PLAN 1350mm CIRCULAR PIT PLAN 16 Latrine Technology Manual

17 Regular VIP roofing material(thatch etc.) 50 x 75mm purlin 50 x 100mm rafter 100mm vent pipe with fly screen 25 x 200mm fascia board 2450mm 75mm 2100mm 1800mm gl 1400mm 2400mm cover slab cover slab 1850mm 150mm 150mm 1500mm backfill 2475mm 1200mm 1850mm 1:3:6 mass concrete in trench Pit Foundation Plan vent slab vent slab vent slab 375mm 2350mm squat hole A 950mm 700mm 125mm 125mm Section A-A foot rest squat slab vent slab 125mm 1200mm A 800mm 450mm Plan View 450mm 600mm 1400mm 1650mm 450mm 450mm 450mm Latrine Technology Manual 17

18 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter (3m long) 1 Number 2 Sliding bolt 1 Number 3 Roofing Nails 0.5 Kilograms 4 Handle 2 Number 5 Nails 4 and 3 2 Kilograms 6 Hinges 3 Number 7 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 8 Wood 2 x 3 5 Pieces 9 Stone 2 Cubic meters 10 3 feet roofing sheet 2 Pieces 11 Sand 3 cubic meters 12 Skilled labour 2 Work-day 13 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day 14 Cement (50 kilograms bag) 6 Bags mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bar 2 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built closer to the house than the traditional pit latrine. 2. The location should be chosen considering wind and sunlight direction. 3. The toilet should be located at a minimum distance of 30 meters from any type of water source. 4. For the air to be able to flow, use of a drop-hole cover is not recommended during day time. 5. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor (preferably using mild disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 6. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 7. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the vent-pipe and be sure the pipe is not obstructed. 8. Repairs should be carried out immediately a problem is identified. 9. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. 10. Avoid the use of chemicals in the pit. 18 Latrine Technology Manual

19 3.1.3 Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit (KVIP) An improvement to the traditional VIP is the Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit (KVIP) which is designed with double pits. The double Pit VIP has almost the same design as the Single Pit VIP with the added advantage of a second pit that allows it to be used continuously and permits safer and easier emptying. By using two pits, one pit can be used, while the content of the second rests, drains, reduces in volume, and degrades. When the second pit is almost full (the excreta is 50 cm from the top of the pit), it is covered, and the content of the first pit is removed. Due to the extended resting time (at least 1 or 2 years after several years of filling), the material within the pit is partially sanitized and humus-like. Graphical Representation Front view of a KVIP latrine A two dimensional view of KVIP Back view of a KVIP latrine Latrine Technology Manual 19

20 Principle of Operation The principles of operation are the same as for the VIP toilet. One pit is used until filled to within about half a meter of the top. The pedestal and vent pipe holes are to be completely sealed before the other pit is used. The contents of the first pit are dug out after a period of at least two years, once the contents have become less harmful. Due to the extended resting time (at least 1 or 2 years after several years of filling), the material within the pit is partially sanitized and humus-like. The faecal Sludge that is generated from the pit is manually removed and buried or may be transported for further treatment by composting. This latrine technology may be appropriate for rural, peri-urban and urban areas where there is land available for possible relocation when pits get full. Advantages and disadvantages No. Advantages Disadvantages 1. Longer life than Single VIP (indefinite if maintained properly) 2. Excavation of humus is easier than faecal sludge Manual removal of humus is required Possible contamination of groundwater 3. Significant reduction in pathogens Higher capital costs than Single VIP; but reduced operating costs if self-emptied 4. Potential for use of stored faecal material as soil conditioner 5. Flies and odours are significantly reduced (compared to non-ventilated pits) 6. Can be built and repaired with locally available materials Applicability Suitable where people use solid/ hard materials for anal cleansing. These can be directly deposited into the toilet pit. Suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water supply is not always dependable. Suitable where the ground is easy to dig, where the water table is low; places where there are no issues with water-logging and flooding. Suitable where there is not much space available to dig a new pit and move the superstructure when the old pit becomes full, hence suitable for urban areas Easy to build with local materials only. Construction 1. Pit cover-slab/ floor: This can be made of Reinforced Concrete slab using steel reinforcement. The floor should be smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. The cover slab should be reinforced with 12mm diamter mild steel bars spaced at 200mm centre to centre 2. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia or blockwork. Mud walling built up to 300mm (0.3m) above the ground level will help keep wood superstructures from rotting. Advisably, wood must be treated with dirty engine oil. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm/150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must be fitted with a fly-screen, that allows sunlight to enter the Pipe. The pipe should extend a minimum of 300mm above the highest point of the roof. 20 Latrine Technology Manual

21 5. The pit can be lined with dry hammer-dressed stones or blockwork to prevent the collapse of the soil. The minimum depth of the pit should be 1.5m with a freeboard of 0.3m. 6. Another possible design occurs where the two pits are constructed to have a partition wall with height shorter than the adjacent wall of the pit. In this design, only one vent pipe is positioned within the partition wall and some space left underneath to allow the air draft from both pits to move up the pipe and diffuse out. Latrine Technology Manual 21

22 Engineering Drawings roofing sheet 50 x 75mm purlin 50 x 100mm rafter 4"/100mm vent pipe with fly screen mm fascial board 2100 gl cover slab cover slab backfill :3:6 mass concrete in trench SECTION A - A FOUNDATION PLAN FOR PIT cover slab cover slab vent slab squat slab 600 cover slab cover slab vent slab squat slab foot rest A A PLAN VIEW - VIP KVIP SLAB 22 Latrine Technology Manual

23 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kilograms bags) 10 Bags 2 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter (3m long) 2 Number 3 Sliding bolt 1 Number 4 Tower bolt 2 Number 5 Roofing nails 0.5 Kilograms 6 Handle 2 Number 7 Nails 4 and 3 2 Kilograms 8 Hinges 3 Number 9 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 10 Wood 2 x 3 5 Pieces 11 Stone 2 Cubic meters 12 3 feet roofing sheet 2 Pieces 10 Sand 1.5 Cubic meters 11 Skilled labour 2 Work-day Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built closer to the house than the traditional pit latrine. 2. The location should be chosen considering wind and sunlight direction 3. The toilet should be located at a minimum distance of 15 meters from any type of water source. 4. For the air to be able to flow, use of a drop-hole cover is not recommended during day time. 5. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor (preferably using disinfectant but not a detergent), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 6. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 7. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the vent-pipe and check that the pipe is not obstructed. 8. Repairs should be carried out immediately when problems are identified. 9. The pits must not be used for garbage disposal 12 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bar 3 Number Latrine Technology Manual 23

24 3.1.4 Enviro Loo waterless Toilet The Enviro Loo is a dry or waterless sanitation system that employs a dehydrating process over a lengthy retention period with an ancillary, lesser composting process. It uses no water and chemicals. It enables the processes of dehydration and evaporation to occur naturally without any soil or water contamination as the decomposition takes place in a sealed unit. In the design there is no contact between people and the system. The annual maintenance and servicing costs are minimal. The Enviro Loo comprise a superstructure, urinal evaporative tank, ventilation extracting unit, outlet vent pipe, vent pipe wall bracket, urinal bowl and toilet bowl. Graphical Representation Principles of Operation The system separates liquid and excreta as it enters the container through a custom designed ceramic toilet bowl. Liquid waste drains to the bottom of the container while excreta remains on the drying plate. Both the liquid and excreta are exposed to a continuous flow of air that is driven through the unit by the forced aeration ventilation system. The movement of air is assisted by the ventilation extraction unit positioned on top of the outlet vent pipe with air being drawn into the container through the inlet vent pipes and toilet bowl. As air moves through the system, it dehydrates the excreta as it migrates down the sloped, ridged, perforated drying plate. This causes the liquid that has drained to the bottom of the container to evaporate. The sunlight absorbed by the black inspection cover increases the ambient temperature within the container. The intense heat, prolonged retention periods and oxygen-rich air drawn in through the toilet bowl and side air inlets, dehydrate and decompose the excreta. Through biological activities, excreta is converted to an odourless dry stabilised material. Advantages and disadvantages A two dimensional view of Enviro loo No. Advantages Disadvantages 1 It is odourless Cannot be built and repaired with locally available materials 2 Does not require a constant source of water 3 Permanent installation, does not require relocation 4 No chemicals required 5 No sewage treatment facility required 6 Separates excreta from users High capital/ initial cost 24 Latrine Technology Manual

25 Applicability Does not require water. Therefore, suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water supply is not regula. Suitable for high water-table areas because there is no risk of groundwater contamination. Engineering Drawings Construction The whole structure is prefabricated Side view of The Enviro loo model BP 1040 Standard Latrine Technology Manual 25

26 End view of The Enviro loo model BP 1040 Standard Top view of The Enviro loo model BP 1040 Standard 26 Latrine Technology Manual

27 Side view of The Enviro loo model BP 1040 Standard Top view of The Enviro loo model BP 1040 Standard Latrine Technology Manual 27

28 Contact for further information South Africa Enviro Options (PTY) Ltd. Tel: +27 (0) Local Contact Holbrook Environs Ltd. Tel: +233 (0) Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. Once a week, sweep and clean the toilet floor (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 2. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 3. Once every six months check the vent-pipe is not obstructed. 4. Repairs should be carried out immediately. 5. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. 28 Latrine Technology Manual

29 3.1.5 Ecological sanitation (EcoSan toilet) Graphical Representation Ecological Sanitation (ECoSan) is an environmentally friendly sanitation system which regards human waste as resource for agricultural purposes and food security. It is an approach which is characterized by a desire to safely close the loop (mainly for the nutrients and organic matter) between sanitation and agriculture. The basic principle of ECOSAN is to close the loop between sanitation and agriculture without compromising health Composting latrine In this latrine, excreta fall into a watertight tank to which ash or vegetable matter is added. If the moisture content and chemical balance are controlled, the mixture will decompose to form a good soil conditioner in about four months. Pathogens are killed in the dry alkaline compost, which can be removed for application to the land as a fertilizer. There are two types of composting latrine: in one, compost is produced continuously, and in the other, two containers are used to produce it in batches. A two dimensional view of Composting toilet Principles of Operation This type of latrine recycle nutrients from human excreta for agricultural production. The deposited faecal matter is dried by exposure to heat or the sun and the addition of lime, ash, sawdust or earth, which controls the moisture content. Vegetable or other organic waste can also be added to control the chemical balance. The latrine contents are then isolated from human contact for a specified period to reduce the presence of pathogens and make the waste safe for handling. This period should be at least one year. In a composting latrine, there are two (2) vaults, only one of which is used at a time. When one is nearly full, it is Latrine Technology Manual 29

30 covered with soil and left for at least two (2) years for the excreta and waste to be decomposed and the pathogenic germs in it to die. While the vault is closed the second is used. Advantages and disadvantages No. Advantages Disadvantages 1 A valuable humus is produced. More difficult to construct than simple pit latrines. 2 Considerable odour reduction High level of user awareness required Applicability Suitable if the household is interested in using the decomposed faeces as plant fertilisers. Does not require water. Therefore, suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water supply is notregular. Suitable for hard-rocky areas and high water-table areas because the whole structure is above ground-level. No risk of ground-water contamination. The alternating use of the two pits allows the toilet to be used continuously without any interruption. When the first pit becomes full, the drop-hole is closed and sealed and the second pit is put into use. When the second pit becomes full, the emptying hatch of the first pit is dismantled and the decomposed contents can be removed and safely used as a plant fertiliser. The emptying hatch is then re-closed and the pit put back into use while the second pit is sealed. Construction 1. Floor: This can be made of compacted earth covered by concrete, smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. 2. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia and blockwork with mud/ cement plaster. Advisably, wood must be treated, example with dirty engine oil, dursban, kerosene etc. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins; size of rafter is 3 x4 (75mm x 100mm) and purlins 2 x3 (50mm x 75 mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC, 100mm to 150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend 100mm to 150mm above the roof. 5. Pits: The pits can be made of cement blocks/bricks with cement mortar 1:6. The emptying hatches should be closed with metal to allow easy opening for removal of the pit contents. 6. Superstructure: The superstructure must be firmly secured to the foundation to prevent damage by wind. * It is recommended that a pulley controlled system with baffles or paddles should be incorporated to facilitate the turning of the excreta periodically. This will reduce the probable human-excreta contact 30 Latrine Technology Manual

31 Engineering Drawing partition wall 1800mm 150mm 928mm 1422mm 672mm 225mm 1500mm Plan 100/150mm vent pipe 225mm reinforcement concrete beam faeces hole end of pit or chamber line foot rest partition wall 150mm 450mm Foundation Plan 450mm 2200mm 3100mm 525mm 522mm 150mm 1100mm 2800mm 50 x 50mm 900mm c/c 100 x 50mm 900mm c/c 750mm Roof Details Latrine Technology Manual 31

32 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Particular Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kgs bags) 15 Bags 2 Pipe 100mm or 150mmdiameter (10 long) 2 No 3 Sliding bolt 2 No 4 Tower bolt 1 No 5 Handle 1 No 6 Nails 5 Kgs 7 Hinges 3 No 8 Wood 1 x 12 3 pcs 9 Wood 2 x 3 10 pcs 10 Sand 2.5 Cubic meters 11 Gravel 1 Cubic meters 12 Stone 3.5 Cubic meters 13 Skilled labour 2 work-day 14 Unskilled labour 2 work-day 15 12mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bars 3 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be located in attached to or close by the house. 2. The collected faecal matter is collected in a suitable container and subsequently used as manure. 3. A small amount of wood-ash or other suitable material like sand or saw dust should be added through the drop-hole after each use and the lid for the drop-hole replaced. 4. Once a week, sweep and clean the toilet floor (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. Do not use excess water. 5. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 6. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the vent-pipe and check the pipe is not obstructed. 7. Repairs should be carried out immediately when a problem is identified. 8. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. 9. Faecal matter in compost chambers should be turned periodically 32 Latrine Technology Manual

33 Urine Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT) The urine diverting dry toilet (UDDT) is a sanitation facility for households and public facilities. A Urine Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT) is a toilet that operates without water and has a divider so that the user, with little effort can divert the urine away from the faeces. UDDTs may be constructed with two (2) adjacent dehydration vaults or one single vault with interchangeable containers. This technology was originally promoted in connection with safe reuse of excreta. However, the primary focus of UDDT implementation has gradually shifted from that of excreta reuse to the broader objective of creating odourless, dry and versatile latrine. This technology does not require water, therefore it is suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water supply is not always dependable. The alternating use of the two pits allows the toilet to be used continuously without any interruption. When the first pit becomes full, the drop-hole is closed and sealed and the second pit is put into use. When the second pit becomes full, the emptying hatch of the first pit is dismantled and the decomposed contents can be removed and safely used as a plant fertiliser. The emptying hatch is then re-closed and the pit put back into use while the second pit is sealed. Graphical Representation Urine diversion pipe Fly screen Vent pipe Air (ventilation) Access cover Urine collection container Turning and removal of composted material by hand A two dimensional view of UDDT Latrine Technology Manual 33

34 Principles of Operation The UDDT toilet is built such that urine is collected and drained from the front area of the toilet, while faeces fall through a large chute (hole) in the back. Depending on the Collection and Storage/Treatment technology that follows, drying material such as lime, ash or earth should be added into the same hole after defecating. It is important that the two sections of the toilet are well separated to ensure that a) faeces do not fall into, and clog the urine collection area in the front, and that b) urine does not splash down into the dry area of the toilet. During the dehydrating process moisture evaporates from the faeces and microbes degrade the organic material leading to significant reduction in the numbers and viability of pathogens. Urine is collected in containers for direct use or stored for further processing. Storage of urine generally leads to a raise of ph and consequent hygienisation. Front view with metal rail Back view Advantages and disadvantages No Advantages Disadvantages 1 Avoids contamination of water sources and soil 2 Composting of human waste for use as a natural fertilizer High capital/initial cost UDDT in urban areas require special attention in the collection of urine and composted faecal sludge 3 There is no need of emptying the pits Is prone to clogging with faeces and misuse 4 It is applicable for water logged, water scarce, coastal and rocky areas 5 Significant reduction of pathogen by drying 6 Promotes soil fertility and improved crop production Slightly more difficult to clean compared to other technologies Difficult to use for small children More effort to put into awareness raising and habit changing 34 Latrine Technology Manual

35 Applicability Suitable if the household is interested in using the decomposed faeces and separated urine as plant fertilisers. Suitable for hard-rock areas and high water-table areas because the whole structure is above ground-level. No risk of ground-water contamination. Construction Floor: This can be made of compacted earth covered by concrete, smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia and blockwork with mud/ cement plaster. Advisably, wood must be treated with dirty engine oil. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm to 150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend 100mm to 150mm above the roof. The top of the vent-pipe must be fitted with a fly-screen. Pits: The pits can be made of stone masonry with cement mortar 1:6 mix. The emptying hatches should be closed with stone masonry with mudcement mortar to allow dismantling for removal of the pit contents. Superstructure: The superstructure and roof must be firmly secured to the foundation to prevent damage by wind. Latrine Technology Manual 35

36 Engineering Drawings UDDT without railings UDDT with railings 2128mm 2606mm down 1078mm Right Side Views Left Side Views ground level ground level Plan North Side View South Side View 4300mm 100mm 3025mm 300mm 3700mm 705mm ground level ground level 1500mm Right Side View Front View Back View ground level ground level Left Side View 36 Latrine Technology Manual

37 partition wall 1800mm 150mm 928mm 1422mm 672mm 225mm 1500mm 100/150mm vent pipe 225mm reinforcement concrete beam faeces hole end of pit or chamber line foot rest urine hole partition wall urine tank 150mm 450mm 2200mm 450mm 3100mm PLAN Foundation Plan 525mm 522mm 150mm 1100mm 2800mm 50 x 50mm 900mm c/c 100 x 50mm 900mm c/c 750mm Roof Details Latrine Technology Manual 37

38 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kilogramss bags) 15 bags 2 Eco-san squatting pan 2 Number 3 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter (3m long) 3 Number 4 Sliding bolt 2 Number 5 Tower bolt 1 Number 6 Handle 1 Number 7 Nails 5 Kilogramss 8 Hinges 3 Number 9 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 10 Wood 2 x 3 10 Pieces 10 Sand 2.5 Cubic meters 11 Gravel 1 Cubic meters 12 Stone 3.5 Cubic meters 13 Skilled labour 2 Work-day 14 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day 15 12mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bars 3 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be located attached to or close by the house. 2. The separated urine is collected in a suitable container such as a litres plastic jerry can and used as liquid manure. The urine collected can be safely used on the farm after storage for forty (40) days. Alternatively, the outlet of the urine pipe can be connected to a soakaway-pit and the urine dispersed off into the soil. 3. A small amount of wood-ash or other suitable material like sand or saw dust should be added through the drop-hole after each use and the lid for the drop-hole replaced. 4. Once a week, sweep and clean the toilet floor (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. Do not use excess water. 5. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 6. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the vent-pipe and check the pipe is not obstructed. 7. Repairs should be carried out immediately when the problem is identified. 8. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. 38 Latrine Technology Manual

39 3.2 Wet Systems Graphical Representation Pour-flushed toilets The pour flush toilet has a water seal (U-trap or siphon) that prevents odours and flies from coming back up the pipe. Water is poured into the bowl to flush the toilet of excreta; approximately 2 to 3 litres are usually sufficient. The quantity of water and the force of the water (pouring from a height often helps) must be sufficient to move the excreta up and over the curved water seal. Both pedestals and squatting pans can be used in the pour flush mode. Due to demand, local manufacturers have become increasingly efficient at massproducing affordable pour flush toilets and pans. Vent pipe Roofing Pour-flash bowl without water seal Pit lining A two dimensional view of Pour-Flush Toilet without Water-Seal, Installed On Direct Pit (Ventilated Pit) Latrine Technology Manual 39

40 Principles of Operation A pour-flush toilet is like a regular flush toilet except that instead of the water coming from the cistern above, it is poured in by the user. The pour-flush (PF) latrine comprises two principal components: the latrine pan with its integral waterseal and either single or twin leach pits. The water seal is effective at preventing odours and fly control. The excreta flushed into the leach pit are biodegraded under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. By natural biodegradation and the action of time and temperature, excreta is rendered harmless, and the pit will contain a friable humus that is both safe to use and inoffensive. Advantages and disadvantages Front view of pour flush over pit No Advantages Disadvantages 1 Water required for satisfactory operation is usually about 2-3 litres per flush 2 High social acceptability especially in moslem communities where water is used for anal cleansing 3 With minimum householder care and maintenance, odor and insect nuisance are negligible 4 Both adults and children can use the toilet without fear 5 Pits can be used by multiple households in the case of off-set pits Trap may be regularly blocked by bulky anal cleansing materials Possible ground water contamination from leach pit especially in areas with high water table Side view of pour flush over pit 40 Latrine Technology Manual

41 Pour-Flush Toilet without Water-Seal, Installed On Direct Pit (Ventilated Pit) This design is a slightly upgraded version of the Ventilated Improved Pit latrine (VIP). The design is achieved by installing a pour-flush squatting pan instead of a drop hole. Applicability Suitable where the ground is easy to excavate and where there is no high water table, water-logging, or flooding. Suitable only if there is dependable water supply (requires at least 1 or 2 litres per use). Suitable where users are accustomed to using water for anal cleansing. Where people use solid/hard materials, these must not be put into the toilet. Instead they should be put in a covered container kept inside the toilet, and disposed of each day by burning and/ or burying. Applicable in Moslem dorminant communities rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm/150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must be fitted with a fly-screen, must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend 100mm to 150mm above the roof. 5. Water storage: The toilet must have inbuilt water storage of liters or a water storage container (with a lid in mosquito-prone areas). 6. The pit can be lined with dry hammer-dressed stones 1 4 thick, blockwork or to prevent the collapse of the earth. The minimum depth of the pit should be 1.5m. Construction 1. Pit cover-slab/ floor: This can be made out of round timber ballies with fine earth on top or Reinforced Concrete slab using bamboo or steel reinforcement. The floor should be smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. 2. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia or blockwork. Mud walling built up to 300mm (0.3m) above the ground level will help keep wood superstructures from rotting. Advisably, wood must be treated with dirty engine oil. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of Latrine Technology Manual 41

42 Engineering Diagram roofing material(thatch etc.) 50 x 75mm purlin 50 x 100mm rafter 25 x 200mm fascial board 2450mm 2150mm 1850mm 2100mm 1800mm 1400mm 2400mm 1500mm gl pour flush squat bowl without water seal FOUNDATION VIEW 150mm 1200mm 2475mm vent hole 1:3:6 mass concrete in trench 1200mm squat slab SECTION A-A squat hole 800mm A 950mm 700mm 1200mm A PLAN VIEW 1400mm 1650mm 125mm 42 Latrine Technology Manual

43 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kilograms bags) 6 Bags 2 Pour-flush squatting pan without water seal 1 Number 3 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter 1 Number 4 Sliding bolt 1 Number 5 Tower bolt 1 Number 6 Handle 2 Number 7 Nails 4 and 3 4 Kilograms 8 Hinges 3 Number 9 Timber 5 Pieces 10 Sand 3 Cubic meters 11 Gravel 2 Cubic meters 12 Stone 2 Cubic meters 13 Roofing nails 0.5 Kilograms 14 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 15 Wood 2 x 3 5 Pieces 16 3 feet (900mm) roofing sheet 2 Pieces 17 Skilled labour 2 Work-day 18 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day 19 12mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bar 3 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built closer to the house than the traditional pit latrine. 2. The location should be chosen considering wind and sunlight direction. 3. The toilet should be located at a safe distance (Not less than 30 meters according to CWSA standard) from any type of water source. 4. For the air to be able to flow, use of a squatting pan cover is not recommended during day time. 5. Pour some water on the pan before using the toilet to avoid sticking of faeces on the pan. 6. At least once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor and squatting pan (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 7. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 8. Repairs should be carried out immediately problems are identified. 9. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. 10. Physical inspection at least once a month Latrine Technology Manual 43

44 Pour-Flush Toilet without Water-Seal, Connected to Single Indirect Pit (Off-Set Pit) Graphical Representation Side view Section Pan Connecting pipe Approx. 1m o.5m depth of pit Top view Approx. 1m Applicability Suitable where the ground is easy to dig and where there is no high watertable, water-logging, or flooding. Suitable only if there is dependable water supply (requires at least 1 or 2 liters per use). A two dimensional view of Pour-Flush Toilet without Water-Seal, Connected to Single Indirect Pit (Off-Set Pit) Suitable where users are accustomed to using water for anal cleansing. Where people use solid/hard materials, these must not be put into the toilet. Instead they should be put in a covered container kept inside the toilet, and disposed of each day by burning and/ or burying. Construction 1. Pit cover-slab/ floor: This can be made out of round timber with fine earth on top or Reinforced Concrete slab using bamboo or steel reinforcement. The floor should be smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. Front view 2. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia or blockwork. Mud walling built up to 300mm (0.3m) above the ground 44 Latrine Technology Manual

45 level will help keep wood superstructures from rotting. Advisably, wood must be treated with dirty engine oil. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm/150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend 100mm to 150mm above the roof. 5. Water storage: The toilet must have inbuilt water storage of liters or a water storage container (with a lid in mosquito-prone areas). 6. The leach-pit can be lined with dry hammer-dressed stones 400mm thick. The cover can be made with concrete (1:2:4 concrete mix) with either bamboo or steel reinforcement (12 mm 200 mm centres). It can be made in two pieces for easy handling. 7. Pipe connection: Connect 100mm upvc pipe from the squatting pan to off-set pit (Length depending on location of off-set pit from squatting pan) Engineering Drawings 100mm or 150mm vent pipe with fly screen 150mm 2100mm 2475mm 900mm 450mm 1400mm CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW 50 x 75mm timber 30mm 50 x 100mm timber 75mm 375mm roofing gl mm fascia board 450mm Ø1536mm 125mm 1200mm 700mm 1450mm mm vent pipe GROUND PLAN 1830mm fan light DOOR Latrine Technology Manual 45

46 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kilograms bags) 6 Bags 2 Pour-flush squatting pa 1 Number 3 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter 2 Number 4 Sliding bolt 1 Number 5 Tower bolt 1 Number 6 Handle 2 Number 7 Nails 4 and 3 4 Kilograms 8 Hinges 3 Number 9 Timber 5 Pieces 10 Sand 3 Cubic meters 11 Gravel 2 Cubic meters 12 Stone 2 Cubic meters 13 Roofing nails 0.5 Kilograms 14 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 15 Wood 2 x 3 5 Pieces 16 3 feet (900mm) roofing sheet 2 Pieces 17 Skilled labour 2 Work-day 18 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day 19 12mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bar 3 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built closer to the house than the traditional pit latrine. 2. The location should be chosen considering wind and sunlight direction. 3. The toilet should be located at a minimum distance of 15 meters from any type of water source. 4. For the air to be able to flow, use of a squatting pan cover is not recommended during day time. 5. Pour some water on the pan before using the toilet to avoid sticking of faeces on the pan. 6. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor and squatting pan (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 7. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 8. Repairs should be carried out immediately problems are identified. 9. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. 10. Physical inspection at least once a month. 46 Latrine Technology Manual

47 Pour-Flush Toilet with Water-Seal, Installed On Ventilated Pit This is a type of pour flush system where the superstructure (squatting pan) sits directly on the pit. There is no use of pipes to transport of faecal matter. It is usually the first choice when one intends to upgrade from a VIP system to a flush system. It is obtained by installing a pour-flush squatting pan with water-seal instead of the drop-hole. Graphical Representation Roofing Front view Side view water trap Vent pipe Pour-flash bowl with water seal Pit lining A two dimensional view of pour-flush toilet with water-seal, installed on ventilated pit Applicability Suitable where the ground is easy to excavate/dig and where there is no high water table, water-logging, or flooding. Suitable only if there is regular water supply (requires at least 3 or 4 litres per use). Suitable where users are accustomed to using water for anal cleansing. Suitable where users are accustomed to using water for anal cleansing. Where people use solid/hard materials, these must not be put into the toilet. Construction 1. Pit cover-slab/ floor: This can be made out of round timber ballies with fine earth on top or Reinforced Concrete slab using bamboo or steel reinforcement. The floor should be smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. Latrine Technology Manual 47

48 2. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia or blockwork. Mud walling built up to 300mm (0.3m) above the ground level will help keep wood superstructures from rotting. Advisably, wood must be treated example with dirty engine oil, dursban, kerosene etc. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm/150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend not less than300mm above the highest point of the roof. 5. Water storage: The toilet must have inbuilt water storage of liters or a water storage container (with a lid to prevent mosquito breeding). 6. The leach-pit can be lined with dry hammer-dressed stones, engineered bricks or sandcrete blocks 400mm to 450mm thick. The pit cover can be made with concrete (1:2:4 concrete mix) with either bamboo or steel reinforcement (12 mm 200 mm centres ). It can be made in two pieces for easy handling. 48 Latrine Technology Manual

49 Engineering Drawings roofing material(thatch etc.) 50 x 75mm purlin 50 x 100mm rafter 25 x 200mm fascial board 2450mm 2150mm 1850mm 2100mm 1800mm 1400mm 2400mm 1500mm gl pour flush squat bowl with water seal FOUNDATION VIEW 150mm mm vent hole 1:3:6 mass concrete in trench 1200mm squat slab SECTION A-A squat hole 800mm PLAN VIEW A 950mm 700mm 1200mm A 1400mm 1650mm 125mm Latrine Technology Manual 49

50 Approximated material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kilograms bags) 6 Bags 2 Pour-flush squatting pan with water trap 1 Number 3 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter (3m long) 2 Number 4 Sliding bolt 1 Number 5 Tower bolt 1 Number 6 Handle 2 Number 7 Nails 4 and 3 4 Kilograms 8 Hinges 3 Number 9 Timber 5 Pieces 10 Sand 1.5 Cubic meters 11 Gravel 1.5 Cubic meters 12 Stone 2 Cubic meters 13 Roofing nails 0.5 Kilograms 14 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 15 Wood 2 x 3 5 Pieces 16 3 feet (900 mm) roofing sheet 2 Pieces 17 Skilled labour 2 Work-day 18 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day 19 12mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bars 3 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built closer to the house than the traditional basic pit latrine. 2. The location should be chosen considering wind and sunlight direction. 3. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor and squatting pan (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 4. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 5. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the vent-pipe and check the pipe is not obstructed. 6. Repairs should be carried out immediately a problem is identified. 50 Latrine Technology Manual

51 Pour-Flush Toilet with Water-Seal, Connected to Single Off-Set Leach-Pit This type has the pit offset from the superstructure (squat pan). Pipes are required to transport faeces to pit. In this type the pits are constructed with holes to allow for infiltration of water into the soil. This design is an upgraded form of the pourflush toilet without water-seal and it is obtained by the addition of a water-seal to the pour-flush squatting pan. Graphical Representation Front view Pan Water trap Connecting pipe 0.5m Approx. 1m depth of pit Approx. 1m Section Top view A two dimensional view of pour-flush toilet with water-seal, connected to single off-set leach-pit Side view Latrine Technology Manual 51

52 Applicability Suitable where the ground is easy to excavate and where there is no high water table, water-logging, or flooding. Suitable only if there is regular water supply (requires at least 3 or 4 liters per use). Suitable where users are accustomed to using water for anal cleansing. Where people use solid/ hard materials, these must not be put into the toilet. Instead they should be put in a covered container kept inside the toilet, and disposed of each day by burning and/ or burying. can be made in two pieces for easy handling. A vent pipe should be fitted in the leach-pit cover. Engineering Drawings 4''/100mm or 6''/150mm vent pipe with fly screen 50 x 75mm timber 50 x 100mm timber roofing Construction 1. Floor: This can be made of compacted earth covered by concrete, smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. 1400mm 30mm 75mm gl mm fascia board 2. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia and blockwork with mud/ cement plaster. Stone walling built up to 1 above ground level will help avoid rotting of timber. Advisably, wood must be treated with dirty engine oil. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm to 150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend 100mm to 150mm above the roof. 5. Water storage: The toilet must have inbuilt water storage of litres or a water storage container (with a lid in mosquito-prone areas). 150mm 450mm mm CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW Ø1536mm 125mm 1200mm 1450mm 375mm 700mm mm 6. The leach-pit can be lined with dry hammer-dressed stones 400mm thick. The cover can be made with concrete (1:2:4 concrete mix) with either bamboo or steel reinforcement (12 mm 200 mm centres ). It vent pipe GROUND PLAN 1830 DOOR fan light 52 Latrine Technology Manual

53 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kilograms bags) 6 Bags 2 Pour-flush squatting pan with water trap 1 Number 3 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter (3m long) 2 Number 4 Sliding bolt 1 Number 5 Tower bolt 1 Number 6 Handle 2 Number 7 Nails 4 and 3 4 Kilograms 8 Hinges 3 Number 9 Timber 7 Pieces 10 Sand 1.5 Cubic meters 11 Gravel 1 Cubic meters 12 Stone 2 Cubic meters 13 Roofing nails 0.5 Kilograms 14 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 15 Wood 2 x 3 5 Pieces 16 3 feet (900mm) roofing sheet 2 Pieces 17 Skilled labour 2 Work-day 18 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day 19 12mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bars 3 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built inside, attached to, or close to the house. 2. The location of the leach-pit should be chosen considering wind direction. 3. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor and squatting pan (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 4. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 5. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the gas-pipe fitted to the leach-pit cover and check the pipe is not obstructed. 6. Repairs should be carried out immediately. Latrine Technology Manual 53

54 Pour-Flush Toilet with Water-Seal, Connected to Twin Off-Set Leach-Pits This type has the pit offset from the superstructure (squat pan). Pipes are required to transport faeces to pit. In this type two pits are constructed with holes to allow for infiltration of water into the soil which are used alternatively. There is also a diversion/inspection chamber to direct faeces to the desired leach pit. It gives a longer design life as compared to the single leach pit. This design is the same as pour flush toilet with water seal but has an additional leach-pit. The alternating use of the two leach-pits allows the toilet to be used continuously without any interruption. When the first leach-pit becomes full, the pipe from the junction box is closed and the second leach-pit is put into use. When the second leach-pit becomes full, the first leach-pit is emptied and put back into use. The decomposed contents of the leach-pits are safe to use as a plant fertilizer if desired. Graphical Representation Front view Inspection chamber Handles for pit and inspection chamber covers Pit 1 not in use Approx. 1m Inspection chamber with stone or block of wood for blocking secondary pipe less than depth of pit Pan Water trap Connecting pipe Approx. 1m depth of pit Pit 2 in use Section Top view A two dimensional view of pour-flush toilet with water-seal, connected to twin off-set leach-pits Back view 54 Latrine Technology Manual

55 Applicability Suitable where the ground is easy to excavate and where there is no high water-table, water-logging, or flooding. Suitable only if there is dependable water supply (requires at least 3 or 4 liters per use). Suitable where users are accustomed to using water for anal cleansing. Where people use solid/ hard materials, these must not be put into the toilet. Instead they should be put in a covered container kept inside the toilet, and disposed of each day by burning and/ or burying. can be made in two pieces for easy handling. A vent pipe should be fitted in the leach-pit cover. Construction 1. Floor: This can be made of compacted earth covered by concrete, smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. 2. Walls: Walls can be made of wood planks, palm fronds, raffia and blockwork with mud/ cement plaster. Stone walling built up to 25mm above ground level will help avoid rotting of timber. Advisably, wood must be treated with dirty engine oil. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm to 150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend 100mm to 150mm above the roof. 5. Water storage: The toilet must have inbuilt water storage of liters or a water storage container (with a lid in mosquito-prone areas). 6. The leach-pit can be lined with dry hammer-dressed stones 400mm thick. The cover can be made with concrete (1:2:4 concrete mix) with either bamboo or steel reinforcement (12 mm 200 mm centres). It Latrine Technology Manual 55

56 Engineering Drawings 4''/100mm or 6''/150mm vent pipe with fly screen 50 x 75mm timber 50 x 100mm timber roofing mm fascia board 450mm Ø1536mm 125mm 1200mm 700mm 250mm 1830mm 750mm fan light 1400mm 30mm gl 75mm R618mm 150mm 1450mm DOOR 2100mm 2475mm 375mm vent pipe 150mm GROUND PLAN 450mm CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW Front Elevation Back Elevation Side Elevation 56 Latrine Technology Manual

57 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kilograms bags) 8 bags 2 Pour-flush squatting pan (with water trap) 1 Number 3 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter (3m long) 2 Number 4 Sliding bolt 1 Number 5 Tower bolt 1 Number 6 Handle 2 Number 7 Nails 3 Kilograms 8 Hinges 3 Number 9 Wood 1 x 8 3 Pieces 10 Wood 2 x 3 6 Pieces 11 Sand 2.5 Cubic meters 12 Gravel 1.5 Cubic meters 13 Stone 4.5 Cubic meters 14 Skilled labour 2 Work-day 15 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day 16 12mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bars 3 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built inside, attached to, or close to the house. 2. The location of the leach-pits should be chosen considering wind direction. There should be enough space to allow at least 4-5 feet between the two pits. 3. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor and squatting pan (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 4. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 5. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the gas-pipe fitted to the leach-pit covers and check the pipe is not obstructed. 6. Repairs should be carried out immediately. 7. Periodic inspection of chambers Latrine Technology Manual 57

58 3.2.2 Water Closet (WC) Toilet, Connected to Septic Tank The water closet with septic tank toilet is a type of flush toilet that disposes of human waste (blackwater and greywater) by using water to flush it through a drain pipe into a septic tank that act as a settling and treatment chamber for both the blackwater and greywater. The septic tank is a water tight chamber through which blackwater and greywater flows for partial treatment. This technology maintains a separation between humans and excreta. Graphical Representation Front view water closet inspection chamber outlet scum waste water soak away sludge A two dimensional view of water closet (wc) toilet, connected to septic tank Side view 58 Latrine Technology Manual

59 Principles of Operation Excreta from the toilet is flushed into a septic tank that acts as a settling chamber for the solids. The liquid is retained in the septic tank for at least 24 hours, but may be up to 10 days. Domestic wastewater may also be drained into the septic tank, or alternatively directed into the soak-away. In the septic tank solids settle out to the bottom where they undergo biological digestion. The liquids pass out of the tank and into a subsoil drainage system (soak-away). Digested sludge gradually builds up in the tank and requires eventual removal by tanker. Advantages and disadvantages No Advantages Disadvantages 1 No real problems with flies and odours if used correctly 2 The excreta of one user are flushed away before the next user arrives High capital and operating costs Requires a reliable household water connection 3 Hygienic to use Can only be constructed in areas with access for emptying of tanks by vacuum tanker 4 Cannot be built and/or repaired locally with available materials Construction 1. Floor: This can be made of compacted earth covered by concrete, smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. 2. Walls: Walls should be made of blockwork with mud/cement plaster. 3. Roof: This can be made from Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC pipe 100mm to 150mm diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend 100mm to 150mm above the roof of the house. 5. Water storage: The toilet must have inbuilt water storage (cistern) of 3-6 liters per flush. 6. The septic tank should have three (3) chambers and the last chamber can be lined with dry hammer-dressed stones 400mm thick or blockwork with holes directly into the surrounding soil to allow the waste water from the first two chambers to seep into the earth. The cover should be made with concrete (1:2:4 concrete mix) with steel reinforcement (12 mm 200 mm centres). A vent pipe should be fitted in the septic tank cover. Applicability Suitable only if there is dependable water supply (requires at least 3 to 5 liters per use). Where people use solid/ hard materials, these must not be put into the toilet. Instead they should be put in a covered container kept inside the toilet, and disposed of each day by burning and/ or burying. Latrine Technology Manual 59

60 Engineering Drawings A B C 2200mm 1200mm 150mm 200mm 600mm 2000mm 200mm 200mm 1000mm 600mm 150mm 200mm t mm 1800mm 400mm 300mm 400mm 150mm 150mm 200mm r s s influent chamber 550mm 300mm 550mm effluent chamber mm 2 p l a n t 100mm x 750mm x 750 precast septic tank covers water level 400mm ground level ± 000 r effluent chamber 1750mm 200mm 600mm2050mm 75mm mass concrete blinding cross section t - t 60 Latrine Technology Manual

61 A B C 2200mm 1200mm 100mm x 750mm x 750 precast inspection chamber cover 100mm x 750mm x 750 precast septic tank covers ground level ± 000 Ø 100mm pvc pipe Ø 100mm pvc inlet tee 150mm 400mm 100mm 225mm influent chamber water level 300mm 1745mm 100mm 200mm 775mm 100mm 1025mm Ø 100mm pvc pipe 225mm effluent chamber Ø 100mm pvc outlet tee 300mm 75mm mass concrete blinding longitudinal section r - r Latrine Technology Manual 61

62 Approximate material estimate SI. No. Item Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kilograms bags) Bags 2 Water closet bowl (with water trap) 1 Number 3 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter (10 long) 4 Number 4 6 Blocks Number 5 Tower bolt 1 Number 6 Handle 2 Number 7 Nails 3 Kilograms 8 Hinges 3 Number 9 Sand 8 Cubic meters 10 Gravel 3 Cubic meters 11 Stone 9 Cubic meters 12 12mm Steel reinforcement bars 13 Number 13 Skilled labour 2 Work-day 14 Unskilled labour 2 Work-day 15 12mm diameter mild steel reinforcement bars 10 Number Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built inside, attached to, or close to the house. 2. The location of the leach-pit should be chosen considering wind direction. 3. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor and squatting pan (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 4. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 5. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the gas-pipe fitted to the leach-pit cover and check the pipe is not obstructed. 6. Repairs should be carried out immediately. 62 Latrine Technology Manual

63 3.2.3 Biofil Toilet Biofil digesters are on-site waste treatment systems. Living organisms in an enclosed environment treat organic degradable matter through natural aerobic decomposition. Wastewater and faecal matter enter a rapid separation chamber/section for the separation of solids and liquid content of the waste. Separation is achieved by the function of a porous composite. Bacteria and other micro and macro organisms (worms) degrade solid faecal matter. Liquids are eventually filtered out into the soil. Graphical Representation Vent pipe Vent pipe Top Cover A prefabricated superstructure of Biofil Mesh lining A two dimensional view of biofil toilet Space for excreta loading Filtering media (Coarse Sand) Concrete box panel Bulking material Porous Concrete Pavement block Principles of operation Excreta and wastewater enter at the top of the Biofil digester where rapid separation of solids and liquid contents of the waste occurs. Bacteria, other organisms such as worms degrade solid faecal matter. All liquids are organically filtered out of the bottom of the digester and drained into the soil where further and final decomposition occurs. Other solids (toilet paper & all degradable anal cleaning material) are decomposed and converted into rich & safe soil. Latrine Technology Manual 63

64 Due to its relatively small footprints it is a suitable option for peri-urban and urban areas where there is water available for flushing. Advantages and disadvantages No Advantages Disadvantages 1 Ground water not affected; Water is directed into top soils where microbial activities are most active. Nutrients are removed by soil bacteria decomposition Final effluent may need secondary treatment to ensure total elimination of faecal coliforms. 2 Suitable for soil with low water table High initial capital cost 3 Hygienic to use In water logged areas, effluent has to be treated before final discharge. 4 Minimal odour After long periods (more than five (5) years) sludge may accumulate in the digester. 5 Less water required (1.5 litres for microflush) 6 Does not require large land area hence suitable for densely populated areas Applicability Suitable if the household is interested in using the decomposed faeces as soil conditioner. Requires very little water. Therefore, suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water supply is not always dependable. Suitable for all soil types because the whole structure can be built above or below ground level. Construction 1. The digester should have one chamber. The cover slab should be made with concrete (1:2:4) with steel matting when raised or steel reinforcement (12 mm 200 mm c\c) when build underground. 2. Pervious concrete layers are required to serve as the filtration media for the waste from the WC/micro-flush system. Engineering Drawing Drawings are based on the specification of the supplier. Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be located in, attached to or close by the house. 2. Once a week, sweep and clean the toilet floor (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 3. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 4. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the vent-pipe and check the pipe is not obstructed. 5. Repairs should be carried out immediately. 6. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. 7. Once every three to four months, check to ensure that vermin (worms) are alive and functioning. If not re-seed your digester with worms. 8. Regular inspection to check population of vermin 64 Latrine Technology Manual

65 3.2.4 Ecosafe Toilet Engineering Drawing The uniqueness of the system is employed by the engagement of two (2) elements to degrade the fecal matter Natural Aeration (air) Cultured Microbes (enzymes) Mode of Operation Water is separated from fecal matter immediately after flushing. The aerobic microbes (enzymes) begin an active degradation of the fecal matter into smaller units. The airy conditions created helps dry up the degraded units. A combined action of the duo elements leaves an average 400g (av.per prsn) fecal matter to 4g of dry compost WITHIN 4 DAYS (Retention Period). So within four days, action is completed on any substrate Advantages of Ecosafe Toilets Much cheaper than the traditional Septic Tank. Can be installed in any terrain, with minimal or no excavation. Requires less space for installation. No desludging or emptying of tanks or digesters. No smell (odour free). Uses minimal water and this water can be recycled after use. Reduces carbon footprint. Avoids depositing at landfill sites and improves environmental conditions. Comfortable and easy to use. The microbes are poured on the bedding (mulching) material after installation of the system only once and for all throughout the lifespan of the digester. GROUND FLOOR PLAN Latrine Technology Manual 65

66 ROOF PLAN FOUNDATION PLAN RIGHT SIDE VIEW LEFT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW BACK VIEW 66 Latrine Technology Manual

67 RIGHT SIDE VIEW LEFT SIDE VIEW Digester SECTION X-X Ground lev. Ground lev. Digester SECTION Y-Y Latrine Technology Manual 67

68 3.2.5 Biogas Digester Biogas digester consists of airtight reservoirs in which biomass is caused to ferment under natural anaerobic conditions by living organisms. This decomposition process produces a gas that can be used to generate electrical and or thermal energies because of the high methane content. Biogas digesters may be on-site or off-site treatment systems. Graphical Representation Principles of Operation Biogas technology work on the principle of anaerobic digestion through fermentation of biodegradable materials. Anaerobic means without oxygen and the bacteria that produce the biogas can only survive if they are not exposed to oxygen in the air. The anaerobic bacteria generally thrive at two (2) temperature zones from OF and from OF. Lower temperatures are generally not efficient at producing biogas. It is a natural, biological process similar to composting that breaks down liquid sewage or other organic wastes and in the process biogas is produced. Biogas is primarily methane (CH 4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). It also contains small amounts of hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S) moisture and siloxanes. The percentage of CH4 is about % which is the primary component of the natural gas. Inlet for animal wastes Gas outlet pipe Removable cover for annual desludging Advantages and disadvantages No Advantages Disadvantages 1 Odours are significantly reduced in an anaerobic digestion system High initial cost Baffle to mix influent with tank contents A two dimensional view of biogas system Biogas tank ( m 3 per person) Collecting tank 2 It is a renewable energy source Risk from toxicity of its hydrogen sulphide fraction 3 Harmful pathogens in waste are reduced Can be explosive when mixed in the ratio of one part of biogas to 8-20 parts of air 4 Capturing and burning methane with anaerobic digestion systems reduces agricultural source of green house gases Biogas leaks smell like rotten egg 5 Special safety precautions have to be taken for entering on empty biogas digester for maintenance works 68 Latrine Technology Manual

69 Applicability Suitable if the household is interested in using the decomposed faeces as plant fertilisers and methane gas generated from the faeces as fuel for cooking or electricity generation The system requires water therefore not suitable for locations where there is scarcity of water or where the water supply is not always dependable. This technology is not suitable for hard-rock areas and high water-table areas because the whole structure is below ground-level. If properly designed however, there is no risk of ground-water contamination. Construction 1. Floor: This can be made of compacted earth covered by concrete, smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. 2. Walls: Walls should be made of blockwork with mud/cement plaster. Latrine Technology Manual 69

70 Engineering Drawing 70 Latrine Technology Manual

71 Latrine Technology Manual 71

72 Approximate material estimate Sl. No. Particular Qty Unit 1 Cement-50 kg 32 bags 2 Water proof cement-1kg 7 bags 3 Quarry stones dressed/blocks-390x190x190mm 300 pcs 4 Bricks-230x110x90mm 600 pcs 5 Sand 6 tonnes 6 Ballast-25mm-1" 4 tonnes 7 Lime 25kg bags 5 bags 8 Square twisted bar-y8/r8 9 lengths 9 Round Bars-R6 10 lengths 10 Binding wire 3 kg 11 Timber-2"x2" 2 m 12 Timber-2"x2" 2,5 m 13 Plywood-3mm 2 sheets 14 Nails-3" 2 kg 15 Nails-2" 0,5 kg 16 GI pipe-3/4" 1 length 17 Wire brush 2 pcs 18 Paint brush-6" 1 pcs 19 PVC Pipe 4"-Sanitation 1,00 length 20 PVC Elbow 4"-45º Sanitation 1 pcs Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be located in attached to or close by the house. 2. The decomposed faecal matter is collected in a suitable container and subsequently used as manure. 3. Once a week, sweep and clean the toilet floor (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. Do not use excess water. 4. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 5. Repairs should be carried out immediately. 6. The pit must not be used for garbage disposal. 72 Latrine Technology Manual

73 3.2.6 Aqua privy Principles of Operation An aqua privy is an underground watertight tank, filled with water, which is connected to a flush toilet or defecation hole. Excreta drop directly into the tank through a pipe. The bottom of the pipe is submerged in the liquid in the tank, forming a water seal to prevent escape of flies, mosquitoes and smell. The tank functions like a septic tank. Effluent usually infiltrates into the ground through a soakpit. Accumulated solids (sludge) must be removed every 1 5 years. Enough water must be added to compensate for evaporation and leakage losses. Graphical Representation Fly screen Front view Vent pipe Water tank may be hand filled Air (ventilation) Seat cover Low flush pedestal Access cover Scum Down pipe maintained below water level Soakaway (soakpit or drainage trench) Liquid Sludge Digester Water tight tank A two dimensional view of Aqua privy toilet Side view Latrine Technology Manual 73

74 Advantages and disadvantages No Advantages Disadvantages 1 Does not need piped water on site Water must be available nearby 2 Less expensive than a septic tank More expensive than VIP or pour-flush latrine 3 Fly, mosquito and smell nuisance if seal is lost because insufficient water is added 4 Regular desludging required, and sludge needs careful handling 5 Permeable soil required to dispose of effluent Applicability This design is an upgraded form of the Ventilated Improved pit, it is obtained by installing a squatting plate which has a drop pipe extending 75mm below the liquid level in the pit (septic tank) to form a simple water seal. Suitable where the ground is easy to excavate/dig and where there is no high water table, water-logging, or flooding. Suitable only if there is dependable water supply. Suitable where users are accustomed to using water for anal cleansing. Suitable where users are accustomed to using water for anal cleansing. Where people use solid/hard materials, these must not be put into the toilet. Instead they should be put in a covered container kept inside the toilet, and disposed off each day by burning and/ or burying. Construction 1. Pit cover-slab/ floor: This can be made out of Reinforced Concrete slab using steel reinforcement. The floor should be smoothly finished and made impervious to water and urine penetration. 2. Walls: Walls should be made of blockwork. 3. Roof: This can be made from wood shingles, bamboo matting, Corrugated Galvanised Iron sheets, or thatch over timber rafters and purlins (size of rafter is 75mm x 100mm and purlins 50mm x 75mm). The roof should be firmly secured to prevent wind damage. 4. Vent-pipe: The vent-pipe can be PVC, pipe 100MM/150MM diameter. The top of the vent-pipe must also allow sunlight to enter the pipe and it should extend 100mm to 150mm above the roof. 5. Water storage: The toilet must have inbuilt water storage of liters or a water storage container. 6. The septic tank should have one chamber and should be water and air tight. The cover slab should be made with concrete (1:2:4) with steel reinforcement (12 mm 200 mm c\c). 74 Latrine Technology Manual

75 Engineering Drawing roofing sheet 50 x 75mm purlin 50 x 100mm rafter 2100mm 75mm 1800mm gl 1400mm 300mm 100mm vent pipe with fly screen 2400mm 25 x 200mm fascial board water storage system cover slab Water level Outlet backfill 2475mm 1850mm 2350mm 1:3:6 mass concrete in trench cover slab cover slab vent slab squat slab 800mm 450mm Section 1200mm 125mm cover slab cover slab vent slab 600mm 125mm 125mm 700mm 1200mm Plan View - VIP 3@ 450mm 1225mm 1400mm 1650mm 150mm 150mm 1850mm 1500mm Plan of Slab 2450mm Latrine Technology Manual 75

76 Approximated material estimate Sl. No. Particular Qty Unit 1 Cement (50 Kgs bags) 6 bags 2 Squat plate with an extended drop hole 1 No 3 Pipe 100mm or 150mm diameter (10 long) 2 No 4 Sliding bolt 1 No 5 Tower bolt 1 No 6 Handle 2 No 8 Hinges 3 No 9 Timber 5 pcs 10 Sand 1.5 Cubic meters 11 Gravel 1.5 Cubic meters 12 Stone 2 Cubic meters 13 Roofing nails 0.5 Kg 14 Nails 4 and 3 2 Kg 15 Wood 1 x 12 3 pcs 16 Wood 2 x 3 5 pcs 17 3 feet roofing sheet 2 pcs 19 Skilled labour 2 work-day 20 Unskilled labour 2 work-day Toilet location, proper use and hygiene 1. This toilet can be built closer to the house than the traditional basic pit latrine. 2. The location should be chosen considering wind and sunlight direction. 3. Once a week, sweep, wash and clean the toilet floor and squatting pan (preferably using disinfectant), and clean the toilet surrounding area. 4. Once a month, clean the walls, door and ceiling. 5. Once every six months check the fly-screen on top of the vent-pipe and check the pipe is not obstructed. 6. Repairs should be carried out immediately a problem is identified. 76 Latrine Technology Manual

77 3.2.6 Simplified Sewerage Graphical Representation Simplified sewerage collects all household wastewaters (WC wastes and sullage) in small-diameter pipes laid at fairly flat gradients for example, a 100 mm diameter sewer laid at a gradient of 1 in 200 (0.5 percent) will serve around 200 households with a wastewater flow of 80 litres per person per day. The sewers are often laid inside the housing block, or in the front garden or under the pavement (sidewalk), rather than in the centre of the road as with conventional sewerage. This network of pipes is connected to a centrally located holding tank which can easily be accessed by cesspit trucks for collection to an offsite treatment facility. It is suitable for existing unplanned low-income areas and new housing estates with a more regular layout. Advantages Can be built and repaired with locally available materials Capital cost are between 50 and 80 % less than conventional gravity sewers Operating cost are low Disadvantages Requires enough water for flushing Requires frequent repairs and removal of blockages Difficulty in charging fair tariffs for household connections to the system based on household size Applicability Suitable only if there is dependable water supply (requires at least 3 to 5 liters per use). Where people use solid/ hard materials, these must not be put into the toilet. Instead they should be put in a covered container kept inside the toilet, and disposed of each day by burning and/ or burying. Latrine Technology Manual 77

78 3.3 Other Prefabricated Toilets Advantages and disadvantages Sanergy Advantages 1 Avoids contamination of water sources and soil 2 Composting of human waste for use as a natural fertilizer 3 It is applicable for water logged, water scarce, coastal and rocky areas 4 Promotes soil fertility and improved crop production Disadvantages High capital/initial cost Sanergy in urban areas require special attention in the collection of urine and composted faecal sludge Slightly more difficult to manage compared to other technologies Sanergy toilet Inside the Sanergy toilet: Kentainer slab, solid waste bin, sanitary towel bin and saw dust container Principles of Operation The Sanergy toilet is constructed such that urine and faeces are separated using a urine-diverting seat that directs them into two different plastic containers. The plastic containers are collected and replaced each day and the human solid waste and urine are transported to a holding facility where the waste is used to create fertilizer and biogas. 78 Latrine Technology Manual

79 3.3.2 Global Latrine Advantages and disadvantages Advantages 1. Longer life than Single VIP (indefinite if maintained properly) 2. Excavation of humus is easier than faecal sludge Disadvantages Manual removal of humus is required Higher capital costs than Single VIP; but reduced operating costs if self-emptied 3. Significant reduction in pathogens Under high temperatures, polyethylene may not prove to be durable. 4. Potential for use of stored faecal material as soil conditioner 5 Suitable for places with high water table Global Latrine Operation Process (Small-Small, 2011) Principle of Operation The Global latrine is a dual-tank VIP latrine system. It is made entirely of prefabricated polyethylene. The principles of operation are the same as for the VIP toilet. One pit is used until it is filled then the content of pit is allowed to compost while the second pit is in use. This reduces the frequency of emptying/ desludging. The contents of the first pit are dug out after a period of at least two years, once the contents have become less harmful. Due to the extended resting time (at least 1 or 2 years after several years of filling), the material within the pit is partially sanitized and humus-like. The faecal Sludge that is generated from the pit is manually removed and buried or may be transported for further treatment. Latrine Technology Manual 79

80 3.3.3 Sun dome Principles of operation The sun dome technology utilizes the urine diversion toilet technology and the VIP technology, however, in this technology, the excrement stays inside a plastic container buried below the ground surface. The plastic container is made completely black and dome-shaped to absorb heat from the sun and allow for easy escape of the hot air inside of the container. The hot air escapes through a vent pipe and this process allows for cool air to flow into the pit/container through the toilet seal. The process removes smells and dry the solid excreta. Advantages and disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages 1 Separates excreta from users Higher capital costs than traditional Single VIP; but reduced operating costs if self-emptied 2 It prevents ground water contamination as the waste is contained within the tank 3 Easy to operate and maintain 4 No nuisance from flies and mosquitoes 5 It has an indefinite lifespan Sun domes. (source, 80 Latrine Technology Manual

81 3.3.4 Plastic septic tank Principles of Operation The plastic septic tank is prefabricated and its operation is similar to that of a regular septic tank. The plastic containers which are usually fully or partially buried are desludged when they get full. Access Inlet Baffle Outlet Baffle Scum Liquid Scum Liquid A typical plastic septic tank (source, Advantages and disadvantages Sludge First compartment Sludge Second compartment Cross section of a typical plastic septic tank (source, Advantages 1 They are easy to install and require lesser time to install compared with a regular blockwork septic tank. 2 It has a lesser overall costs. 3 Prevent seepage hence suitable for water logged areas Duraplast Ghana P. O. Box AN 7136 Accra North Tel: +233 (0) / info@duraplastghana.com Disadvantages Under high temperatures, polyethylene may not prove to be durable. Polytank Ghana P. O. Box 5334 Accra North Tel: +233 (0) sam.patnaik@polygroupgh.com Latrine Technology Manual 81

82 3.4 Portable Toilets Advantages and disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages 1 It is portable High operation and maintenance cost 2 Can be used where there is space constraint 3 Suitable for the sick and aged who are not mobile BoP Potti: In-house Toilets Not suitable for large household size There nust be a service provide to aid in the disposal of faeces The portable toilets have the following properties: Plastic sitting toilet with mechanical pump mechanism for flushing Dimensions: 34x44x39 cm, Weight: 4 kg Detachable flush tank (15 L) and waste tank (21 L) Manufacturing cost: 24 (mass production in China) As an indication, the waste tank has to be emptied daily when used with a family of 4.5 people. The flush tank has to be re-filled about every 4 days. For operation, the toilet requires the following additives: Waste tank additive (liquid or sachets) Function: reduces gas build-up, odours and stimulates breakdown of solids Environmentally friendly - can be released in a septic tank Description of the system: The toilet has 2 or 3 compartments. First compartment is the collection bowl, second compartment the storage tanks for sludge or urine and faeces. The storage tanks are designed to contain their contents for about a week. 82 Latrine Technology Manual

83 3.4.2 Porta Potty Mobile Toilet Clean Team Toilet Contact Information NKMediaGH Phone: Location: Ghana, WEST AFRICA, ACCRA Price: GHS Address: Odumasi, Kumasi Phone: Latrine Technology Manual 83

84 4 EMERGENCY SANITATION OPTIONS Emergencies occur after a disaster has taken place which is defined as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources (UNISDR, 2009). Many different disasters can cause emergencies. These include floods, earthquakes, storms, conflicts, droughts, wars and many more. Emergency agencies distinguish between two main ways in which people are displaced during emergencies 1) in situ 2) displaced. These categories help understanding how to manage latrines. Under In situ, people are spread out and centralised sanitation systems are not possible. An example is in flood situations in Accra where people don t want to leave their home, or they want to get back to their houses as soon as possible. Also for Displaced populations example in camps, schools, mosques, where agencies construct a block for water and sanitation which is often operated and managed by camp managers. In selecting an emergency sanitation option, there are some key factors to consider. These are; Health and hygiene including the risk for exposure to pathogens and hazardous substances in the catchment. Environment and natural resources including the inputs and the emissions into the system. Technology and operation including the construction, operation, monitoring and robustness of the system. Financial and economic issues including the capacity to pay for the sanitation and its costs and benefits and possible externalities. Socio-cultural and institutional aspects including acceptance, gender and legal compliance. 4.1 Technologies and stage of emergency There are different stages relevant to emergency situations. Design lives for toilets are divided into immediate term (less than one (1) month), shortterm (three (3)-six (6) months), recovery and long-term (less than one year). Immediate solutions should aim for containing excreta in the quickest possible time. Any type of sanitation system that separates humans from faeces should be a priority over more sustainable options to save human lives in the short term, however there are sustainable solutions. Short term solutions applies to all subsequent stages of an emergency, where the situation becomes stabilized and more sustainable interventions can be implemented for longer -term use. During this phase community structures may start to reassemble and morbidity and mortality rates should start to fall. 84 Latrine Technology Manual

85 Table 4.1: Overview of different priorities and technology choices depending on the phase of emergency Immediate (>one month) Short term (three to six months) Recovery (six months one year) Long-term (>one year) Priorities Containment of excreta in the quickest possible time Promoting use and organizing people to operate and maintain toilets Longer term use and sharing Developing to higher technology in sanitation where people want to do this Technology choice Defecation fields, shallow trench latrines, and deep trench latrines Technology choice Simple pit latrines ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines KVIP Individual simple pit latrines, either hand-dug or drilled, may be an option in lower-density, longer-term emergency settlements. UDD toilets Pour-flush latrines Septic tanks Aqua privies Prefabricated Latrines Portable toilets Latrine Technology Manual 85

86 5 Latrine Features for Physically Challenged It is a widely acknowledged but little studied fact that persons with disabilities routinely face difficulties in accessing clean water and basic sanitation throughout the developing world. Issues preventing disabled people from accessing water and sanitation in these countries may vary depending on cultural and geographical contexts, as well as by the type of disability a person may have. Thus a person with a physical impairment may face significantly more difficulties in using an outdoor latrine. Also, a person who is deaf or who has an intellectual disability may have no physical difficulty in walking to a community latrine, but be teased or abused and thus find such a facility inaccessible for social and safety reasons. However, cultural and geographic variations, as well as adaptations needed for persons with different types of disabilities, are well known and can be anticipated and planned for. Barriers can broadly be separated into two types: technical and social. 5.1 Type of Disabilities The various disabilities have been broadly classified under four categories as presented in Table 5.1. Table 5.1 Description of broad categories of disability Type of Disability Description Schematic Diagram Non-Ambulatory Semi-Ambulatory Sight Impairments that, regardless of cause or manifestation, for all practical purposes, confine individuals to wheel & chairs. Impairments that cause individuals to walk with difficulty or insecurity. Individual using braces or crutches, amputees, arthritics, spastics &those with pulmonary & cardiac ills may be semi-ambulatory. Total blindness or impairments affecting sight to the extent that the individual functioning in public areas is insecure or exposed to danger. Hearing Deafness or hearing handicaps that might make an individual insecure in public areas because he is unable to communicate or hear warning signals. 86 Latrine Technology Manual

87 mm 350 mm Mirror Toilet Roll 700 mm Grab Bar 900 mm 650 mm 700 mm mm 700 mm 900 mm 200 mm Basin Flip-up Grab Bar Toilet Bowl Plan: Dimensions recommended for fixing rails for physically challenged (Option 1) 3D: Dimensions recommended for fixing rails for physically challenged (Option 2) 5.2 Ramp Design SIDE ELEVATION Angle of slope Length Rise PLAN Length Latrine Technology Manual 87

88 5.2.1 Ramp Dimensions Angle of slope measurement in degrees Length in mm Rise in mm 88 Latrine Technology Manual

89 6 HANDWASHING Access to water, sanitation and hygiene promotion is one of the key aspects to securing the health status of populations affected by emergencies and humanitarian crises. The impact of hygiene promotion and washing of hands with soap has wider health implications, as hands are vectors that can transport disease agents from humans to humans, directly or indirectly. Furthermore, the ability to wash hands contributes to maintaining the dignity, human rights, mental health, safety and security of an affected population. Faecal-oral disease can account for more than 40% of deaths in the acute phase of an emergency (Connolly et al., 2004). In some emergencies and post-emergency situations, diarrhoea can lead to increased morbidity. Handwashing with soap at key times is believed to be an effective and highly cost effective means of reducing diarrhoea incidence (Curtis and Cairncross, 2003). Global rates of handwashing with soap, however, are frequently low, particularly among the poor, who also face the greatest threat from infectious diseases(scott, Curtis, and Rabie, 2003). Access to a convenient handwashing station has been found to be associated with higher rates of handwashing (Biran, Tabyshalieva and Salmorbekova, 2005) and decreased fingertip contamination (Pinfold, 1990). 6.1 Handwashing Facilities/ Technologies Handwashing Sinks Handwashing sink is a bowl-shaped plumbing fixture used for washing hands and other purposes. Sinks have taps (faucets) that may supply hot and cold water. They also include a drain to remove used water; this drain may itself include a strainer and/or shut-off device and an overflow-prevention device. Sinks may also have an integrated soap dispenser. Handwashing sink Latrine Technology Manual 89

90 6.1.2 Oxfam Buckets Oxfam Bucket at a Glance Oxfam buckets are a standard emergency response technology widely used in humanitarian emergencies by a wide range of WASH actors. The technology was initially designed and field-tested to improve safe water collection and storage during disaster response. The device can hold up to 14 litres of water and the tap and lid allow water to be poured without risk of contamination (Figure 1). Oxfam buckets further differ from normal buckets as the moulding stud commonly found on the bottom of buckets has been removed to make it easier to carry on the head. The bucket is also stackable, easy to clean due to its rounded edges and does not degrade when exposed to sunlight (Oxfam, 2015; Oxfam n.d.). The design concept of the Oxfam bucket is often replicated in emergency and development situations using locally available materials. Working Principle Capacity/Adequacy Performance Costs Self-help compatibility Operation and maintenance Reliability Main Strength Main Weakness Application Safely stores water for washing hands after visiting the toilet The device can hold water to up to 14 litres. Adequately washes hands. Very low Can be built and repaired with locally available materials and amateur building experience. Open tap gently during hand washing. Care should be taken to prevent the tap from spoiling. Remember to cover the bucket always to prevent possible contamination of water. High Keeps water in a closed container making contamination unlikely to occur. Easy to use. Users need to get extra container or drainage installed to channel used water Universally applicable. Oxfam Bucket 90 Latrine Technology Manual

91 6.1.3 The Tippy Tap Tippy Tap at a Glance A common handwashing device used in the developing world is the Tippy Tap. Originally developed in Zimbabwe by Jim Watt and Jackson Masawi, the Tippy Tap is a simple and economical device made with commonly available materials (often a container similar to that of a jerry can, with a capacity of 5 litres). It allows for a small release of water for handwashing, thereby avoiding water wastage. The container is filled with water, suspended from a wooden frame and the neck of the container is tied to a piece of wood at ground level, allowing the device to be operated hands-free (Figure 2). The mechanical tipping action of the Tippy Tap is generally considered an appealing feature of the technology and can be useful in initiating community interest and engagement. Tippy Taps are considered simple to use and provide a visual cue for handwashing which may play a useful role in nurturing handwashing habits in children. Tippy Taps are also very water efficient, having been shown to use just 0-50 ml for one handwash. Working Principle Capacity/Adequacy Performance Costs Self-help compatibility Operation and maintenance Reliability Main Strength Main Weakness Application Hand washing is more hygienic if users do not get in contact with the water outlet. Using a foot pedal to tilt the water container solves this problem. Capacity depends on the size of the container. Anything larger than 25 litres would be difficult to pull with the foot pedal. About 0.4 litres is used per application. Adequately washes hands. Very low Can be built and repaired with locally available materials and amateur building experience. Container can sway and pull depending on how the foot pedal is aligned. Care should be taken to set it up with sturdy support. High Easy to construct. Keeps water in a closed container making contamination unlikely to occur. Easy to use. Users get wet feet unless some kind of drainage is installed Universally applicable. The Tippy Tap is useful for promoting hygiene in situations without running water. Latrine Technology Manual 91

92 6.1.4 Tap Up Hand Sink- Simple but Requires Manufactured Fittings A bucket with a valve at the bottom can also serve as a hand sink. The tap up hand sink was developed by Mathew Lippincott for outdoor festivals in the Pacific Northwest of the US in It is based on a Finnish design called the Andy Handy (see also under important web links below).the Andy Handy costs about $40 USD and can be ordered from Finland. However, the Tap Up sink can easily be constructed on one s own. Tap Up Hand Sink- at a Glance (5 Gallons Version) Working Principle Capacity/Adequacy Performance Costs USD 6 Self-help compatibility Operation and maintenance Reliability Main Strength Main Weakness Application Hand washing is only hygienic if water outlet is not contaminated during its use. The water outlet is continuously washed during usage and using either brass or copper valves prevent microbes from settlingdown. 5 gallons of water provides a minimum of 32 uses. Hand washing with the Tap Up requires about a half cup of water. Four or more holes for the water spray allow for more effective hand washing Can be built and repaired with locally available materials and amateur building experience The container needs frequent refilling. Leaks can be repaired by means of tape or other sealing material. High Easy to construct. Easy to use. Economical water consumption Requires a support structure (tree branch or building). The hand sink is useful for promoting hygiene in situations without running water. 92 Latrine Technology Manual

93 6.2 Emerging Technologies for Handwashing This section describes and evaluates some of the emerging technologies and practices to promote handwashing in developing and emergency settings. This highlights what is presently being developed and changed based on learning from past innovations related to handwashing The LaBobo The LaBobo, also known as the Happy Tap, is a portable bright green plastic sink which brings soap and water together in a single handwashing device for children. The device is currently available in Vietnam and Cambodia (WaterSHED, 2014). In designing the LaBobo, the developers undertook a human design centric process with significant investment in consumer research and prototyping. Key factors in the design and marketing processes were to create a device that attracted attention, was associated with elements of desirability, aspiration and status, and thus generated a perceived value The SpaTap The SpaTap is a one size fits all silicone fitting for water bottles, resulting in a flow-controllable camp shower or camp tap. The bottle fitting can fit small drinking-sized bottles (25mm opening) through to larger fountain type bottles (42mm opening). When hung by a strap, the inverted bottle and SpaTap assemblage can facilitate the placement, storage and drying of a soap bar. The SpaTap, constructed from food grade, UV-stable silicone, can be utilised in three modes including: low volume pump action for handwashing (utilises squeeze action), trickle mode to facilitate handwashing, and a moderate flow shower mode. Fitted to a one-litre bottle, the SpaTap delivers at least 25 effective hand washes (SpaTap, 2015). LaBobo Handwash Latrine Technology Manual 93