Off-Gas Treatment Technologies for Soil Vapor Extraction Systems: State of the Practice

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2 EPA-542-R Off-Gas Treatment Technologies for Soil Vapor Extraction Systems: State of the Practice Prepared by: Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation Office Solid Waste and Emergency Response U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

3 Section CONTENTS Page ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS...vi NOTICE AND DISCLAIMER...viii ACKNOWLEDGMENT...ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... ES INTRODUCTION Purpose Document Structure Sources of Information Types of Environmental Remediation Systems Summary of Off-Gas Treatment Technologies Evaluated Thermal Treatment Adsorption Biofiltration Emerging Technologies Non-Thermal Plasma Photolytic and Photocatalytic Technologies Membrane Separation Other Technologies Evaluation Criteria BACKGROUND State of Practice for Off-Gas Treatment History of Soil Vapor Extraction Soil Vapor Extraction and Multi-Phase Extraction Treatment Systems Treatment System Components Treatment System Operations Contaminant Sources and Off-Gas Characteristics Regulatory Requirements THERMAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES Thermal Oxidation Technology Description Direct-Flame Thermal Oxidizers Flameless Thermal Oxidizers Catalytic Oxidizers Hybrid Thermal/Catalytic Oxidizer Systems Heat Recovery Applicability Limitations Performance Engineering Considerations Design Issues Operating Issues Residuals Management Products of Complete Combustion Products of Incomplete Combustion i

4 Section CONTENTS (Continued) Page Cost and Economics Capital Cost Operating Cost Developmental Status Internal Combustion Engines Technology Description Applicability Limitations Performance Engineering Considerations Residuals Management Cost and Economics Developmental Status ADSORPTION TECHNOLOGIES Activated Carbon Adsorption Technology Description Applicability Limitations Performance Engineering Considerations Residuals Management Cost and Economics Developmental Status Zeolite Adsorption Technology Description Applicability Limitations Performance Engineering Considerations Residuals Management Cost and Economics Developmental Status Synthetic Polymer Adsorption Technology Description Applicability Limitations Performance Engineering Considerations Residuals Management Cost and Economics Developmental Status BIOFILTRATION TECHNOLOGIES Technology Description Applicability Limitations Performance ii

5 Section CONTENTS (Continued) Page 5.5 Engineering Considerations Residuals Management Cost and Economics Developmental Status EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES Non-Thermal Plasma Technologies Technology Description and Applicability Silent Discharge Plasma Gas-Phase Corona Reactor Developmental Status Performance Engineering Considerations, Limitations, and Cost Photolytic and Photocatalytic Technologies Technology Description and Applicability Developmental Status Photolytic Treatment Photocatalytic Treatment Performance Engineering Considerations, Limitations, and Cost Membrane Separation Technologies Technology Description and Applicability Developmental Status Performance Engineering Considerations, Limitations, and Costs Other Technologies Gas Absorption Technologies Vapor Condensation Technologies SUMMARY REFERENCES iii

6 Section LIST OF TABLES Page 3-1 Lower Explosive Limits for Selected Hydrocarbons Required Oxidation Temperatures to Achieve 99% Destruction and Removal Efficiencies for Select Compounds Estimated Capital Cost Range for Vapor-Phase Activated Carbon Treatment Units (Including Carbon) Gas-Phase Corona Plasma Reactor Technology Results Representative Destruction and Removal Efficiencies for Photocatalytic Treatment of Volatile Organic Compound-Contaminated Air Destruction and Removal Efficiencies for Photolytic Treatment of Soil Vapor Extraction Contaminants from McClellan Air Force Base Generalized Volatile Organic Compound Influent Concentration Ranges for Commercially Available Technologies Evaluation Factors for Thermal Oxidation and Carbon Adsorption Technology Selection iv

7 Section LIST OF FIGURES Page 2-1 Typical Soil Vapor Extraction System Typical Multi-Phase Extraction System Generalized Flow Diagram of Typical Thermal Oxidation System Flameless Thermal Oxidizer System Hybrid Thermal/Catalytic Oxidizer System Recuperative Thermal Oxidizer Regenerative Thermal Oxidizer Internal Combustion Engine Remediation System Typical Regenerable Activated Carbon System Zeolite Adsorption System Comparison of Inlet Concentration Effects on Adsorption Capacity of Adsorbents Comparison of Humidity Effects on Adsorption Capacity of Adsorbents Polymer Adsorption System Typical Biofiltration System Packed Bed Corona Reactor Typical Two-Stage Membrane Separation System v

8 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Ǻ AC AFCEE AFB AST ATSDR BACT Battelle BTEX BTU BTU/cubic ft CAA Cat-Ox CDC cfm CO DCA DCE DFTO DNAPL DOE DPE DRE EBCT fpm FRTR FTO g/m 3 /hr GAC HAP ICAC ICE IP kv LANL lb/hr LEL LNAPL MACT MCP MEC MEK MIBK mm Hg MPE MTBE NAPL NAS NCER Angstrom Alternating current Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence Air Force Base Aboveground storage tank Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Best available control technology Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene British thermal unit British thermal unit per cubic foot Clean Air Act Catalytic oxidizer Centers for Disease Control Cubic foot per minute Carbon monoxide Dichloroethane Dichloroethene Direct flame thermal oxidizer Dense nonaqueous-phase liquid U.S. Department of Energy Dual-phase extraction Destruction and removal efficiency Empty bed contact time Feet per minute Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable Flameless thermal oxidizer Gram per cubic meter per hour Granular activated carbon Hazardous air pollutant Institute of Clean Air Companies Internal combustion engine Ionization potential Kilovolt Los Alamos National Laboratory Pound per hour Lower explosive limit Light nonaqueous-phase liquid Maximum achievable control technology Massachusetts Contingency Plan Maximum elimination capacity Methyl ethyl ketone Methyl isobutyl ketone Millimeter of mercury Multi-phase extraction Methyl tert-butyl ether Nonaqueous-phase liquid Naval Air Station National Center for Environmental Research vi

9 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS (CONTINUED) NESHAP NIOSH nm NO x O&M PCB PCC PCDD PCDD/F PCDF PCE PIC ppm ppmv RCRA RTN RTO scfm SITE SO x SVE SVOC TCA TCE TiO 2 TPH UEL USACE U.S. EPA UST UV VOC National Emission Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutant National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Nanometer Nitrogen oxides Operation and maintenance Polychlorinated biphenyl Product of complete combustion Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans Polychlorinated dibenzofuran Tetrachloroethene Product of incomplete combustion Part per million Part per million by volume Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Remediation Technologies Network Regenerative thermal oxidizer Standard cubic foot per minute Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Sulfur oxides Soil vapor extraction Semivolatile organic compound Trichloroethane Trichloroethene Titanium dioxide Total petroleum hydrocarbon Upper explosive limit U.S. Army Corps of Engineers U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Underground storage tank Ultraviolet Volatile organic compound vii

10 NOTICE AND DISCLAIMER This report has been prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation (OSRTI) under Contract Number 68-W Information in this report is derived from numerous sources, including personal communications with experts in the field. Some of the source documents have been peer-reviewed. This report has undergone U.S. EPA and external review by subject matter experts. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. If you have questions about this report, please contact Kelly Madalinski, U.S. EPA OSRTI, at (703) or A portable document format (pdf) version of Off-Gas Treatment Technologies for Soil Vapor Extraction Systems: State of the Practice may be viewed or downloaded at the Hazardous Waste Cleanup Information (CLU-IN) system Web site at A limited number of printed copies are available free of charge and may be ordered via the Web site, by mail, or by fax from: U.S. EPA/National Service Center for Environmental Publications P.O. Box Cincinnati, OH Telephone: (513) or (800) Fax: (513) viii

11 ACKNOWLEDGMENT This document has been prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation (OSRTI) under Contract Number 68-W Special acknowledgment is given to the remediation professionals for their review and thoughtful suggestions to support the preparation of this document, including the following federal staff: Harold Ball (U.S. EPA), Ray Cody (U.S. EPA), JoAnn Eskelsen (U.S. EPA), Michael Gill (U.S. EPA), Bernard Schorle (U.S. EPA), Michelle Simon (U.S. EPA), Cynthia Wetmore (U.S. EPA), Dave Becker (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers), and Edward Mead (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). ix