Inorganic ScintiUators for Detector Systems

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1 Paul Lecoq Alexander Annenkov Alexander Gektin Mikhail Korzhik Christian Pedrini Inorganic ScintiUators for Detector Systems Physical Principles and Crystal Engineering With 125 Figures Sprin ger

:-. Contents 1 Scintillation and Inorganic Scintillators 1 1.1 The Phenomenon of Scintillation 1 1.1.1 Scintillation Yield 6 1.1.2 Kinetics of Scintillations 7 1.1.3 Radioluminescence Spectrum 7 1.1.4 Photoluminescence Spectrum 7 1.

2 :-. Contents 1 Scintillation and Inorganic Scintillators The Phenomenon of Scintillation Scintillation Yield Kinetics of Scintillations Radioluminescence Spectrum Photoluminescence Spectrum Survey of Scintillation Mechanisms Scintillation-Radiating Centers Ions of the Iron Group Ions With s 2 Outer Shell (Mercury-Like Ions) Ion of Molybdenum Uranium Anionic Complexes Rare-Earth Ions Classification of Inorganic Scintillation Materials Classification Based on the User's Requirements Classification Based on Scintillation Mechanisms Classification Based on Structural Types of Crystals Classification Based on Specific Features of Materials Combined Classification 22 References 27 2 How User's Requirements Influence the Development of a Scintillator User's Requirements for High Energy Physics Introduction Physics Requirements for High Energy Physics Experiments Scintillator Requirements for High-Energy Physics Experiments Cost Considerations Crystal Calorimeters in the World Spectrometry of Low-Energy 7-Quanta Nonlinearity of Scintillator Response Spectrometric Properties of YAP:Ce Crystals User's Requirements for Medical Imaging 51

Contents 2.3.1 Introduction and Historical Background 51 2.3.2 The Different Medical Imaging Modalities 53 2.4 Safety Systems 66 2.

3 Contents Introduction and Historical Background The Different Medical Imaging Modalities Safety Systems Astrophysics 69 References 76 Scintillation Mechanisms in Inorganic Scintillators Introduction: How to Answer High Light Yield, Short Decay Time, and Good Energy Resolution Relaxation of Electronic Excitations Limiting Factors at Each Step of the Energy Relaxation Creation of Electronic Excitations Transfer to Luminescence Centers Emission of Luminescent Centers Creation and Quenching of Radiating Centers Thermal Quenching Nonradiative Relaxation to the Ground State Thermostimulated Photoionization and Trapping Effects Charge Exchange Processes Photoionization and Charge Transfer Charge Transfer Photoionization Impurity-Trapped Exciton 114 References 117 Influence of the Crystal Structure Defects on Scintillation Properties Scintillation Media Defects in a Crystal Internal Point Defects Impurities Linear Defects Change of the Optical and Luminescence Properties by Crystal Defects Scintillation Light Absorption by Crystal Defects Harmful Luminescence and Afterglow Low Background Problem Radiation Damage of Scintillators and Radiation Hardness Improvement Radiation Defects in Dielectrics Radiation Stimulated Losses of Scintillator Transparency Radiation-stimulated Losses Scintillation Efficiency.. 149

Contents XI 4.4.4 Approaches to Radiation Hardness Improvement 154 4.5 Recovery of the Radiation-Induced Absorption 161 References 169 Crystal Engineering 175 5.1 Phase Diagrams 175 5.1.1 Phase Diagram of Continuous Solid Solutions 176 5.

4 Contents XI Approaches to Radiation Hardness Improvement Recovery of the Radiation-Induced Absorption 161 References 169 Crystal Engineering Phase Diagrams Phase Diagram of Continuous Solid Solutions Eutectic and Distectic Phase Diagram Without Solid Solutions Eutectic Phase Diagram with Areas of Solid Solutions Impurity Solubility During the Growth Scintillation Crystal Phase Diagrams Single Crystal Growth General Considerations on the Crystallization Process Basic Methods for Scintillation Crystal Growth Bridgeman and Stockbarger Methods Czochralski and Kyropolos Growth Techniques Modern Trends in Scintillation Crystal Manufacturing State-of-the-Art for Crystal Growth Activator Distribution in a Single Crystal Raw Material Preparation for Scintillator Crystal Growth Raw Material Purity Raw Material Treatment and Preparation for the Crystal Growth Special Atmosphere for the Crystal Growth Additional Melt Purification Nonstoichiometry Light Collection Simulations Detector Shaping Optical Guide Wavelength Shifters 213 References 215 Two Examples of Recent Crystal Development Example of Lead Tungstate Development for High Energy Physics Experiments Introduction The Conditions of Scintillator Development for High Energy Physics (HEP) Strategy for the CMS Calorimeter Progress on Lead Tungstate Other Experiments Using Lead Tungstate 230

$2.3 (h\ii- x -Y x )A10 3 :Ce Scintillation Properties 235 References 242 Conclusion 245 Glossary 247 Tndfix 249$

5 XII Contents 6.2 Development of Ce 3+ -Doped Lutetium-Yttrium Aluminum Perovskite Crystals for Medical Imaging Applications Introduction (Lui_ x -Y 2: )A103:Ce Production Technology (h\ii- x -Y x )A10 3 :Ce Scintillation Properties 235 References 242 Conclusion 245 Glossary 247 Tndfix 249

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B Nuclear nstruments and Methods in Physics Research B 269 (2011) 2572 2577 Contents lists available at Scienceirect Nuclear nstruments and Methods in Physics Research B journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nimb