Contents ASM International. All Rights Reserved. ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

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1 Contents Introduction to Nickel and Nickel Alloys The Nickel Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption Uses of Nickel Wrought Corrosion Resistant Nickels and Nickel Alloys Cast Corrosion Resistant Nickel Alloys Cast Heat Resistant Nickel-Chromium and Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys Superalloys Special-Purpose Nickel Alloys Nickel Coatings Corrosion Behavior of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Corrosion Behavior of Nickel Alloys in Specific Environment Stress-Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen Embrittlement of Nickel Alloys High-Temperature Corrosion Behavior of Nickel Alloys Fabrication and Finishing of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Forming of Nickel Alloys Forging of Nickel Alloys Powder Metallurgy Processing of Nickel Alloys Heat Treating of Nickel Alloys Machining of Nickel Alloys Welding and Brazing of Nickel Alloys Cleaning and Finishing of Nickel Alloys High-Temperature Coatings for Superalloys Metallography, Microstructures, and Phase Diagrams of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Metallography and Microstructures of Nickel, Nickel-Copper, and Nickel-Iron Alloys Metallography and Microstructures of Heat Resistant Alloys Phase Diagrams of Binary and Ternary Nickel Systems Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys The Cobalt Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption Uses of Cobalt Phase Diagrams of Binary and Ternary Cobalt Systems Cobalt-Base Alloys Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys Properties of Cobalt Alloys Wear Behavior of Cobalt Alloys Corrosion Behavior of Cobalt Alloys Fabrication and Metallography of Cobalt Alloys Subject Index Alloy Index

2 ASM Specialty Handbook Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Edited by J. R. Davis Davis & Associates Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee ASM International Staff Scott D. Henry, Assistant Director of Reference Publications Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production Nancy Hrivnak, Copy Editor Kathleen S. Dragolich, Production Supervisor Jill A. Kinson and Candace K. Mullet, Production Coordinators William W. Scott, Jr., Director of Technical Publications ASM International Materials Park, OH 44073

3 Copyright 2000 by ASM International All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner. First printing, December 2000 Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this book, but it should be made clear that NO WAR- RANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MER- CHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSE- QUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement. Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ASM specialty handbook: nickel, cobalt, and their alloys / edited by J. R. Davis; prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Nickel Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Nickel alloys Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Cobalt Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Cobalt alloys Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Davis, J.R. (Joseph R.) II. ASM International. Handbook Committee. TA480.N6 A dc ISBN: SAN: ASM International Materials Park, OH Printed in the United States of America

4 Contents Preface v Introduction to Nickel and Nickel Alloys The Nickel Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption Elemental Nickel Occurrence and Supply Extraction and Refining End Uses of Nickel Uses of Nickel Nickel in Ferrous Alloys Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys Nickel Coatings Nickel in Nonferrous Alloys Nickel Powders Wrought Corrosion Resistant Nickel and Nickel Alloys Physical Metallurgy of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Commercial Nickel and Nickel Alloys Properties of Wrought Nickel and Nickel Alloys Nickel Nickel Nickel Duranickel Monel Monel R Monel K Inconel Inconel Inconel Inconel Inconel Inconel Inconel Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Hastelloy B Hastelloy B Hastelloy C Hastelloy C Hastelloy C Hastelloy C Hastelloy G Hastelloy G Hastelloy G Hastelloy G Hastelloy N Hastelloy S Hastelloy W Hastelloy X Cast Corrosion-Resistant Nickel Alloys Standard Grades Nickel-Base Proprietary Alloys Cast Heat Resistant Nickel-Chromium, Nickel-Iron-Chromium, and Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys Nickel-Chromium Alloys to Resist Fuel Oil Ash Corrosion Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys Superalloys General Background Processing Properties and Microstructure Environmental Effects Special-Purpose Nickel Alloys Commercially Pure Nickel for Electronic Applications Resistance Heating Alloys Thermocouple Alloys Nickel-Iron Soft Magnetic Alloys Low-Expansion Alloys Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Alloys Nickel-Beryllium Alloys Ordered Intermetallic Alloys of Ni 3 Al Nickel Coatings Nickel Plating Electroforming Electroless Nickel Plating Thermal Spray Coatings Weld-Overlay Coatings Solid-State Nickel Cladding Corrosion Behavior of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Corrosion Behavior of Nickel Alloys in Specific Environments Alloy Characteristics Effects of Major Alloying Elements Corrosion in Specific Environments Corrosion of Nickel and High-Nickel Alloy Weldments Stress-Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen Embrittlement of Nickel Alloys Physical Metallurgy of Nickel-Base Alloys SCC in Halide Environments SCC in Environments Containing Sulfur Species SCC in High-Temperature Water and Dilute Aqueous Solutions SCC in Caustic Environments Cracking in Other Environments Hydrogen Embrittlement SCC Testing Methods High-Temperature Corrosion Behavior of Nickel Alloys Oxidation Carburization Nitridation Sulfidation Halogenation Hot Corrosion Ash/Salt Deposit Corrosion Corrosion in Waste Incineration Environments Molten Salt Corrosion Molten Metal Corrosion iii

5 Fabrication and Finishing of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Forming of Nickel Alloys Factors Influencing Formability Special Considerations for Heat-Resistant Alloys Lubricants Tools and Equipment Shearing, Blanking, and Piercing Deep Drawing Spinning Bending Tube and Pipe Bending of Plate, Sheet, and Strip Expanding Forming of Rod and Bar Cold Heading and Cold Extrusion Straightening Cold-Formed Parts for High-Temperature Service Forging of Nickel Alloys Die Materials and Lubrication Heating for Forging Cooling after Forging Forging Practice for Specific Alloys Thermal-Mechanical Processing (TMP) Isothermal Forging Powder Metallurgy Processing of Nickel Alloys Production of Nickel Powders Sintering of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Roll Compacting of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Conventional P/M Superalloy Processing Specialized P/M Superalloy Processing Heat Treating of Nickel Alloys Types of Heat Treatment Annealing Process Control Factors in Annealing Stress Relieving Stress Equalizing Age Hardening Thermomechanical Processing Machining of Nickel Alloys Machinability Categories Basic Principles Applicable to All Machining Operations Recommendations for Machining Welding and Brazing of Nickel Alloys Welding Metallurgy of Corrosion Resistant Alloys Welding Metallurgy of Corrosion Resistant Alloys Containing Molybdenum Welding Metallurgy of Heat Resistant Alloys Consumable Selection, Procedure Development, and Practice Considerations Brazing of Heat Resistant Nickel-Base Alloys Cleaning and Finishing of Nickel Alloys Cleaning and Finishing of Corrosion Resistant Nickel Alloys Cleaning and Finishing of Heat Resistant Nickel Alloys High-Temperature Coatings for Superalloys Coating Requirements Types of Coatings Methods of Applying Diffusion Coatings Properties of Diffusion Coatings Practical Applications of Diffusion Coatings Methods of Applying Overlay Coatings Thermal Barrier Coatings Coating Performance Metallography, Microstructures, and Phase Diagrams of Nickel and Nickel Alloys Metallography and Microstructures of Nickel, Nickel-Copper, and Nickel-Iron Alloys Metallography and Microstructures of Nickel and Nickel-Copper Alloys Metallography and Microstructures of Nickel-Iron Alloys Metallography and Microstructures of Heat Resistant Alloys Specimen Preparation Microexamination Microstructures of Wrought Heat Resistant Alloys Phases in Wrought Heat Resistant Alloys Phase Diagrams of Binary and Ternary Nickel Systems Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys The Cobalt Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption Elemental Cobalt Occurrence and Supply Extraction and Refining End Uses of Cobalt Uses of Cobalt Metallurgical Uses of Cobalt Nonmetallurgical Uses of Cobalt Phase Diagrams of Binary and Ternary Cobalt Systems Cobalt-Base Alloys Cobalt-Base Wear Resistant Alloys Cobalt-Base Heat Resistant Alloys Cobalt-Base Corrosion Resistant Alloys Alloy Compositions and Product Forms Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys Properties of Cobalt Alloys AiResist 13 (AR-13) AiResist 213 (AR-213) AiResist 215 (AR-215) Duratherm Elgiloy FSX Haynes 25 (L-605) Haynes MAR-M MAR-M MAR-M MP35N MP Stellite 6B (Haynes 6B) Stellite 6K Ultimet UMCo-50 (Haynes 150) X-40/X Wear Behavior of Cobalt Alloys Types of Wear Wrought Alloy Wear Data Hot Hardness Values for Wrought Alloys Wear-Related Applications for Wrought Alloys Wear Behavior of Cobalt-Base Hardfacing Alloys Corrosion Behavior of Cobalt Alloys The Effect of Alloying Elements Behavior of Cobalt Alloys in Corrosive Aqueous Environments Environmental Embrittlement of Cobalt Alloys High-Temperature Corrosion of Cobalt Alloys Fabrication and Metallography of Cobalt Alloys Heat Treatment Workability Joinability Machinability Metallography Subject Index Alloy Index iv

6 Preface The history and development of nickel and cobalt, as well as their alloys, parallel one another in a number of ways. Nickel was first used by ancient man in swords and implements fashioned from iron-nickel meteorites. The first authenticated artifact from such a source is what is believed to be a portion of a dagger found at the Sumerian city of Ur (circa 3100 B.C.); analysis has shown it to contain 10.9% nickel. The earliest recorded use of nickel in modern times (i.e., the last few hundred years) was in coins made from pai-thung, a white copper-nickel alloy first developed in China. Nickel was first identified as an element by Alex F. Cronstedt in 1751 and named nickel from the ore kupfernickel, so-called by superstitious miners who believed that the ore was bedeviled. The modern nickel industry dates back from the opening of the New Caledonia mines in 1875 and those of Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, in The first nickel-base alloy developed was Monell Metal (now known as Monel alloy 400), a nickel-copper alloy containing nominally 67% nickel with the balance copper. The alloy s origin was derived from the ores of the Sudbury basin in Ontario that contain nickel and copper in approximately the same two-to-one ratio. The trademark for Monel was first registered in Today nickel is widely used as a key constituent in stainless steels, low-alloy steels, and cast irons, as the base element for many corrosion and heat resistant alloys, as wear or corrosion resistant coatings, and in special-purpose materials such as magnetic alloys and controlled-expansion alloys. Although isolation of metallic cobalt was first effected by Swedish chemist G. Brandt in 1735, compounds derived from mineral ores containing cobalt had been used for more than 2000 years as coloring agents (blue and green) for glass and ceramics in Persia and Egypt. Cobalt was a major coloring agent used by Greek glassworkers about the beginning of the Christian era. Chinese pottery produced during the Tang and Ming dynasties (A.D. 600 to 900 and A.D to 1650) used cobalt widely, and Venetian glass produced in the early 15th century also shows the use of cobalt. The term kobold was used applied by miners in Germany in the 16th century to an ore that did not yield the expected copper when reduced by the normal procedure and emitted dangerous arsenical fumes when roasted. The word means a goblin or ill-natured fairy. The modern cobalt industry dates back to the opening of the New Caledonia mines in 1875 and the discovery of cobalt-bearing ores in Africa in the early 20th century. The first cobalt-base alloy was a cobalt-chromium alloy containing nominally 25% chromium called Stellite, which was developed by Elwood Haynes and patented in Haynes took the name Stellite from the Latin word for star, stella, because of the alloy s permanent starlike luster. Today cobalt is used as a critical alloying element in superalloys, cemented carbides, and high-speed tool steels, as the base element for wear, heat, and corrosion resistant alloys, in magnetic alloys and controlled-expansion alloys, and in various electronic components and chemicals. In recognition of the importance of these versatile and strategic metals, ASM decided that this Handbook, the eighth to be published in the ASM Specialty Handbook series, would cover the metallurgy, properties, fabrication characteristics, and applications associated with nickel, cobalt, and their alloys. It is intended to provide the most comprehensive and up-to-date information available on these metals that is suitable for engineers, designers, teachers, and students. Much of the information and data included in this Handbook has been supplied by Haynes International, Special Metals Corporation, Carpenter Technology Corporation, Deloro Stellite Inc., Wall Colmonoy Corporation, Timken Latrobe Steel, SPS Technologies Aerospace Fasteners Group, Elgiloy Specialty Metals, the Cobalt Development Institute, and the Nickel Development Institute. Gratitude is extended to these organizations and to the ASM Editorial and Library staffs, since without these resources it would not have been possible to compile this Handbook. Joseph R. Davis Davis & Associates Chagrin Falls, Ohio v

7 ASM International is the society for materials engineers and scientists, a worldwide network dedicated to advancing industry, technology, and applications of metals and materials. ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio, USA This publication is copyright ASM International. All rights reserved. Publication title Product code ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys #06178G To order products from ASM International: Online Visit /bookstore Telephone (US) or (Outside US) Fax Mail Customer Service, ASM International 9639 Kinsman Rd, Materials Park, Ohio , USA CustomerService@asminternational.org In Europe In Japan American Technical Publishers Ltd Knowl Piece, Wilbury Way, Hitchin Hertfordshire SG4 0SX, United Kingdom Telephone: (account holders), (credit card) Neutrino Inc. Takahashi Bldg., 44-3 Fuda 1-chome, Chofu-Shi, Tokyo 182 Japan Telephone: 81 (0) Terms of Use. This publication is being made available in PDF format as a benefit to members and customers of ASM International. You may download and print a copy of this publication for your personal use only. Other use and distribution is prohibited without the express written permission of ASM International. No warranties, express or implied, including, without limitation, warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose, are given in connection with this publication. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM's control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended. Nothing contained in this publication shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this publication shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.