Polluter pays principle

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5 Polluter pays principle What is the major environmental threat of the country? Does the principle apply for the country? Does the principle pay off? Locally? Nationally? Globally? Dresden, Slide 9 5

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7 Average rain and air temperature at different sites Average rain and air temperature at different sites Tal Amara ( ) ETP-Penman Average Rain Temp. Ave Tyr ( ) Abdé ( ) Rain, ETP (mm) wet period Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Air Temperature ( C) Rain, ETP (mm) ETP-Penman Average Rain Temp. Ave wet period Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Air Temperature ( C) Rain, ETP (mm) ETP-Penman Average Rain Temp. Ave wet period Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Air Temperature ( C) Topography Land form The short distance over which the topography changes (>3000m elevation within 60Km horizontal distance) makes the general character of the terrain quite steep and prone to instability The abundance of mountainous rocky lands with shallow soils and bare rocks points to processes of severe erosion and land degradation. 2

8 Terrestrial flora! Lebanese forests have been the suppliers of high quality timber to the Mediterranean people.! The intensive woodcutting over several millennia, followed by the expansion of agropastoral activities and subsequent urbanization resulted in only relic forest patches and scrub vegetation remaining. Today, Lebanon's forest cover is estimated at ha Land cover / use Land use / Cover Arable land Forest, with cover of at least 10% Forest, sparse (less than 10% cover) Abandoned lands, mostly old terraces Rocky, non-cultivated lands, degraded range lands Hectares Percentage Due to cartographic procedure this number shows a difference with the official one which is sqkm Urban and constructed areas Total area Principle Land Use (%) Socio-economic Situation Fruit Trees Olives Cereals Bekaa North Lebanon Mount Lebanon Nabatieh South Lebanon Total Source: MOA/FAO Agricultural Census Project, 1998 Industrial Crops Vegetables Lebanon is divided into 6 Mouhafazats or governorates: Beirut, North-Lebanon, South-Lebanon, Nabatieh, Mount-Lebanon and Bekaa! The economy of Bekaa is predominately agricultural, as are those of the North and South.! The coastal cities Beirut, Tripoli (North), Saida (South) have large ports and mostly engaged in commerce and other services (tourism).! The bulk of industry is concentrated in Mount Lebanon, the suburbs of Beirut and the coastal area of the North. 3

9 Urbanization Regional Population Distribution and Population Density, 1997 Mouhafazat Number % Area 1 (km 2 ) Population density person/km 2 The 1999 data is based on a census whereas the 1990 data is based on remote sensing applications. This makes it difficult to compare the data sets directly. Beirut Beirut Suburbs Mount-Lebanon North Lebanon However some trends are clear: a a further decline in forest cover a a dramatic increase in the area of abandoned lands and a a further increase of urbanization. South Lebanon Nabatieh Bekaa Total Lebanon , Source: CAS, 1997 UNCCD! Lebanon signed and ratified the UNCCD (1995)! UNCCD convention(1994) powerful instrument for sustainable natural resource management in affected regions! > 190 countries are involved! In 2003 the elaboration of National Action Programme (NAP) to combat desertification in Lebanon Ministry of Agriculture/ UNDP/ GTZ National Action Programme The Lebanese government is making efforts to keep combating desertification as a priority task within the framework of sustainable development of the country (?). Identification of the factors contributing to desertification in the relevant socio-economic, biological and geographic context; and defining practical measures for combating desertification. 4

10 Lebanon Desertification prone areas Superficial processes Direct & indirect natural Intensive rainfall: floods(64% of Lebanese territory has complex landform: steep lands). Land sliding is another process modifying landscape and is mainly due to restricted natural drainage. Human induced - Deforestation & urban expansion - Soil Salinization (Sea water intrusion, bad irrigation practices & fertilizer application) - Dumping of solid & liquid wastes in open inland water bodies & reservoirs resulting in water contamination - Monoculture and unsustainable rotation Inappropriate practices leading to land degradation! Intensification of cropping systems (monoculture and multiple cropping, cultivation under greenhouses, plantation of high yielding cash crops)! Intensive agricultural production requiring more inputs: water, fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides! Poor management and insufficient technical know-how! Excessive and uncontrolled pumping of groundwater for agriculture, especially in dry years, resulting in the lowering of the groundwater table in many places and in saline water intrusion along coastal areas.! Inadequate use of drip irrigation and fertigation systems resulting in salinity! Excessive fertilizer use resulting in a higher level of nitrates in groundwater Impact of Land degradation! Water erosion! Soil salinization! Soil pollution: In the absence of proper land use zoning, industry, manufacturing and agricultural activities resulted in soil contamination with Ni, Cr, Cd and Pb in some limited areas of Central Bekaa (Darwish et al., 1999)! Urban expansion! Soil related stresses 5

11 Estimates of major land resources stresses Erosion Kind of stress Salinity/ alkalinity Seasonal moisture deficit Area Sq. Km Major Locations Baalbeck-Hermel area Central and Western Bekaa, Coastal Plains Southern plateau % of total area The study of erosion risk assessment using remote sensing and GIS in the central Lebanese mountains showed: Low nutrient and water holding capacity Long moisture deficit Water stagnation Sandy and rocky lands of the Central Mountains and Coastal area Belt from Baalbeck-Hermel to Rachaya Central Bekaa, intermountain and coastal Plains % very high 88% moderate 6% low Other soil constraints* 3452 Coastal and highland plains. Halba and Nabatiyeh plateau. Depressions Total *Soil compaction, cracking, sealing, stone and gravel content, CaCO3 content, reduced productivity. Lebanon / UNCCD Stone bunds along contours The Lebanese government is committed to combating desertification: - It has initiated a large scale Reforestation program and has allocated approx. $16 million to this end. - It is active in fighting the root causes behind land degradation by promoting the Development of rural areas and reducing regional disparities (financed through a mix of budgetary resources and donor agencies). > than 15 NGOs are active. 6

12 Stone bunds along contours People care the land People care the land 7

13 Water harvest Resources mobilization to move forward! Lebanon s remarkable decade of reconstruction following a devastating 15 year war saw strong economic growth gradually slide to a halt by 1999.! The cost of rebuilding highways, schools, airports, seaports, housing, power stations, and government buildings pushed public debt to about 180% of GDP (2001) and led to chronic budgetary problems! A second challenge is to tackle poverty and income disparities. The UN estimates that one third of Lebanese lack basic needs.! Lebanon would therefore be seeking for assistance from the international community. Moving backward Moving backward 8

14 Moving backward Moving backward Moving backward Moving backward 9

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17 NATIONAL SOIL MAP Soils Mostly arenosols Covers 72.2% of country Sand deposits, deep, low water holding capacity, fertility low Commonly known as Kalahari sands Land Tenure Categories 1998-Tribal km 2 constitute 70.9% State km 2 constitute 24.9% Freehold km 2 constitute 4.2% 2

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19 Crop Sector Small scale subsistence farmers cultivated ha parcels, mostly marginal soils Commercial farmers 2,000-5,000ha, mostly in vertisols plains Economy Botswana considered middle income, per capita GNP US$ (1997) GDP grew US$ 266 (1966)-1, 546 (2001/2) Employment (1966) (2001/2) GDP-mining contributes 36.5% Poverty Mining main contributor of GDP but employs 5% workforce Slow development labour-intensive industries, labour market rigidities coupled low skill levels contribute high unemployment and skewed distribution income. Gini coefficient 0.57 (2002/3) Poverty fallen over past 3 decades, still high about 1/3 population living under US$ 1 a day. cont. Unemployment 24% of labour force Poverty high female headed household 50% compared 36.7% for the whole population, Western region poorest 4

20 Governance Democratic, multi-party system since independence from Britain 1966, enjoyed 4 decades stable governance Stable economic governance, and strong judicial system Least corrupt ranked 37 th world Social 95 % access to safe drinking water Adult literacy 80% (2003) Medical care Electricity is available in most villages. Infrastructure characteristic of low-middle income economy Health HIV/AIDS prevalence concern HIV+, has negative impact economy about 1% country budget directed to AIDS Eco-tourism Stability and vast wildlife attracts tourists National parks and game reserves Forest reserves Camping parks 5

21 Environmental Diverse ecosystem supporting agricultural development especially livestock N &NW- sufficient water resources sustain wildlife population-tourist destination W frequent droughts, while overgrazing contributes mostly soil erosion E urbanized high demand fuel wood leading deforestation Air pollution concern. Land degradation at its worst Grass strip When late is too late! 6

22 Vetiver grass as a conservation tool Well managed stubble retained 7

23 INDIA (Country Report) V Padmakumar PAKISTAN CHINA NEPAL BHUTAN WELCOME Area: 328 million ha (3.3 million sq. km) Population: 1.1. billion BANGLADESH MYANMAR Bay of Bengal Arabian Sea SRILANKA Largest democracy Federal system Constitutional head States: 28 Official languages: 18 Schools teach: 58 Newspapers: 87 Radio programs: 71 Films: 15 Indian Parliament 1

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25 Land degradation Environment Forest land -69 million Ha (<20%) Degraded land -175 million ha (57%) Stable terrain. forest-cover is dense fertile Low to medium degradation water erosion depletion of soil nutrients Severe degradation. wind erosion (Thar desert) water logging (riverbanks Ganga and the Brahmaputra) Naturally degraded. arid mountains of Ladakh snow caps of the north east salt flats of the Rann of Kutch India s commitment to development of environment India s commitment to development of environment National Environment Policy (2006) (Ministry of Environment & Forests) Environmental degradation is a major cause and effect of enhancing and perpetuating poverty The most secure basis for conservation is to ensure that people dependent on particular resources obtain better livelihoods from the fact of conservation India is a member country of the GEF (December 1994) India ratified the UNFCC (November 1993) India is a member of the Convention on Biological Diversity (February 1994) India ratified the UN Convention on Combating Desertification (December 1996) 3

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34 Major environmental issues: Population growth rate 1.93% (2.14% in 90-91) 1. Land degradation: (due to water erosion-assam, wind erosion- Rajasthan, water logging-ganga.brahmaputra and over grazing) 467 million heads of cattle graze on 11 million Ha of pasture land Livestock density is 42 animals /Ha as against the threshold level of 5 /Ha An estimated 100 million cow units graze in forests as against a sustainable level of 31 million per Ha 1. Degradation of forests: It is estimated that after independence the country has lost 4696 million Ha forest land for non-forestry purposes River valley projects, agriculture, illegal occupation, industries and townships, transmission lines and roads etc. Forest per capita 0.08 Ha (against 0.47 Ha) Forests 68 ( ), (97-98) 3. Water pollution 4. Air pollution, carbon emission Air pollution (due to vehicular emissions, untreated industrial smoke) Carbon emission 251 million MT (2001) 12