Overview of emerging and new uses of the Ocean areas beyond national jurisdiction

Transcription

1 Overview of emerging and new uses of the Ocean areas beyond national jurisdiction Takehiro Nakamura Coordinator, Marine and Coastal Ecosystems Unit, United Nations Environment Programme Marine Ecosystem Services for Human Benefits Biodiversity and ecosystems provide ecosystem services for human use and benefits The Economics of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity (TEEB) for Oceans Green Economy in a Blue World (UNEP, 2012) Small scale fishery and aquaculture, transportation, marine-based renewable energy, nutrient management, tourism, and deep water minerals There are trade-offs between the use of a range of ecosystem services.

2 Ocean ecosystem services Provisioning services Regulating services Cultural services Supporting services Capture fisheries Aquaculture Genetic resources Biochemicals, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals Renewable energy Modified from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005 Air quality regulation Climate regulation Water purification and waste treatment Natural hazard regulation Cultural diversity Spiritual and religious values Education values Aesthetic values Recreation and ecotourism Primary production Nutrient cycling Water cycling Other services - Navigation - Seabed mining -Observatory - Research - Underwater cable Marine Climate Engineering

3 Climate engineering BMBF Scoping Study, 2011, provided by M. Lawrence Ocean fertilisation Ocean fertilization: any activity undertaken by humans with the principal intention of stimulating primary productivity in the oceans, not including conventional aquaculture, or mariculture, or the creation of artificial reefs, LC-LP.1 (2008) Ocean fertilisation involves large-scale fertilising of the ocean with nutrients such as iron, nitrogen or phosphorus in an attempt to produce massive phytoplankton blooms which may assist in increasing absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere (Rayfuse et al. 2008).

4 Ocean fertilisation Biological pump (left) and solubility pump (right) (CBD Technical Series No.45) Iron fertilisation High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll (HNLC) regions, where sufficient N, P and Si, but a relatively low phytoplankton biomass 20% of world ocean. Nutrient, trace elements, sunlight conditions differ in regions and depending on the depth. Micro-nutrient such as Iron is a limiting element. of Ocean Technical Series Iron fertilisation a number of experiments of 12 meso-scale iron fertilisations ( ) Synthesis of the Impacts Fertilization on Marine biodiversity, CBD 45, 2009

5 Impacts of iron fertilisation on marine ecosystems Observed or possible impacts of iron fertislisation on marine biota/ecosystem Organisms Nutrient field Climate gases Ecosystems Diatoms responded for some of the experiments. No evidence of harmful algal blooms. Depletion of macro nutrients by algal blooms. Warming of surface layer by absorption of solar radiation. Potential increase of re-mineralisation and bacteria process, leading to oxygen depletion. Some experiments saw increase in N2O production. An increase in amphipods zooplankton predators, was observed in Southern Ocean, which is the main food for squid and whales. Summarised from CBD Technical Series No.45 Marine Litter and its Removal

6 Open Ocean pollution Pollutants into the open oceans through Atmospheric deposition or by sea-based human activities. Heavy metals, Volatile Organic Compounds, Nutrients, CO 2, SO 2, NOx, POPs, CFCs Sewage, Oil and chemical spills, PAHs, Oil seepage, dumping Noise, Marine litter, ballast water, off-shore exploration and production. Marine Litter or Marine Debris Marine litter includes any form of manufactured or processed material discarded, disposed of or abandoned in the marine environment. It consists of items made or used by humans that enter the seas, whether intentionally or unintentionally, including transport of these materials to the oceans by river, drainage, sewage systems or by wind (Galgani et al., 2010). Plastic are the predominant type in the Pacific gyre (Gragory and Ryan, 1997). Microplastics and abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) Micro beads included in the face/skin scrub products, which cannot be captured by urban wastewater treatment system Picture provided by Plastic Soup Foundation

7 Marine Litter and accumulation in ocean gyres ment of marine and coastal ecosystems. GEF STAP information document: Marine Debris as a Global Environmental Problem, November 2011) Marine Litter impacts on marine biota Indigestion and entanglement Microplastics (less than 5 mm in diameter) Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and other persistent, bio-accummulative and toxic substances are adsorbed onto plastics and enter into biota, leading to, e.g., endocrine disrupting effects. Marine litter providing new habitats GEF STAP information document: Marine Debris as a Global Environmental Problem, November 2011)

8 Marine Litter Removal Some technologies that may be deployed: Ship-based collection and removal; Detection and information management The Ocean systems in ABNJ function as the site of marine debris accumulation, and possibly some litter could be removed from water column. Who would cover the cost of removal of marine litter? (e.g., Fishing to Energy Programme in the United States) Marine-based Renewable Energy

9 Marine-based Renewable Energy Wave energy; Tidal range; Tidal current; Ocean current; Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC); Salinity gradient; Marine biomass farming; and Submarine geothermal. (IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, 2011) Off-shore wind power generation Marine-based renewable energy: potential and costs Green Economy in a Blue World (UNEP, 2012)

10 Wave power level distribution IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, 2011 Ocean Temperature difference IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, 2011

11 Producing energy from Oceans Currently energy production and experimental operations (UNEP, Green economy in a Blue World 2012) - Off shore wind energy - Off shore wave energy Marine-based Wind Power Global generation capacity increased ten fold from 2000 to reach 215,000 MW in More than 100 different technologies are under development. The potential range from 160 to 1,500 million MW a year considering shallow water and near-shore application, and greater potential exists for deeper wager applications that may rely on floating wind turbines. Development is capital intensive. Higher and consistent wind speed off shore. 20% higher wind speed (less turbulent) in deeper water installation may be possible. As of 2011, EU alone installed 69 wind farms. Summary from Green Economy in a Blue World (UNEP, 2012)

12 Other marine-based renewable energy options Renewable energy options Tidal energy Wave energy Submarine geothermal Algae-based biofuel Status and trends A tidal range of 7 m is considered to be required for economical operation. Wave energy can be captured from surface waves or from pressure fluctuations. Wave energy is predictable. Different technologies (more than 50?) conceived but at pre-commercial phase. Need o reduce capital costs of construction and to withstand extreme weather conditions Currently no technologies are in use to tap submarine geothermal resources. Distance from the shore, and possible impacts on marine life of hydrothermal vents Need to look for climatically favourable sites. Need for a high initial capital investment. Co-production of foods and biofuel may have potential to address these needs? (UNEP, 2012: Green Economy in a Blue World; IPCC, 2011) Other marine-based renewable energy options Driving Forces Increased demand for renewable energy, including marine-based renewable energy Pressure State Impacts Responses Construction of infrastructure Noise pollution Electromagnetic waves Changed seabed Changed hydrographic and sedimentological patters Habitat loss/gain Disturbance of hunting/breedin g grounds No fishing zones Conflicts between marine users including tourism, fisheries, shipping, etc. Proactive seascape planning (avoid ecological sensitive areas) Best practice design, construction, operation and decommissioning Stakeholder engagement Green Economy in a Blue World (UNEP, 2012)

13 Acknowledgement of contributions: Mark Lawrence (Institute of Advanced Sustainability Study, Germany) Julien Rochette (Institut de Développement Durable et Relations Internationales, France) Heidi Savelli (UNEP GPA Coordination Office) Lev Neretin (GEF STAP Secretariat) Materials used: UNEP, IPPC, CBD, GEF STAP UNEP materials: Thank you.