The Blue Laser Diode. Shuji Nakamura Stephen Pear ton Gerhard Fasol. The Complete Story. Springer

Transcription

1 Shuji Nakamura Stephen Pear ton Gerhard Fasol The Blue Laser Diode The Complete Story Second Updated and Extended Edition With 256 Figures and 61 Tables Springer

2 Contents 1. Introduction LEDs and LDs Group-Ill Nitride Compound Semiconductors 3 2. Background Introduction Applications and Markets for Gallium Nitride Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Lasers Who Were the Early Key Players in the Field? Why InGaN/AlGaN? ' Key Steps in the Discovery - Materials Issues Research History of Shuji Nakamura and Selected Steps in the Development of the Commercial Blue GaN LED Why Did Nichia Succeed Where Many Much Larger Multinationals and Research Groups Failed? Additional Comments on Blue LED Research A Short Summary of the Physics of Semiconductor Lasers and LEDs LEDs Lasers Physics of Gallium Nitride and Related Compounds Introduction Crystal Structures Wurtzite versus Zincblende Structure Growth of Wurtzite GaN onto Sapphire Growth of Cubic (Zincblende) GaN Growth of GaN onto Other Substrates Electronic Band Structure Fundamental Optical Transitions Band Structure Near the Fundamental Gap Band Parameters and Band Offsets for GaN, A1N, and InN 36

3 XII Contents 3.4 Elastic Properties - Phonons Other Properties of Gallium Nitride Negative Electron Affinity (NEA) Pyroelectricity Transferred-Electron Effect (Gunn Effect) Summary of Properties GaN Growth Growth Methods for Crystalline GaN A New Two-Flow Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition System for GaN Growth (TF-MOCVD) In Situ Monitoring of GaN Growth Using Interference Effects Introduction Experimental Details GaN Growth Without A1N Buffer Layer GaN Growth with A1N Buffer Layer Summary Analysis of Real-Time Monitoring Using Interference Effects Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary GaN Growth Using GaN Buffer Layer Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion In Situ Monitoring and Hall Measurements of GaN Growth with GaN Buffer Layers Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary p-type GaN Obtained by Electron Beam Irradiation Highly p-type Mg-Doped GaN Films Grown with GaN Buffer Layers Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion High-Power GaN p-n Junction Blue Light Emitting Diodes Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary 101

4 Contents XIII 6. n-type GaN Si- and Ge-Doped GaN Films Grown with GaN Buffer Layers Experimental Details Si Doping Ge Doping Mobility as a Function of the Carrier Concentration Ill 6.6 Summary p-type GaN History of p-type GaN Research Thermal Annealing Effects on p-type Mg-Doped GaN Films Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion Appendix Hole Compensation Mechanism of p-type GaN Films Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion: Explanation of the Hole Compensation Mechanism of p-type GaN Summary: Hydrogen Passivation and Annealing of p-type GaN Properties and Effects of Hydrogen in GaN Present State of Knowledge Passivation Hydrogen in As-Grown GaN Diffusion of H in Implanted or Plasma-Treated GaN Summary InGaN Introductory Remarks: The Role of Lattice Mismatch High-Quality InGaN Films Grown on GaN Films Introduction: InGaN on GaN Experimental Details: InGaN on GaN Results and Discussion: InGaN on GaN Summary: InGaN on GaN Si-Doped InGaN Films Grown on GaN Films Introduction: Si-Doped InGaN on GaN Experimental Details: Si-Doped InGaN on GaN Results and Discussion: Si-Doped InGaN on GaN Summary: Si-Doped InGaN on GaN Cd-Doped InGaN Films Grown on GaN Films Introduction: Cd-doped InGaN on GaN Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary: Cd-Doped InGaN 166

5 XIV Contents 8.5 In x Gai_ x N/Irij / Gai_j / N Superlattices Grown on GaN Films Introduction: ln x G&i- x N /ln y Gai- y N Superlattices Experiments: In x Gai_ x N/In a Gai_ y N Superlattices Results and Discussion: ln x G&i- x N/IriyGai^yN Superlattices Summary: In^Gai^ajN/In^Gai-yN Superlattices Growth of In^Gai-^N Compound Semiconductors and High-Power InGaN/AlGaN Double Heterostructure Violet Light Emitting Diodes Introduction Experimental Details Growth and Properties of In x Gai_a;N Compound Semiconductors High Power InGaN/AlGaN Double Heterostructure Violet Light Emitting Diodes Summary p-gan/n-ingan/n-gan Double-Heterostructure Blue Light Emitting Diodes Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary High-Power InGaN/GaN Double-Heterostructure Violet Light Emitting Diodes Zn and Si Co-Doped InGaN/AlGaN Double-Heterostructure Blue and Blue-Green LEDs Zn-Doped InGaN Growth and InGaN/AlGaN Double-Heterostructure Blue Light Emitting Diodes Introduction Experimental Details Zn-Doped InGaN InGaN/AlGaN DH Blue LEDs Candela-Class High-Brightness InGaN/AlGaN Double-Heterostructure Blue Light Emitting Diodes High-Brightness InGaN/AlGaN Double-Heterostructure Blue-Green Light Emitting Diodes A Bright Future for Blue-Green LEDs Introduction GaN Growth InGaN InGaN/AlGaN DH LED Summary 214

6 Contents 10. InGaN Single-Quantum-Well LEDs High-Brightness InGaN Blue, Green, and Yellow LEDs with Quantum-Well Structures Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary High-Power InGaN Single-Quantum-Well Blue and Violet Light Emitting Diodes Super-Bright Green InGaN Single-Quantum-Well Light Emitting Diodes Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary White LEDs Room-Temperature Pulsed Operation of Laser Diodes InGaN-Based Multi-Quantum-Well Laser Diodes Introduction Experimental Deatils Results and Discussion Summary InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well Laser Diodes with Cleaved Mirror Cavity Facets Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well Laser Diodes Grown on MgAl 2 O 4 Substrates Characteristics of InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well Laser Diodes The First III-V-Nitride-Based Violet Laser Diodes Introduction Experimental Details Results and Discussion Summary Optical Gain and Carrier Lifetime of InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well Laser Diodes Ridge-Geometry InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well Laser Diodes Longitudinal Mode Spectra and Ultrashort Pulse Generation of InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well Laser Diodes 273 XV

7 XVI Contents 12. Emission Mechanisms of LEDs and LDs InGaN Single-Quantum-Well (SQW)-Structure LEDs Emission Mechanism of SQW LEDs InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well (MQW)-Structure LDs Summary Room Temperature CW Operation of InGaN MQW LDs First Continuous-Wave Operation of InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well-Structure Laser Diodes at 233 K First Room-Temperature Continuous-Wave Operation of InGaN Multi-Quantum-Well-Structure Laser Diodes RT CW Operation of InGaN MQW LDs with a Long Lifetime Blue/Green Semiconductor Laser Blue/Green LEDs Bluish-Purple LDs Summary RT CW InGaN MQW LDs with improved Lifetime Latest Results: Lasers with Self-Organized InGaN Quantum Dots Introduction Fabrication Emission Spectra Self-Organized InGaN Quantum Dots Advances in LEDs Advances in Laser Diodes Conclusions Summary Outlook 336 Appendix 339 Biographies 343 Shuji Nakamura 343 Gerhard Fasol 344 Stephen Pearton 345 References 347 Index 361