Materials Aspects of GaAs and InP Based Structures

Transcription

1 AT&T Materials Aspects of GaAs and InP Based Structures V. Swaminathan AT&T Belt Laboratories Breinigsvil/e, Pennsylvania A. T. Macrander Argonne National Laboratory Argonne, Illinois m Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

2 CONTENTS PREFACE XV CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Emergence of GaAs and InP Bonding and Crystal Structure Fractional Ionic Character in Bonding in III-V Semiconductors, Brillouin Zones, Energy Band Structure The k-p Method, Energy Band Structure of Alloys Material Parameters of Alloy Semiconductors, 10 v

3 vi Contents 1.5 Tables of Material Properties Binary Compounds, Alloy Semiconductors, 25 References 40 CHAPTER 2 CRYSTAL GROWTH Growth of Bulk Crystals Phase Equilibria, Crystal Growth Techniques, Crystalline Imperfections, Liquid Phase Epitaxy Crystal Growth Apparatus, Thermodynamic Principles of LPE Growth, Crystal Growth Kinetics, Crystal Growth of Ternary and Quaternary Alloys, Surface Morphology, Crystal Growth of High Purity Epitaxial Layers, Trichloride Vapor Phase Epitaxy Introduction, Crystal Growth of GaAs and InP, Crystal Growth of GalnAs and GalnAsP, Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy Introduction, 122

4 Contents vii Basic Chemistry and Crystal Growth, Surface Preservation and Reactor Design for Abrupt Interfaces, Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) Introduction, Reactor Design, Models for Crystal Growth, Indium Depletion, Parasitic Reactions, Low-Pressure MOCVD, and Crystal Growth in InP, GalnAs, and GalnAsP, Crystal Growth of Semi-Insulating Fe-Doped InP, MOCVD Summary, Molecular Beam Epitaxy Effusion С ells, Ultra-High-Vacuum Crystal Growth Conditions, Surface Analysis, Substrate Preparation, Crystal Growth Process, Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction, Gas Source MBE and Metal-Organic MBE Introduction, Gas Source MBE, Metal-Organic MBE, 160 References 165

5 viii Contents CHAPTER 3 X-RAY STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION X-Ray Double Crystal Diffractometry Introduction, Indium Phosphide Substrates, Single Epitaxial Layer Measurements and Comparisons to Dynamical Diffraction Theory, Double Heterostructures, Superlattices, Heteroepitaxial Structures with Large Mismatches, Other X-Ray Characterization Methods The Back Reflection Laue Method, The Bond Method, Point Defect Influences on Lattice Parameters and X-Ray Measurements, X-Ray Topography, 226 References 229 CHAPTER 4 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors Mobility and the Hall Effect Carrier Emission and Capture Depletion Capacitance 242

6 4.6 Deep Level Influences on Diode Capacitance Deep Level Characterization Techniques- TSCAP and DLTS Other Deep Level Characterization Techniques- Admittance Spectroscopy, Constant Capacitance Bias Transients, and Current Transients Semi-Insulating Material 255 References 262 OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION 5.1 Absorption Fundamental Absorption, Measurement Techniques, Exciton Absorption, Intervalence Absorption, Impurity Absorption, Free Carrier Absorption, Optical Absorption in Heavily Doped Material, Photoluminescence Radiative Recombination in Semiconductors, Minority Carrier Lifetime and Radiative Efficiency, Experimental Techniques, Carrier Generation and Diffusion, Exciton Recombination, 297

7 x Contents Band-to-Band Recombination, Free-to-Bound Transitions, Donor-to-Acceptor Pair Recombination, Deep Level Transitions, Nonradiative Recombination Processes, Raman Spectroscopy Principle of Raman Scattering, Experimental Aspects, First-and Second-Order Raman Scattering, Superlattices and Quantum Well Structures, Applications of RS, Other Optical Techniques Infrared Localized Vibrational Mode Absorption, PhotocurrentMeasurements, Reflectance Modulation, Optical Detection of Magnetic Resonance (ODMR), 361 References 366 CHAPTER 6 IMPURITIES AND NATIVE DEFECTS Introduction Classification and Notation Native Point Defects, 378

8 Contents 6.3 Shallow Level Impurities Effective Mass Theory, Effective Mass Approximation for Acceptor State, Chemical Shifts and Central-Cell Corrections, Donor Levels Associated with Subsidiary Minima, Experimental Methods to Determine Impurity Energy Levels, Deep Impurities and Native Defects Overview of Theory, sp 3 Bonded Impurities, d Transition Metal Impurities, Chemistry of Imperfections Mass Action Relations, Equilibrium of Imperfections: Brouwer's Approximation, Reaction Constants, Interstitial and Antistructure Disorder, Partial Equilibrium: the Situation After Cooling, Alloy Semiconductors, Experimental Observation of Point Defects, Incorporation of Impurities Introduction, Amphoteric Dopants, 420

9 xii Contents Incorporation of Impurities During VPE Growth, Incorporation of Impurities During MBE Growth, Unintentional Impurities, Dislocations Types and Structures-Perfect Dislocations, Electrical Properties of Dislocations, Mechanical Properties and Impurity Hardening, Dislocation Generation During Growth of Bulk Crystals and Its Reduction, 450 References 456 CHAPTER 7 DEFECTS AND DEVICE PROPERTIES Introduction Interface Effects Metal-Semiconductor Interface, Insulator-Semiconductor Interface, Out-Diffusion of Impurities and Thermal Conversion Defect Gettering Gettering at Implantation Damage, Strain Induced Gettering, Heterostructure Gettering at Heterostructures Interfaces, Gettering at Dislocations, Gettering at Back Surface Damage, 523

10 Contents 7.5 Photonic Devices Recombination Enhanced Defect Motion, Degradation in Lasers and Light Emitting Diodes, Process Related Effects, Degradation Modes in Photodetectors, Material Aspects of Field Effect Transistors, Introduction, Heterostructure Field Effect Transistors, DX Centers, GaAsFETs, 565 References 575 INDEX 593