KEY TERM (Anglo-Prussian) Dualism blood & iron 1862 Wars of Unification German-Danish War (1864) Austro-Prussian War (1866) Battle of Königgrätz North-German Confederation DEFINITION Austria and Prussia had a long running conflict and rivalry for supremacy in central Europe during the 18 th and 19 th century, this became known as Dualism. Wars were part of the rivalry but also a race for prestige to be seen as the legitimate force of the German-speaking people. Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck delivered his famous Blood and Iron speech at a meeting of the budget commission of the Prussian Parliament on September 30, 1862. He emphatically called for a smaller German nation-state dominated by Prussia and rejected demands for liberal reforms (and he criticised the revolution of 1848/9 parliamentary democracy is of no use) The German empire came into being as a result of three wars fought by Prussia between the years 1864 and 1871. These three wars became known as the wars of unification. (German- Danish War, Austro-Prussian War, Franco-Prussian War ) Schleswig and Holstein were under Danish sovereignty. After the death of the Danish king, Christian of Glücksburg succeeded and annexed Schleswig. After this Prussia and Austria intervened. The Danes were quickly defeated. The treaty of Vienna followed with the Danish surrender. The Gastein Treaty distributed Holstein to Austria and Schleswig to Prussia. They remained under joined sovereignty (who wanted that and why?); there was no full annexation by Prussia. (How about the connection between Schleswig, Holstein and the German Confederation? German-speaking people?) In 1866 there was again dispute over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck concluded a secret alliance with Italy and provoked Austria by proposing an unacceptable constitution to the federal diet (repeatedly). Austria broke the Gastein Treaty (by doing what?). The Austrian troops were quickly defeated. There was no annexation of Austrian territory. (Why not? Why would Bismarck convince the King of treating Austria rather leniently?) => end of Austro-Prussian dualism It followed the creation of the North German Confederation and Italy gained Venetia. The battle of Königgrätz was the decisive battle of the Austro- Prussian war in which Austria was defeated on July 1866. The Prussian victory entailed Austria s exclusion from a Prussiandominated Germany. The North-German Confederation was the union of the German states north of the river Main formed in 1867 under Prussian hegemony after Prussia s victory over Austria in the Austro- Prussian war in 1866. (Berlin was its capital, The Prussian king also served as the Confederation s king, and the Prussian chancellor was its chancellor as well) Its constitution served as a model for that of the German 1
Empire. The Confederation was in general a step towards the unification of Germany and a symbol of Prussian dominance, due to the exclusion of Austria. Zollparlament (customs union parliament) Hohenzollern Candidature Ems Telegram Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) Battle of Sedan In the time of the North German Confederation the southern states were forced to join the customs union parliament. In some parts it can be seen as a step towards unification, nevertheless representatives who were against a unification were elected for this parliament, so it was all in all no (major) step towards unification. In 1868 the Spanish Queen Isabella II was deposed and the crown was offered to Prince of Leopold of the Hohenzollern dynasty. (= Prussia!) Prussia welcomed this because they expected an improvement of trade and sympathies, moreover it should prevent France from going to war with Prussia and enhance the Spanish gratitude towards Prussia. France was against this agreement due to the fact that they believed a Prussian puppet would be on the Spanish throne and they would be geographically encircled (by?). A telegram sent to Otto von Bismarck and subsequently published by him in an edited version designed to offend the French government. The telegram reported an encounter between King William I of Prussia and the French ambassador, in which William politely refused to promise that no member of his family would ever seek the Spanish throne, which would constitute a threat to France. The edited version published by Bismarck was much harsher, leaving for example out the king s reasons for rejecting the French demand, and it was designed to provoke the French. The telegram was a public humiliation for France and it followed the French declaration of war (as clamoured for by the French population). The Franco Prussian war was the war in which a coalition of German states led by Prussia defeated France. (southern states joined North in war) It was caused by the Ems telegram, a public humiliation of France instigated by Bismarck. After France was defeated in the Battle of Sedan, the Treaty of Frankfurt was initiated and the German Empire was proclaimed in Versailles on January 8, 1871. The war marked the end of French hegemony in continental Europe and resulted in the creation of a unified Germany. The battle of Sedan was the decisive battle fought during the Franco-Prussian war on September 1, 1870. It resulted in the capture of Emperor Napoleon III and large numbers of his troops. Furthermore it decided the war in favour of Prussia and 2
its allies. Treaty of Frankfurt The Treaty of Frankfurt was a peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871 at the end of the Franco-Prussian War. It included the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine (coal, iron!) by Germany and an indemnity by France. Moreover, German soldiers were stationed in France until the reparations were paid. 3
KEY QUESTIONS What was Bismarck s attitude towards Austria / war? Until 1854 Bismarck s stance remained rather pro-austria. Many commentators have interpreted the later transformation as the result of Austria s attempt to change Germany s status quo in its favour. Later on Bismarck s attitude towards Austria was a rather negative one. He was in favour of the smaller German solution, which excluded Austria. Over the Schleswig-Holstein affair, he isolated Austria successfully from Russia and from France in preparation for the conflict of 1866 when the Austro-Prussian war took place. Afterwards Bismarck goaded France, with the help of the Ems telegram, into war (Franco-Prussian War) by which the German states were finally unified. This shows his acceptance of going to war, and provoking war in order to reach his goals. In his mind war is the continuation of politics by other means (p.43 Flagship History book). Nevertheless, he regarded those other means as dangerous and to be avoided whenever possible. On the other hand his blood and iron speech gives the impression that he was indeed in favour of using violent means to unify Germany and that they were in fact unavoidable. In how far was the Zollparlament a step towards unification? The Zollparlament was a in some parts a step towards the unification of Germany. The change of the customs union parliament into a political institution was an attempt to bind the southern states closer to the Prussian-dominated North- German Confederation. And with the help of the parliament the economic unification of Germany was reached in some perspective. Nevertheless, in the customs union elections representatives who were directly against a unification were elected. This and the fact that the participants from the south were forced to join leads to the conclusion that the customs union parliament cannot be seen as a (major) step towards unification. Was it a unification by blood and iron? Bismarck gave a speech to the budget commission of the Prussian federal diet on September 29, 1862, which has become famous as the blood and iron speech. In this speech the chancellor argues that an army is needed to solve the constitutional crisis (i.e.?), that problems like this cannot be solved by speeches or majority verdicts, but have to be solved by military means. Now the question arises if the whole unification can be seen as a unification by blood and iron. When talking about this one has to take into account that Bismarck s attitude towards war was positive, that means that he was sure that war was inevitable for a unification, and this war clearly a part of his programme. Furthermore the wars of unification from 1864 to 1871 of course also speak for this statement. All in all one can assume that Bismarck clearly included the measures of blood and iron in his plans for a unified Germany, he manipulated other states or alliances in order to achieve his goals, making use of military means. Moreover he used the wars in order to create a feeling of nationalism among the Germans. 4
Was it a unification from above? The unification of Germany was not caused by a democratic movement of the German population, but by the measures taken by the authority. Nevertheless, it was demanded by a wide part of the German people, and the authority gained support by the population during and after the wars. What impact did the Treaty of Frankfurt have on Franco-German relations? The treaty had a negative impact on the Franco-German relations. The terms of the treaty were regarded as too harsh among the French and created a general animosity among them towards Germany, also known as revanchism. hereditary enmity ; Treaty of Versailles humiliation: proclamation of the Empire in the Hall of Mirrors / Versailles How did the other European nations react to the rise of Germany? The other European powers were not in favour of Germany s rise to power, especially due to their annexation of a lot of new territory they feared the balance of power within Europe threatened. With the creation of Germany in 1871, the old balance of power involving France, a rump Brandenburg-Prussia, Austria- Hungary, and Russia was replaced by a new system. France was humiliated by the Ems telegram, furthermore the loss of Alsace- Lorraine and Treaty of Frankfurt as said before caused their displeasure; this indicates of course that they feared Germany s new power. Austria of course also had to accept a defeat in the Austro-Prussian War and the exclusion from Germany within Europe. 5
KEY TERM DEFINITION Second Empire After the wars of unification the Second German Empire was proclaimed in Versailles on January 18, 1871. Negotiations between monarchs and governments resulted in a unification from above which was the opposite of the aspired (but failed) unification in 1848/49. The power stayed with the rulers of 25 still remaining single states and on top was the Kaiser, who was simultaneously the king of Prussia. Otto von Bismarck became chancellor and maintained important influence 1871 Constitution The constitution of 1871 was based on the one of the North German Confederation and consisted of a complex entity of federal and centralist components. It was the attempt to find a balance between the interest of liberals and aristocrats. Two important bodies were part of the new Reich : the Bundesrat, consisting of representatives from the states and the Reichstag, elected by the male population older than 25 years. The emperor had the major influence on the governmental bodies as well as on the Political parties The Conservativ es The Centre Party The National Liberals Enemies of the state(reichsfeinde) chancellor Bismarck. (fig leaf for absolutism?) The several political parties represented the diverse strands among the German population Party with strength among Prussia s Protestant and aristocratic landowners and dominance in the Prussian Landtag. It was suspicious of Bismarck s approaches towards liberalism and nationalism but remained a moderate force in the Reichstag. Party representing the interest of the Roman Catholic Church with members of all social classes was seen as dual threat by Bismarck to the new Reich. Being seen as the opposition, the party s electoral success was constant and its internal coherence consolidated. Bismarck s strongest supporters endorsed the unification, the change to an industrialist Germany and the Kulturkampf. Its members were mainly from the protestant elite who opted for a liberal constitutional state. The Social The workers party was basically opposed to the political Democrats system during the Reich and demanded social reforms. Declared as enemies of the state the SAP (Sozialistische Arbeiter Partei), precursor of the SPD, was prohibited in 1878. But the suppression did not harm the party s rise; the number of members and its importance grew steadily. The Left The left-wing socialist force remained modest in 1871 Bismarck tried to consolidate the inner coherence in the Reich and therefore declared two groups enemies of the state: the Social Democrats and the Catholics. He wanted to contain both strands of threats to the Reich and took several measures to combat them. He feared his political dominance to be endangered and wanted to work towards 6
Carrot and stick policy (Zuckerbr ot und Peitsche) Anti- Socialist laws State Socialism Struggle for Culture/of Civilization (Kulturkampf) Papal Infallibility (Unfehlbarkeit) Falk Laws Pulpit and School Laws a constitution which did not diminish this. Bismarck s reaction to the industrialization was two-sided: on the one hand he tried to suppress the socialist movement with laws against socialism and declared the socialist Reichsfeinde, on the other hand his state socialism improved the conditions for the workers significantly. The socialists were accused by Bismarck of two assaults upon Kaiser Wilhelm I and this helped to increase the fear of a revolution. The laws, which banned socialist associations and assemblies, trade unions and party s press publications, were released by the newly elected Reichstag and repeatedly renewed until 1980. Several measures were taken to improve the workers conditions such as the implementation of poor relief, health care and social insurances. Bismarck had recognized that the stick alone could not conquer socialism, so he intended to appease the working class and detract support for the socialists with the carrot. The Kulturkampf against the Catholic church, represented by the Centre Party, dominated the first decade of domestic policies in the Reich. Bismarck, supported by the liberals, forced the separation of state and church because he feared the papal influence on the new Reich and on his authority (string Catholic south; late to join in / unification). He released several laws to diminish the importance of the church to strengthen his own. The doctrine of Papal Infallibility was defined in 1870 and said that any moral or doctrinal statement made by the pope was, due to his position as God s representative on Earth, ultimately correct and unquestionable. The doctrine did undermine the chancellor s authority and was a clear challenge to his power. Adalbert Falk was the Prussian Minister of Religious Affairs and, instructed by Bismarck, he took firm action against the Catholic church during the Kulturkampf. First, he cut any diplomatic relation with the Vatican (May 1872), then banned the Jesuit Order in Germany (July 1872) and finally released the May Laws (1873). Those laws subordinated the Catholic church nearly entirely to estate regulation (education of clergy, clerical appointments, governmental final examination for clerics, strict control ) and in 1875 the compulsory civil marriage was created. The Pulpit Law (Kanzelparagraph) was a decree that prohibited all clerics to make state affairs the subject of announcement (in sermons) that could endanger the public peace. In case of violation, imprisonment of up to two years was the punishment. The Pulpit Law was included in the criminal code in 1871 until 1953. The school laws included 7
(political) anti- Semitism // Germanisation School reform the stately supervision of schools. After an economic crisis in 1873, Jews were regarded as one reason for the misery and anti-semitic parties, hostility and prejudices germinated in the Reich. The German people tried to petition against the equal treatment of Jews in 1880 and the lower classes felt their existence threatened by them. Furthermore, a part of Bismarck s Kulturkampf was a hostile policy towards the Polish that he regarded as a threat to the Reich (why?). The Germanisation should suppress the national and cultural identity of the Poles (by doing what?), but it also intensified their coherence (how?). The whole supervision of schools was taken away from the church and given to the state. New curricula? Purpose => teaching obedience / preventing socialist ideas from spreading KEY QUESTIONS The 1871 Constitution A fig leaf for absolutism? Karl Liebknecht declared the Reichstag to be a fig leaf covering the nakedness of absolutism and this was a clear offensive against the new constitution. Germany in 1871 was a federal state with a division of power between central and state governments. Even though Prussia remained the most influential force and had the largest representation in the Reichstag (cf. number of seats and number of seats needed for a veto). Also, the Prussian king was not only head of state, he was simultaneously the German Kaiser, had control over the army, appointed his own ministers and also the chancellor. (chancellor was only responsible to the Emperor) Democratic features of the new constitution were the universal manhood suffrage for the Reichstag elections and the existence of various, independent parties. The Bundesrat was composed of representatives of the German states, chosen by the Emperor. But Germany was, at this time, often accused of being no full constitutional monarchy because the Reichstag had no direct control over the actions of the chancellor or the army and it had little say concerning foreign policy. Furthermore the chancellor was member of no political party, so he stood aloof from the party system and the direct role of parties in government policy was minimized. These circumstances that resemble an authoritarian state system underlined the Reichstag s ineffectiveness being subject to a number of limitations, the development into a true parliamentary body was prevented and the Kaiser held most of the power. Was Bismarck s rule at home a chancellor-dictatorship? The Chancellor was, according to the 1871 Constitution, elected and dismissed by the Kaiser who was head of state. Therefore, he was subject to the emperor and did not have leeway. Still, Bismarck held three very important positions: he was chancellor, Prussian prime minister and the Minister-President of Prussia s presidency of the Bundesrat. 8
Furthermore, Bismarck was only answerable to the Kaiser and the Reichstag could not outlaw him anyway. The power of the Reichstag was limited, it could not propose laws, did not appoint the chancellor and had only minimal control over the budget (respectively: gave up the power to decide on the budget). So Bismarck had a lot of influence on German politics and had much say but he was also restricted by the Kaiser s opinion and will. (but Emperor mainly relied on Bismarck; Bismarck threatening to dissolve the RT as a means of control; still, ne needed support of RT, esp. for Anti-Socialist legislation) What was Bismarck s attitude towards political parties? Bismarck, as the chancellor of Germany, did not belong to a party himself. His idea of the state was hardly compatible with democracy or liberalism and he disliked political party participation (cf. attitude towards 1848/9). He wanted to diminish the influence of the parties, as far as their opinion did not match with his conservative ideas. Strikingly, he played parties off against each other. During his mandate his tendencies and collaboration-partners changed often and radically and former friends became opponents. For example in the beginning he collaborated, supported and shared views with the Liberals but later (in 1878) Bismarck abandoned them and turned to the conservatives Bismarck s dislike of other parties became very obvious when he declared the Centre Party and the SPD as Reichsfeinde. What were the aims of and how successful was Bismarck s domestic policy? The aims of Bismarck s policy were first of all to preserve the status quo with ruling elites in power and therefore to prevent a revolution (from below) so he declared his opponents as Reichsfeinde. Furthermore, he wanted to secure the Kaiser s position and his hegemony and eliminate the pope s influence on German people. He wanted the final separation of church and state. Against the Reichsfeinde he agitated as following: he wanted to stop the growth of the SPD, control them, prevent their revolution and prevent a spread of socialism. So, initially he passed the Anti-Socialist laws and persecuted the socialists but when he recognized that his strategy of antagonism and hostility did not work out properly (cf. steady gain in votes for SPD; socialism as an international phenomenon; strengthening SPD by persecution => togetherness) he had to try different means and created social welfare programs to win their support (to take away votes for them!). Concerning the Kulturkampf against the Catholics, Bismarck wanted to decrease the influence of the church and the pope to a minimum. (loyalty: Pope not Reich; mainly Catholic South) Yet, the success of his domestic policy was reduced to the increase of the economic importance and the Reich was extended to an economic and judicial unity. His other aims failed strikingly. Bismarck lost the support from several parties like the Centre Party and also from his former backers, the National Liberals, who turned away from him because he abandoned free trade and started to collaborate with the Conservatives. Most important, his enemies (Catholics, Socialists) were not weakened but considerably strengthened: the socialist movement and their growth increased, and an underground network was created. The Centre Party was the largest party by 1884, and ties between Catholics and their resistance became stronger. It was a very bitter defeat for Bismarck that nearly all laws he instituted, (except for school law and civil marriage) of the Kulturkampf were later revised (1887). All in all Bismarck s domestic policy was quite unsuccessful. (roots of political anti-semitism) 9
KEY TERM Ottoman Empire (Osmanisches Reich) Three Emperors League (Dreikaiserbund) Berlin Congress (1878) Dual Alliance (Zweibund) Triple Alliance (Dreibund) Reinsurance Treaty (Rückversicherungsvertr ag) Mediterranean Agreement nightmare of coalitions // two-front war DEFINITION The Ottoman Empire began as a small Turkish principality in the 13 th century and ruled the Balkan states until they wanted independence influenced by the rise of nationalism in Europe which also triggered a conflict between Russia and Austria. Russia supported the Balkan states (Slavs) while Austria saw the Balkan uprising as a threat because it also consisted of many different ethnic groups. The League of Three Emperors was an alliance between Germany, Russia and Austria in 1872 in order to maintain the status quo in Europe and cooperate in the elimination of socialism and work for peace. But it was no military alliance and was not very stable as well because of tensions between Austria and Russia caused by the situation in the Balkans 1877. Russia went to war with Turkey in order to support the Serbs and Bulgarians, therefore Austria feared its position in that area. However, the League was renewed in 1881 and in 1884 for further three years. Bismarck was in command of the Berlin Congress in order to solve the conflict in the Ottoman Empire but the agreement caused lasting tensions. While Austria gained control over Bosnia-Herzegovina, Britain gained control over Cyprus and Bulgaria was divided. And even though Russia got back its lost land from 1856, they felt robbed and Germany fell out of Russia s favour. (honest broker) The Dual Alliance was an alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879 which left out Russia and secured an assistance in case of a Russian attack and the neutral disposition in the event of an invasion. In 1882 the Dual Alliance was extended into the Triple Alliance with Italy. It ensured mutual support in case of being attacked by other countries. After the Dreikaiserbund was ruined by another Balkan crisis from 1885 until 1887, Germany made a secret Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887 which promised each other to remain neutral in case of an attack by a third country. The treaty was very important because it would prevent a two-front war in case of a French attack. To prevent further Russian expansion into the Balkans and to maintain the status quo in the Mediterranean regions after Bismarck had secretly reorganized Russia s rights in Bulgaria and the Straits after the Bulgarian Crisis 1885, Bismarck persuaded Britain, Austria-Hungary and Italy to sign the Mediterranean Agreement in 1877. Bismarck s primary aim was to avoid war at all costs but that was no guarantee that other states would avoid war with Germany as well. Bismarck s greatest fear was a war with France and with Russia, which meant a two-front war for Germany because of its vulnerable position in Europe. 10
saturated Empire Even though France was weakened by the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck knew that it would recover soon and would be desirous for revenge and trying to regain the lost Alsace- Lorraine. Therefore he was determined to isolate France (through alliances) and to prevent a Franco-Russian alliance. After the German unification 1871 and the wars of unification, Bismarck saw Germany as being saturated because he thought that further expansion would threaten the balance of power in Europe and would cause a twofront war with France and Russia in the worst case. Further he knew that other European powers would not tolerate any further territorial acquisitions (and he first of all intended to consolidate the Empire s position in terms of domestic policy) KEY QESTIONS What were the aims of and how successful was Bismarck s foreign policy? First of all, one has to say that Bismarck s foreign policy consisted of a complex system of alliances. The function of the alliances should be the prevention of war, especially a two-front war with Russia and France. In order to avoid this case, Bismarck tried to isolate the French through certain alliances, especially with Russia as well as with Austria. All treaties by Bismarck served to either remain neutral or to support each other in the case of an attack and especially secured Germany from a French attack. Therefore one can say that Bismarck had established a well-organized system of alliances by 1890 that kept France and Russia apart, but the failure to renew the Reinsurance Treaty introduced the turning point of Bismarck s successful foreign policy and his maintaining of the status quo in Europe. Under Bismarck s successor Leo von Caprivi Russia and France established a counter-alliance in 1894 (an Entente!) which destroyed Bismarck s aim to separate the powers. All in all, one can say that Bismarck had created a successful system in order to isolate France and prevent war, but this system was too complex to maintain for lesser statesmen like Caprivi. What was Bismarck s attitude towards the acquisition of colonies? Bismarck was no colonial expansionist and not in favour of the acquisition of colonies, especially because he saw Germany as a saturated Empire that had no need for colonial expansion anymore. However, he founded colonies in Cameroon and Togo (1884) and in East Africa (1885) in order to protect trade, to safeguard raw materials and export markets and to take opportunities for capital investment, all in all to maintain economic predominance. Further, he was under pressure because the colonial issue affected German society. All in all, one can say that Bismarck was not interested in colonial expansion but saw himself forced to acquire colonies for economic reasons and caused by desire for colonies in 11
Germany. (arguments for / against colonial expansionism in Germany? Further intentions? Later: place in the sun?) KEY TERM Three- Emperors-Year (1888) (Dreikaiserjahr) DEFINITION Because of the working relationship between Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm I, who allowed Bismarck to make his own decisions, his death in 1888 meant a decisive change for Bismarck. The successor of the Kaiser, Friedrich, only reigned for three months and died. The new successor was Wilhelm II, who was only 29 years old and was determined to rule Germany himself. Further there was a clash of personalities between him and Bismarck and they could not agree over matters of policy, especially over the issue of socialism. While Wilhelm favoured a policy of more social reform, Bismarck wanted to introduce a more aggressive anti-socialist bill. After the Social Democrats could enlarge the number of seats in the Reichstag, Bismarck wanted to reduce the Reichstag s power, which was opposed by Wilhelm II. He wanted a new Chancellor, namely Leo von Caprivi. After giving Bismarck an ultimatum, the latter resigned in 1890 and was replaced by General Caprivi. KEY QUESTIONS Why did Bismarck resign in 1890? One of the major reasons for Bismarck s resignation was Kaiser Wilhelm II, the successor of Wilhelm I and Friedrich III and his different view on politics, especially how to deal with the socialists, and Wilhelm s desire to reign Germany alone. As Wilhelm was much younger than Bismarck, their personalities did not fit together. When the Social Democrats number of seats in the Reichstag rose to 35, Bismarck planned a coup in order to reduce their power but Wilhelm II did not support the plan and wanted to replace Bismarck with Leo von Caprivi. The Kaiser insisted on the Chancellor s resignation until Bismarck resigned on 29 March 1890. How important was Bismarck in the process of German unification from 1862 to 1890? First of all, one can say that Bismarck is responsible for (is the architect of) the German unification of 1871 through the Wars of Unification with Denmark, Austria and France and the confederation of princes. In Bismarck s eyes the German Reich was saturated and had no need to expand anymore, the outer unification was done. Bismarck s task at hand was to complete the German unification inside the Reich. Even though he said: Let s put Germany in the 12
saddle, she will know how to ride, which means that the process of the inner unification will happen automatically, he had to face two major conflicts in domestic policy: the struggle for culture and the socialist laws. Bismarck fought against the Catholic Church and introduced laws against the Catholic influence as well as measures of secularization as civil marriage and that the church had no longer the supervision of schools. On the other hand he persecuted Socialists, abolished the freedom of assembly and introduced Anti-Socialist laws and censorship in order to weaken the SPD. All in all, Bismarck outer unification can be seen as a great success, especially because it fulfilled the desire of many nationalists. On the other hand, the inner unification has to be seen as having failed miserably, because of Bismarck s proceeding against political opponents and his autocratic style of government that prevented the Germans from becoming citizens in the true sense. Therefore Bismarck can be named as an important factor for German unification having unified the single states, but however failed to unify German citizens and society. From Bismarck to Hitler? German Sonderweg (special path)? 13