FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE ( MoA)

Transcription

1 FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE ( MoA) PRODUCTIVE SAFETY NET PROGRAM (APL III) FINAL REPORT CONSULTING SERVICES FOR CONDUCTING PRODUCTIVE SAFETY NET PROGRAM 2nd 2011 PUBLIC WORKS IMPACT ASSESSMENT CREDIT#: ET May 2013 METAFERIA CONSULTING ENGINEERS P.O.Box 3192 Tel.: / Fax.: aym.mce@ethionet.et Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Website: Metaferia Consulting Engineers i

2 1 Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... IV II) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... V ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS... XV ANNEX-1: NATURAL RE-GROWTH OF TREES, CHANGES IN WOODY BIOMASS STOCKING RATES WITH CHANGE IN VEGETATION TYPES FOLLOWING FIVE YEARS CLOSURE... XIX ANNEX - 2: PLANTED TREES CALCULATION: AREA + TREES/HA AND VOLUME GROWTH OF ONE TREE... XIX ANNEX - 3: SOIL LOSS RATE ESTIMATION BEFORE & AFTER PSNP PWS INTERVENTION BASED ON RUSLRE (A=R*K*L*S*C*P) FOR SAMPLE WATERSHEDS... XIX ANNEX -5: GENERAL CONDITIONS OF SAMPLE MICRO-WATERSHEDS AFTER PSNP PWS... XIX ANNEX -6: TYPES OF THE INFRASTRUCTURE (SUB-PROJECTS) CONSTRUCTED WITHIN THE SELECTED SAMPLE WATERSHEDS... XIX ANNEX -7: PICTURES OF DIFFERENT INFRASTRUCTURES CONSTRUCTED BY THE PSNP PWS... XIX ANNEX -8: PSNP LOGFRAME PW INDICATORS FOR 2012 PWIA... XIX ANNEX 9: PSNP LOGFRAME PW INDICATORS FOR 2012 PWIA AS PER OUR ASSESSMENT... XIX 2 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND TO PRODUCTIVE SAFETY NET PROGRAM (PSNP) OBJECTIVES OF THE CONSULTANCY WORK APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY APPROACH METHODOLOGY Review of Secondary Sources Household Survey Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and KII Discussion with program officials Direct Observation Case Studies Economic Impact Assessment Approach & Methodology Method of Analysis DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE MICRO-WATERSHEDS LOCATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE AREAS OF THE MICRO-WATERSHEDS BIOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES OF THE PUBLIC WORKS MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS Households & Family Members Benefiting from PSNP PWs Demographic Characteristics of the HHs Benefiting from PSNP PWs Sources of Livelihood GIS ANALYSIS...19 Metaferia Consulting Engineers ii

3 5.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OBJECTIVE OF GIS ANALYSIS CAPTURING BASIC DIGITAL DATA AND ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS OF MICRO-WATERSHEDS Delineation of the Selected Micro-Watersheds and Mapping of Infrastructures Generate Biophysical Information for Soil Loss Estimation Land Cover Change Analysis from Temporal Variations of Satellite Imagery ANALYSIS OF IMPACTS ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND WATERSHED IMPACTS OF PSNP PWS General Estimates of on-site Soil Losses and Reductions due to SWM Activities Estimation of On-Site Productivity Impacts on Crop, Herbaceous and Woody Biomass Changes in Woody biomass productivity Analysis/Estimation of Carbon Sequestration Changes in Water Availability Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) ANALYSIS OF LIVELIHOOD AND SOCIAL IMPACTS Livelihood Capital Asset ECONOMIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT Economic Impact Assessment Techniques and Procedures Used Financial and Economic Analysis Identification, Quantification and Valuation of Economic Benefits and Costs Economic Impact Assessment of PSNP PW Subprojects Economic Impacts of Enclosed Areas Overall Economic Impacts CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES Metaferia Consulting Engineers iii

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This 2 nd 2011 Productive Safety Net Program - Public Works Impact Assessment (PSNP - PW IA) work and report could not have been realized without the participation and support rendered by many of the organizations, officials, experts and Development Assistants (DAs) working for the program at different levels starting from the Federal level down to the level of Woredas and Kebelles. Special thanks goes to those who were very helpful in providing documents and reports as well as data and information required for the assessment. The naming of such individuals becomes very difficult, in this respect, due the wider scope and nature of the assignment and the sheer number of people involved. We thank you all. Again, it could have been impossible to properly undertake such an assignment without the collaboration and participation of the communities residing in the sample microwatersheds/kebelles particularly the PSNP - PWs beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries who willingly participated in the household survey (HH survey), Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), Case Studies, etc. We thank them for their support and their patience in the participation of sometimes lengthy interviews and discussions. Last but not least we are very much indebted to the team of officials and experts in charge of coordination of this assignment at both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Food Security Directorate. Special thanks goes to Ato Solomon Gizaw and lately Ato Nesredin Rube and Ato Abinet for their constant encouragement and support. Metaferia Consulting Engineers iv

5 II) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A) General Chronic food insecurity has been a salient feature of rural Ethiopia in any year, irrespective of the presence of unusual climatic or economic shocks. The response to such a chronic problem has for a long time been emergency food aid through an emergency appeals approach (emergency relief). However, this approach has been costly and have had limited effectiveness at protecting productive assets and mitigating drought shocks. Hence, it was felt by both the Government of Ethiopia (GOE) and the donors that there is an urgent need to look for an approach that would give sustainable and lasting solution to the problem. To this effect, in 2005, the Government of Ethiopia revised its strategy of distributing food aid whereby emergency appeals were replaced with a standing safety net in areas suffering from chronic food insecurity. The Productive safety Net Programme (PSNP), which began in 2005, is the Government s response to the above scenario. It is a component of the GOE Food Security Program (FSP), and is an essential feature of the FSP investment strategy for chronically food insecure woredas. The focus of the new program was provision of more reliable and timely support to chronically food insecure households in hundreds of Woredas (districts) across Ethiopia and increased funding for complementary programs to foster graduation from the safety net. Its objectives are to provide transfers to the food insecure population in chronically food insecure Woredas so as to prevents asset depletion at the household level and create assets at the community level. The Program will thus address immediate human needs while simultaneously (i) supporting the rural transformation process, (ii) preventing long-term consequences of shortterm consumption shortages, (iii) encouraging households to engage in production and investment, and (iv) promoting market development by increasing household purchasing power (Ethiopia FSP 2004). The Public Works Program (PWs), which is the subject of this Impact Assessment, is a major component of the PSNP. PWs are labor-intensive community-based sub-projects designed to address underlying causes of chronic food insecurity through the provision of employment for chronically food insecure people while at the same time addressing the rehabilitation of the environment and implementation of other basic infrastructural requirements thought to be the root causes of the problem. The PSNP, being a huge program involving a very huge budget, has already put in place a monitoring and evaluation framework. Accordingly, the PSNP PWs passes through two Reviews and two Impact Assessments in any one year. The PSNP PW IA is normally conducted by independent Consultants. This 2 nd 2011 PSNP PW IA has therefore been carried out by Metafeia Consulting Engineers Plc (MCE) with the main objective of assessing how the Metaferia Consulting Engineers v

6 program is doing against its objectives, the extent of achievement of anticipated impacts, etc., and to learn how to do things better in the future. B) Summary of Results of the Impact Assessment Summary of the results of the Impact Assessment is presented hereunder based on the three areas of analysis put as i) Analysis of Environmental and Watershed Impacts, ii) Analysis of Livelihood and Social Impacts and iii) Analysis of Economic Impacts. i) Analysis of Environmental and Watershed Impacts The study on environmental and watershed impacts examined the performance of various indicators of agricultural productivity, natural resource management and human welfare statuses. Indicators were collected at the level of watershed project sites from household interviews, focus group discussions (FGD) and field observations. According to the household questionnaire analysis, 75% of the respondents confirmed that they have benefited from the implementation of soil and water conservation activities including area closure, farm area and communal land conservation works, etc. The findings show that there is generally land cover change, increase of vegetation cover as a whole, which indicated a gradual transformation from grass land to shrub land and then to bush land and forests. At some micro watersheds new water ponds are built for multipurpose use (livestock watering, irrigation, etc.). Throughout the twelve sample micro watersheds, there is an increase of about 493 hectares in forest land, 96 hectares increase in Bush-shrub land and 34 hectares in grass land. There is also an increase in water bodies due to the implementation of different water harvesting schemes. Except in the two pastoralist micro-watersheds (Halie-Ella and Bikie) where recurrent drought is enhancing a reverse process, 80% of FGD participants in all watershed project sites reported that the effect of soil and water conservation along with regeneration of vegetation measures on hill slopes and wastelands was substantial. Runoff water and soil loss on barren hills, which was a stark reality before the treatment, was significantly reduced. The progressive reduction in soil and water loss and sediment yield, as a result of quick recovery of vegetation on hill slopes and lands adjoining the foothills, has resulted in substantial improvement in the surface and groundwater regime of the micro-watersheds. In general, in all micro-watersheds, more than 2,623ha of hillsides, 2,697ha of cultivated lands and grazing lands as well as 36ha of gullies have been treated with various physical conservation techniques. The findings indicate that the most commonly reported problems such as soil erosion, recurrent drought, deforestation, gully formation and lack of food and feed resources are getting appropriate solutions. Estimation of soil loss rates (in tones/ha/yr) of the visited micro-watersheds are given in the chapter on Analysis of Impacts. Although the soil loss rate reduction varies from one microwatershed to another mainly because of differences in factors influencing the process, there is a Metaferia Consulting Engineers vi

7 decrease in soil lose of more than 12 tones/ha, on the average, taking the 12 sample microwatersheds into account. Crop yield increment has also shown a substantial increase of 66.17, 22.35, and 8.03 percent for cereals, pulses and perennials, respectively, as shown in Table 1, below. Table 1: Crop yield changes of PSNP PW Activities in sample MWs Frequency of crops Crop Type Prior PSNP/2005/1997EC Post PSNP Area (ha) Yield/ha (qt) Area (ha) Yield/ha (qt) Yield increment (qt) Yield increment (%) 5 Cereals /5 = /5 = Pulses /3 = /3 = Perennials /3 = /3 = Source: 2 nd 2011 PSNP PW IA, MCE HH survey, December 2012 Observation in sample micro-micro-watersheds indicated that herbaceous vegetation cover in the degraded upper, middle and lower slopes of micro-watersheds have tremendously increased, especially in closed areas resulting in an increase of feed for cattle and flowering plants for beekeeping. For instance, out of the 327 surveyed households 35 households have been engaged in beekeeping; out of which (25.7%) were before PSNP, (31.4%) before and after PSNP and (42.9%) after PSNP indicating that the number of bee keepers has increased dramatically due to increment in bee flora. From among the 12 micro-watersheds, the highest woody biomass change is recorded in Adi- Tsalka watershed of Aheferom Woreda of Tigray, with 2500 seedlings/ha planted in 124ha and 82% volume increment with a total of 248,320m 3 of woody biomass. Whereas, the lowest woody biomass change is recorded in Legebero-Wekelo watershed with 1,700 seedlings/ha planted in 51.7ha and 58% volume increment at a total of 70,352m 3 of woody biomass. Metaferia Consulting Engineers vii

8 The amount of carbon sequestered in each land cover type of closed areas by the above ground biomass is given in (Table 2 below). The below ground sequestrated carbon in tones is estimated at 30% of the above ground weight. Table 2: Estimation of carbon sequestration amount after 5 years of PSNP interventions Cover Stoking Cover type Stoking Stockin Estimat C:CO Estimated type Rate After PSNP rate g rate ed 2 ratio sequestrate before (tone/ha) intervention (tone/ha change carbon d Carbon PSNP s ) (tone/ha content (tons/ha) PW ) (%) Degrade d Grasslan d 2.67 Open shrubland Open shrub land 7.74 Dense shrub land Bare soil 1.09 Grassland Source: Calculated based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) recommended method (Parson et al., 2005) Eighty six percent of the household survey respondents indicated that springs and underground water recharge have increased since the implementation of PSNP PWs within all the microwatersheds except those micro-watersheds in Afar, Somali regions and Dire Dawa City Administration where it was reported that the PSNP PW did not start properly in these regions until the last two years. The other reason is that there was no improvement in the status of water availability both for humans, livestock and pasture since the last two years due to shortage of rainfall and drought. Change in water availability also seems to be appreciable when one considers the fact that out of the 28 households who currently use irrigation in the sample WSs, 20 households (71.4%) reported that they started to use irrigation after the commencement of the PSNP PWs while 8 households (28.6%) reported that they already had some irrigated plots prior to PSNP PW interventions. ii) Analysis of Livelihood and Social Impacts The livelihood and social impacts have been analyzed in terms of what has been done and changed in terms of Livelihood capital assets (natural resources, social, financial, human, physical, etc.), Vulnerability context, Livelihood strategies, Livelihood outcomes, Transforming Structures and processes, and Metaferia Consulting Engineers viii

9 Impacts related to Equitable Access to PWs (different wealth groups/gender) enhancement of community natural capital. The assessment and analysis made confirms that there was significant change in natural capital (land, water, vegetation, biodiversity, etc.) and environmental services as a result of the implementation of the PWs. This is also reported to have led to an even greater improvement in the livelihood of the communities in the watershed. Eighty two percent of the household respondents indicate that there are positive changes in the development of natural resources. These includes land, vegetation cover and improvement in the volume of streams and spring waters as well as in ground water resources within the microwatersheds thereby contributing to efforts being made by the communities to improve their livelihood. Overall, 21.4 percent of the households interviewed in the 12 micro-watersheds reported that they are engaged in irrigation farming with the major part of the water coming from stream diversions (53.6%), hand dug shallow wells (10.7%), water harvesting in ponds (17.7%), flood (10.7%), and others (7.1%). As indicated above, though the majority of the irrigation users responded that they started irrigation after the commencement of the PSNP PWs, the average irrigated farm size of the households has been found to be less than one fourth of a hectare. As per the assessment of social capital, in much of the cases, it has been found that the PW strategy was designed in such a way that it involves all community members in organized groups for identification, prioritization and implementation of projects and sub-projects at watershed level to achieve the overall goal of integrated watershed management. Such participatory implementation process has brought positive changes on community members outlook and attitudes towards natural resources maintenance, protection and manage ment. When it comes to the assessment and analysis of changes in human capital, information and data obtained from the FGDs conducted in the micro-watersheds indicate that PSNP PWs participants, engaged in the different types of soil and water conservation activities like terrace making, trench bund making, construction of stone check dam, stone hauling, making gabion, etc. have gained sufficient skills. Similarly, those who were engaged in the construction of infrastructures like earth road, additional class rooms, dry pit latrine, teachers residence, satellite school, fencing of school, health posts, etc. have acquired additional skills. As a result, it was found that some of the participants could make design of soil and water conservation and other structures to be constructed within their micro-watersheds without any external support. These engagements have helped them to develop different skills like masonry, building, carpentry, etc. and have changed the livelihood status of many households. Apparently, much has been attained by way of progress in gaining knowledge, improvement in working culture, etc. signifying the enhancement of local potential for carrying out further developmental tasks. The major implemented infrastructures in the PSNP supported areas, through community mobilization, are small-scale water supply and irrigation structures, feeder road constructions, expansion and construction of social service institutions like additional blocks of classrooms in existing schools and support in the construction and implementation of Farmers Training Metaferia Consulting Engineers ix

10 Centers (FTCs) with additional support by way of fulfilling internal facilities. Moreover, subprojects like rural roads, health posts, schools and water points used by community members on communal bases are maintained both through community labor mobilization and PSNP PWs. Irrigation schemes are maintained by the direct beneficiaries through their own established organizations and water supply points are maintained by water committees. It was also confirmed, during FGDs held in each of the micro-watersheds, that engagement in PSNP PWs has been one of the major sources of income for both the farming and pastoral communities. FGDs participants during PSNP PWs impact assessment confirmed that their participation in PSNP PWs has created opportunity to generate income for household members that narrowed food gap for at least six months (44.0%), four months (40.3%) and nine months (9.9%), respectively. HHs survey and FGDs indicated that the majority of the participants in the highland areas were selected from the poorest of the poor and 84.4 percent of them did not own adequate farmland and consume the income they earn from participation in PSNP PWs. Only very few of them and the better offs were able to save some money to buy additional livestock that contributed to their asset building. Therefore, data and information gathered could not substantially support that many of the participants were able to save income obtained from PSNP PWs that contributed to their asset building. However, the envisaged channeling of HABP loan fund through RUSACCOs was not being implemented to the level of the community expectations, although progressing gradually, as far as responses from PSNP PWs participants are concerned. Findings also indicate that there are limitations in extending credit facilities, organizing marketing cooperatives, construction of access roads to irrigated areas, which are, of course, very instrumental in attaining the objectives of the PSNP. When it comes to the vulnerability issue, the overall finding shows that many of the PSNP PW participants have not overcome shortage of food and they are still vulnerable to shocks that could come from any failure of rainfall. They will still be exposed to shocks if income from PSNP PW ceases in a very short period of time. This is mainly due to the fact that capital assets created at household level due to the interventions have not been sufficient to reduce asset depletion and vulnerably to shocks. Moreover, 84.4% of the HHs responses indicated that family annual food requirements is only covered for about six and less months from own production or asset created (see table 6.16). Whereas 61.1% and 74.4% HHs of the farming and pastoral communities, respectively, responded that they cover their food gaps from the income obtained through participation in PSNP PWs (See table 6.17). Even though it would be difficult to conclude that tremendous improvements in the livelihood of the PSNP PWs participants have been gained, community capital assets created have brought Metaferia Consulting Engineers x

11 significant changes in natural resources rehabilitation, which would definitely result in betterment of livelihoods. The impact of the undergoing soil and water conservation is not fast enough to bring immediate results and would be noticed in the future. Yet, the most serious problems affecting livelihood of the PSNP PWs participants in the micro-watersheds assessed are recurrent drought and shortage of farmland. These can be improved through the continuous implementation of natural resources rehabilitation programs with the support of the PSNP PWs and expanding on-farm and off-farm income generating schemes. With regards to changes in Transforming Structures and Processes, the PSNP PWs implementation process has contributed to the formation of different structures at different levels like micro-watershed planning groups, water users groups, KA and Woreda level planning, different types of Technical Committees and Task forces, etc., which are able to plan and promote community mobilization in the process of implementation of the PSNP PWs. These community assets have been contributed to address the root causes of food insecurity by improving soil moisture and productivity of land, improved availability of fodder for livestock, improving health and reducing morbidity and mortality, enhancing access to water supply for domestic and livestock use, as well as the development of small scale irrigation farming practices. When it comes to equity based on wealth category and gender, it has been found that livelihood capital assets enhanced through all PSNP PW activities are equally used by all community members regardless of their economic status and social grouping. This is very important in terms of the desired overall improvement of the wellbeing of the communities, at large. In most of the micro-watersheds, the management of the rehabilitated natural resources on hillside and enclosed areas are under the Kebele Administrations. The decision making and the processes in the implementation of the PSNP PWs are still male dominated but improvements are also being made in this regard with some women coming as active committee members. Access to water supply has vividly reduced the burden of fetching water for women which is, of course the most time consuming job. However, differences exist in the engagement and adapting of new technologies like modern beekeeping, irrigation development, fattening, etc. These are limited to those who have better financial resources of their own or have the capacity to get credit from MFIs. These groups, who can benefit from such technologies, are the middle and the rich as categorized by the community members, themselves. In the case of irrigation practice, it is limited to those who own irrigable farmland in the respective command area. Metaferia Consulting Engineers xi

12 iii. Analysis of Economic Impacts The overall aggregate community micro-watersheds NPVs were found to be ETB million. This overall total NPV is the incremental benefit enjoyed by the community of sampled micro-watersheds due to PSNP PW sub-projects implemented in the areas. The sub-projects comprised of high economic NPVs include water supply (ETB million), school infrastructure (ETB million), beekeeping (ETB million), rain-fed crop production (ETB 22.3 million), and rural feeder roads (ETB million), Fig.0.1. The contributions of natural re-growth of woody biomass, carbon sequestrated, and pole/tree plantations are relatively low with ETB 15,149.95, 4,906.40, and 2,384,608, respectively. Although implemented in eight (8) micro-watersheds, the NPVs of water supply were found comparatively high and significant because benefits from water supply in terms of saved time, labour and costs in fetching water from remote areas were substantial and important, particularly in dry areas like Lega Dhugo (Dire Dawa), Bulabora (Somali), Gola Gorba (Oromia), Arbegna Koste and Doyancho (SNNPRS). Micro-watershed wise, the aggregated economic NPVs were found high in Keshi Aynalem (ETB million) and low in Gara Guracha (ETB 2.44 million). The percentage share of sub-projects in the total aggregate micro-watershed level economic NPVs is presented in Figure 0.2. Accordingly, the economic benefits to water supply subprojects in the sample micro-watersheds comprised 18.5 percent of the total quantifiable benefits followed by incremental benefits to school infrastructure (17.1 percent), honey production/beekeeping (14.9 percent), rainfed crop production on or adjacent downstream to SWC treated areas (13.4 percent), and rural feeder roads (12.2 percent). Benefits to tree production from plantations and the indigenous trees, fuel wood, and forage production in enclosed areas are relatively small, 1.4, 4.3 and 4.3 percent, respectively. Metaferia Consulting Engineers xii

13 Sub-Projects Sub-Projects Productive Safety Net Program Final Report School Inf rast. Health posts Water supply Rural roads Carbon sequestrated Wood biomass re-growth Poles plantation Fuel Wood Forage grass Beekeeping Irrigated Crops Rainfed Crops NPVs in Million ETB Figure 1: Micro-Watershed Wise Aggregated Economic NPVs of Sampled Micro-Microwatersheds Schools Health Posts Water Supply Rural Road Carbon Sequest. Wood Biomass Re-growth Poles Plantation Fuel Wood Plantation Forage grass Beekeeping Irrigated Crops SWC-Crops Percentages Figure 2: Percentage share of Sub-projects in Aggregated Mico-Watershed Level Economic NPV The overall incremental economic benefits achieved at community micro-watershed levels due to PSNP PW sub-projects implementation are all positive and ranged from ETB 2.4 million Metaferia Consulting Engineers xiii

14 Sub-Projects Productive Safety Net Program Final Report (poles/eucalyptus trees plantation) to ETB 30.9 million (water supply) aggregated for all sampled micro-micro-watersheds studied. Furthermore, the overall aggregated program/ national level economic NPV for all sub-projects was estimated to be ETB 10,201.9 million. Water supply sub-project contributed ETB 1,890.9 million followed by school infrastructure (ETB 1,748 million), beekeeping in enclosed areas (ETB 1,522.6 million), SWC based crop production (ETB 1,365.5 million), rural feeder roads (ETB 1,240.5) and health infrastructure (ETB 830 million). These results imply that investments made by PSNP PWs on SWC, area closures, small-scale irrigation, and infrastructure activities are worthwhile and enabled beneficiary households to increase income and enhanced asset building. School Infrastructure Water Supply 1, ,890.9 Health Infrastructure Rural Feeder Road 1,240.5 Carbon Sequestrated Woody Biomass Fuel woods Poles/ Eucalyptus trees Forage grass Beekeeping (Honey production) 1,522.6 Irrigated crop production SWC Crop production 1, NPVs in Million ETB Figure 3: Figure Aggregated National Level NPVs by Sub-projects Metaferia Consulting Engineers xiv

15 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS BoA Bureau of Agriculture CBPWP CBR CSA CWT DA DM DMFSD ESMF FGD FSP GIS GoE Ha HH IRR IWSM KA KII LUPRD MoA MWS NGO NPV NRM Community-based Watershed Development Planning Cost Benefit Ratio Central Statistical Authority Kebelle Watershed Planning Team Development Agent Dry Matter Disaster management and Food Security Directorate Environment & Social Management Framework Focused group Discussion Food Security Programme Geographic Information System Government of Ethiopia hectare Household Internal rate of return Integrated watershed Management Kebelle Administration Key Informant Interview Land Use Planning & Regulatory Department Ministry of Agriculture Micro Watershed Non-Government Organization Net Present Value Natural Resource Management Metaferia Consulting Engineers xv

16 NRMPO NRM-PW PSNP PW PWIA PWIA RUSLE SDR SOM SWC USLE WSM Natural Resource Management Process Owner Natural Resource Public Works Public Safety Net Program Public Works Public Works Impact Assessment Public Works Impact assessment Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation Sediment Delivery Ratio Soil Organic Matter Soil & Water Conservation Universal Soil Loss Equation Watershed Management Metaferia Consulting Engineers xvi

17 Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... I EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... V ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS... XV 1 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND TO PRODUCTIVE SAFETY NET PROGRAM (PSNP) OBJECTIVES OF THE CONSULTANCY WORK APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY APPROACH METHODOLOGY Review of Secondary Sources Household Survey Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and KII Discussion with program officials Direct Observation Case Studies Economic Impact Assessment Approach & Methodology Method of Analysis DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE MICRO-WATERSHEDS LOCATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE AREAS OF THE MICRO-WATERSHEDS BIOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES OF THE PUBLIC WORKS MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS Households & Family Members Benefiting from PSNP PWs Demographic Characteristics of the HHs Benefiting from PSNP PWs Sources of Livelihood GIS ANALYSIS GENERAL DESCRIPTION OBJECTIVE OF GIS ANALYSIS CAPTURING BASIC DIGITAL DATA AND ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS OF MICRO-WATERSHEDS Delineation of the Selected Micro-Watersheds and Mapping of Infrastructures Delineation of the Selected Micro-Watersheds Mapping of Infrastructures Generate Biophysical Information for Soil Loss Estimation Land Cover Change Analysis from Temporal Variations of Satellite Imagery ANALYSIS OF IMPACTS ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND WATERSHED IMPACTS OF PSNP PWS General Estimates of on-site Soil Losses and Reductions due to SWM Activities Baseline Soil Losses (before intervention) Soil loss and Yield after Intervention (Closed Areas and, Crop Land) Metaferia Consulting Engineers xvii

18 5.1.3 Estimation of On-Site Productivity Impacts on Crop, Herbaceous and Woody Biomass Crop Production Changes in Herbaceous Biomass Production Changes in Woody biomass productivity Planted Trees Natural Re-growth of Trees Analysis/Estimation of Carbon Sequestration Changes in Water Availability Assessment of downstream effects of SWC Public Works SDR (Sediment Delivery Ratio) Downstream Water Availability Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) Identification and Assessment of Potential Adverse Impacts of PW Projects Natural Resource Base Social Impacts Assessment of the ESMF performance ANALYSIS OF LIVELIHOOD AND SOCIAL IMPACTS Livelihood Capital Asset Community Natural Capital Assessment and Analysis of Changes in Social Capital: networks, groups, social relations, etc Assessment and Analysis of Changes in Human Capital (Skills, knowledge, good health and ability to engage in labour) Assessment and Analysis of the Potential Impacts of Infrastructural PW s (schools, clinics and roads) Assessment and Analysis of Impacts of PSNP PWs Infrastructures Assessment and Analysis of Changes in Financial Capital (income, saving, access to credit, loans, etc) Vulnerability Context Changes in livelihood strategies Changes in livelihood Outcomes Changes in Transforming Structures and Processes ECONOMIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT Economic Impact Assessment Techniques and Procedures Used Cost Benefit Analysis Discounting Financial and Economic Analysis Identification, Quantification and Valuation of Economic Benefits and Costs Economic Impact Assessment of PSNP PW Subprojects Economic Impact of SWC Measures on Crop Productivity Farm Level Economic Analysis Community Micro-Watershed Level Economic Analysis Economic Impacts of Enclosed Areas Changes in Herbaceous Biomass Production Changes in Woody Biomass Productivity Economic Impact Assessment of Irrigation Structures Economic Impact Assessment of Economic and Social Infrastructure Subprojects Overall Economic Impacts Overall Economic Impacts of Sub-Projects at Sampled Micro-Micro-watersheds Overall Economic Impacts of Sub-Projects at National Level CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS Metaferia Consulting Engineers xviii

19 REFERENCES Annexes Annex-1: Natural re-growth of trees, changes in woody biomass stocking rates with change in vegetation types following five years closure Annex - 2: Planted trees calculation: Area + Trees/ha and volume growth of one tree Annex - 3: Soil Loss Rate estimation Before & After PSNP PWs intervention based on RUSLRE (A=R*K*L*S*C*P) for sample watersheds Annex -4: National/ Program Level Aggregated Economic NPVs of PSNP PW Sub-projects Annex -5: General conditions of sample micro-watersheds after PSNP PWs Annex -6: Types of the infrastructure (sub-projects) constructed within the selected sample watersheds Annex -7: Pictures of Different Infrastructures Constructed by the PSNP PWS Annex -8: PSNP LOGFRAME PW Indicators for 2012 PWIA Annex 9: PSNP LOGFRAME PW Indicators for 2012 PWIA As Per our Assessment List of Tables TABLE 2-1SUMMARY OF KEY HOUSEHOLDS INTERVIEWED TO PROVIDE DATA ON ECONOMIC BENEFITS AND COSTS TABLE 3-1: ADMINISTRATIVE LOCATION OF THE MICRO-WATERSHEDS TABLE 3-2: BIOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE MICRO-WATERSHEDS TABLE 3-3: HOUSEHOLDS BENEFITING FROM PSNP PWS IN THE MICRO-WATERSHEDS (2011/12) TABLE 4-1:AREA, RAINFALL, TEMPERATURE, SLOPE PERCENT AND LENGTH OF MICRO-WATERSHEDS TABLE 4-2: RAINFALL, SLOPE LENGTH AND % OF WATERSHED TABLE 5-1: HAVE ANY SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES BEEN CARRIED OUT BY THE PSNP PWS IN YOUR LOCALITY? TABLE 5-2: SIZE OF AREAS TREATED IN THE SAMPLE MICRO-WATERSHEDS TABLE 5-3:SOIL LOSS RATE ESTIMATION BEFORE & AFTER PSNP PWS INTERVENTIONS BASED ON RUSLRE TABLE 5-4: CROP YIELD CHANGE OF PSNP PW ACTIVITIES IN SAMPLE MWS TABLE 5-5:NUMBER OF BEEHIVE OWNING HHS AS INDICATOR OF BEE FLORA INCREMENT TABLE 5-6:MAJOR PLANTED TREES, PERENNIALS AND GRASSES IN PASTORAL AND AGRICULTURAL SAMPLE MICRO-WATERSHEDS TABLE 5-7:NATURAL WOODY SPECIES OBSERVED IN SAMPLE MICRO-WATERSHEDS TABLE 5-8:ESTIMATION OF CARBON SEQUESTRATION AMOUNT AFTER 5 YEARS OF PSNP INTERVENTIONS TABLE 5-9: MAJOR SOURCES OF INCOME AND ITS PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION OF PSNP PWS PARTICIPANTS TABLE 5-10:HOUSEHOLDS RESPONSES INDICATING INADEQUACY OF CROPS PRODUCED FOR 12 MONTHS TABLE 5-11:AGGREGATED LIVESTOCK OWNSERSHIP IN HIGHLAND AREAS OF THE MICRO WATER HHS TABLE 5-12:LIVESTOCK OWNERSHIP OF SOME FGD MEMBERS GRADUATED FROM PSNP PWS PRIOR AND AFTER JOINING THE PSNP PWS AT KESHI AYNALEM WATERSHED, ATSBI-WOMBERATA TABLE 5-13:AGGREGATED LIVESTOCK OWNERSHIP OF HHS IN PASTORAL COMMUNITY AREAS PRIOR AND AFTER PSNP PWS IMPLEMENTATION TABLE 5-14:NUMBER OF MONTHS THE HOUSEHOLD CAN COVER FOOD NEEDS FROM OWN PRODUCTION TABLE 5-15: CURRENT FOOD SECURITY STATUS OF PSNP PWS PARTICIPANTS TABLE 5-16:A ONE HECTARE CROP (RAINFED) FINANCIAL BUDGET FOR KESHI AYINALEM MICRO-WATERSHED, PROJECTED OVER 25 YEARS PERIOD Metaferia Consulting Engineers xix

20 TABLE 5-17:FARM LEVEL FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIO OF RAINFED CROP PRODUCTION ON SWC TREATED AREAS IN SAMPLE MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS, USING 15% DISCOUNT RATE OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-18:ECONOMIC NPVS AND C-B RATIO FOR RAINFED CROP PRODUCTION IN SWC TREATED AREAS AT MICRO-MICRO- WATERSHEDS LEVEL, DISCOUNTED AT 10% OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-19:FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIO FOR ONE IMPROVED BEEHIVE IN ADI-TSALKA MICRO-WATERSHED TABLE 5-20:FARM LEVEL NPVS AND B-C RATIO FOR IMPROVED BEEKEEPING IN ENCLOSED AREAS OF SAMPLE MICRO-MICRO- WATERSHEDS, CALCULATED USING 15% DISCOUNT RATE OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-21:FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIO OF IMPROVED FORAGE GRASS PRODUCTION ON ONE HECTARE PLOT IN ADI-TSALKA COMMUNITY MIRO-WATERSHED TABLE 5-22:FARM LEVEL FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIO FOR FUEL WOOD AND POLES PRODUCED IN ENCLOSED AREAS OF SAMPLE MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS, CALCULATED USING 15% DISCOUNT RATE AND OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-23:ECONOMIC NPVS AND C-B RATIO OF FUEL WOOD AND POLES PRODUCTION IN ENCLOSED AREAS AT COMMUNITY MICRO- MICRO-WATERSHEDS LEVEL, DISCOUNTED AT 10% OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-24:ECONOMIC NPVS OF INCREMENTAL WOOD BIOMASS/ FUEL WOOD IN SAMPLED MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS, DISCOUNTED AT 10% OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-25:CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND VALUE OF BIOMASS IN SAMPLED MICRO-WATERSHEDS TABLE 5-26:FARM LEVEL FINANCIAL NPV AND B-CR FOR ONE HECTARE IRRIGATED CROP PRODUCTION FOR GOLA GORBA MICRO-WATERSHED TABLE 5-27:FARM LEVEL FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIO FOR SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION CROPS PRODUCTION IN SAMPLE MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS, CALCULATED USING 15% DISCOUNT RATE AND OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-28:ECONOMIC NPVS AND C-B RATIO OF SMALL-SCALE/ SPATE IRRIGATION CROP PRODUCTION AT MICRO- MICRO-WATERSHEDS LEVEL, DISCOUNTED AT 10% OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-29:HOUSEHOLD LEVEL CASH FLOW OF RURAL FEEDER ROAD FOR KESHI AYINALEM MICRO WATERSHED. 92 TABLE 5-30:HOUSEHOLD LEVEL FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIO FOR PSNP PW SUPPORTED RURAL FEEDER ROAD IN SAMPLE MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS, CALCULATED USING 15% DISCOUNT RATE AND OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-31:ECONOMIC NPVS AND C-B RATIO OF RURAL FEEDER ROADS AT COMMUNITY MICRO-MICRO- WATERSHEDS LEVEL, DISCOUNTED AT 10% OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-32:HOUSEHOLD LEVEL FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIO FOR PSNP PW SUPPORTED WATER SUPPLY IN SAMPLE MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS, CALCULATED USING 15% DISCOUNT RATE AND OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-33: ECONOMIC NPVS AND C-B RATIO OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY AT COMMUNITY MICRO-MICRO- WATERSHEDS LEVEL, DISCOUNTED AT 10% OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-34:HOUSEHOLD LEVEL FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIO FOR PSNP PW SUPPORTED HEALTH FACILITY IN SAMPLE MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS, CALCULATED USING 15% DISCOUNT RATE AND OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-35:ECONOMIC NPVS AND C-B RATIO OF HEALTH FACILITY/ HEALTH POST AT COMMUNITY MICRO-MICRO- WATERSHEDS LEVEL, DISCOUNTED AT 10% OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-36:HOUSEHOLD LEVEL FINANCIAL NPV AND B-C RATIOS FOR PSNP PW SUPPORTED SCHOOLS IN SAMPLED MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS, WITH 15% DISCOUNT RATE OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-37: ECONOMIC NPVS AND C-B RATIO OF SCHOOLS INFRASTRUCTURES AT COMMUNITY MICRO-MICRO- WATERSHEDS LEVEL, DISCOUNTED AT 10% OVER 25 YEARS TABLE 5-38: OVERALL COMMUNITY MICRO-WATERSHED LEVEL ECONOMIC NPVS DUE TO PSNP PUBLIC WORKS SWC, AREA ENCLOSURES, AND SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURES Metaferia Consulting Engineers xx

21 List of Figures FIGURE 3-1: LOCATION OF MICRO MICRO-WATERSHEDS FIGURE 3-2: AREA IN HECTARE BY WATERSHED/SETTLEMENT FIGURE 4-1: WATERSHED BOUNDARY AND LAND COVER MANAGEM ENT FACTOR AND SOIL COLOUR MAPS OF NEGADIRAS WATERSHED FIGURE 4-2: INFRASTRUCTURE MAP OF ADITSALKA WATERSHED FIGURE 4-3:INFRASTRUCTURE MAP OF KESHI AYNALEM WATERSHED FIGURE 4-4:TRIANGULATED IRREGULAR NETWORK (TIN) OF ADITSALKA WATERSHED FIGURE 4-5:SLOPE % AND LENGTH OF GOLEGORBA AND DOYANCHO MICRO-WATERSHEDS FIGURE 4-6:LAND COVER CHANGE OF LEGEBRO WOQELLO WATERSHED FIGURE 4-7:LAND COVER CHANGE OF ADI-TSALKA WATERSHED FIGURE 4-8:LAND COVER CHANGE OF NEGADIRAS WATERSHED FIGURE 4-9: LAND COVER CHANGE MAP OF KESHI AYNALEM AND LEGEBERO-WEQELLO WATERSHED FIGURE 4-10: LAND COVER MAP OF MOLLA GEREMOCH WATERSHED FIGURE 4-11: LAND COVER MAP OF HILLE-ELLA WATERSHED FIGURE 5-1:IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS AT KESHI-AYNALEM WATERSHED, FIGURE 5-2:MICRO-WATERSHED WISE AGGREGATED ECONOMIC NPVS OF SAMPLED MICRO-MICRO-WATERSHEDS FIGURE 5-3: PERCENTAGE SHARE OF SUB-PROJECTS IN AGGREGATED MICO-WATERSHED LEVEL ECONOMIC NPV. 100 FIGURE 5-4: AGGREGATED NATIONAL LEVEL NPVS BY SUB-PROJECTS Metaferia Consulting Engineers xxi

22 2 INTRODUCTION 2.1 Background to Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) Food insecurity has long been a wide spread problem in Ethiopia. Chronic food insecurity has been a salient feature of rural Ethiopia in any year, irrespective of the presence of unusual climatic or economic shocks. The major causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia are believed to be land degradation, recurrent drought, poor and inadequate management of risk, population pressure, and subsistence agricultural practices dominated by rain-fed farming and characterized by low inputs and low outputs. These, in turn, have made many of the households extremely vulnerable to changes in weather conditions. There has been a secular decline in per capita food production as high population growth has contributed to a decline in farm sizes, while environmental degradation has deepened. As a consequence, there have been a number of severe famines caused by drought over the last four decades. The response to such a dire situation has for a long time been an emergency appeals approach. Every year, for over two decades, the Government has launched international emergency appeals for assistance. This annual emergency assistance was channeled to meet the consumption needs of all food insecure households. It did not distinguish between different types of food insecurity whether it was temporary and caused by specific shocks, or whether it was regular and a reflection of general poverty. Hence, Ethiopia has long been one of the largest recipients of emergency food aid in Africa. It has been receiving a relatively huge amount of food aid annually, and the figure has been rising dramatically. According to some sources, since 1996, food aid quantities appealed for have been multiplied by 4.5 while beneficiaries have seen a six fold increase (Food Security Program, Ethiopia, 2004). Both predictable (chronic) and unpredictable (acute or transitory) needs have largely been met through emergency relief. While this mechanism has saved millions of lives over the last two decades (and continues to do so), it has failed to protect livelihoods and assets. The emergency appeals approach has been costly and have had limited effectiveness at protecting productive assets and mitigating drought shocks. Evaluations have shown that it was unpredictable for both planners and households, often arriving too little, too late. The delays and uncertainties meant that the emergency aid could not be used effectively and did little to protect livelihoods, prevent environmental degradation, generate community assets, or preserve physical or human household assets. The unpredictable timing and level of relief resources flowing through the emergency channel means there are few opportunities to do more than address humanitarian needs (World Bank, Sept, 2009). As such, despite some growth and fall in poverty as witnessed in recent times, the poverty gap remains severe and millions (sometimes tens of millions) experience food gaps of three mo nths or more on a regular basis. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 1

23 Following the drought, when more than 13 million Ethiopians (a record number) required assistance, the government established the New Coalition for Food Security and sought a new approach to tackling food insecurity. The need for change of approach was felt by all stakeholders. This change had its roots in the recognition that the appeals system often resulted in untimely delivery of food and was increasingly unsustainable (Raisin 2001, Smith and Subbarao 2003). As a result, in 2005, the Government of Ethiopia revised its strategy of distributing food aid whereby emergency appeals were replaced with a standing safety net in areas suffering from chronic food insecurity known as the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). The PSNP, which began in 2005, is the Government s response to the above scenario. It is a component of the Government of Ethiopia (GOE) Food Security Program (FSP), and is an essential feature of the food security investment strategy for chronically food insecure Woredas. The PSNP is now in its third phase. Previous phases were as follows: Phase 1: from January 2005 to December This phase established PSNP processes and delivered transfers to 4.84 million food insecure people in Ethiopia. Phase 2: from January 2006 to December During this phase the PSNP scaled up significantly to cover 7.57 million people. Phase 3: from January 2010 to December This phase will further strengthen implementation of the PSNP to achieve the objectives in all programme areas and maximise linkages with other elements of the FSP to promote graduation from food insecurity. The PSNP itself, being one of the components of the FSP in turn has other interrelated elements one of which targets transfers to poor households in two ways, through public works (PW) and direct support (DS). Public works, which is the major subject of the Impact Assessment is the larger of the two programs, pays selected beneficiaries either in the form of cash or food delivery for their labor, on labor-intensive projects designed to build community assets. There are several monitoring and evaluation tools in place as far as assessing the performance of the overall FSP and the PSNP, in particular, are concerned. These assessments are carried out at different levels of administrative strata and at different times. Public Works Monitoring, Public Works Review and Public Works Impact Assessments are part of this overall monitoring and evaluation process. The current task at hand is the 2 nd 2011 PSNP PW Impact Assessment undertaken by Metaferia Consulting Engineers Plc from October 2012 to March Objectives of the Consultancy Work The objectives of the consultancy work is primarily to come out with an independent assessment of whether or not the PW work is producing the expected results, and secondly, to help develop improved directions, policies, and procedures through the dissemination of lessons drawn from experiences. The main purpose of the 2 nd 2011 PSNP PW IA is to assess how the program is Metaferia Consulting Engineers 2

24 doing against its objectives, whether it is having impact as designed, and to learn how to do things better. The Impact Assessment is performed in such a way that it allows implementers, at all levels (Woreda, Regional, and Federal) and in all organizations (Food Security, Natural Resource Management, Finance) to see whether or not the Public Work plans are working and whether circumstances have changed. In addition it aims at providing the stakeholders with the evidence they need to continue the program and/or to make changes and improvements. Within such a process, the objectives of the program remain constant but it is hoped that the Impact Assessment study enables all concerned to improve the program so that they can better meet the objectives of PSNP. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 3

25 3 APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 Approach It is to be noted that a guideline to be followed by the 2 nd 2011 PSNP PW IA has been provided by the Client as an attachment to the Terms of Reference (TOR). The approach and methodology utilized in this study has, in as much as possible, strictly followed the given guideline. A combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods was, therefore, used to collect data for the assessment in order to close gaps that can emanate from the exclusive use of either one or the other due to the merits and demerits of each data collection system. The approach to the assessment was deliberately made to be watershed-based, involving and addressing the impacts of the totality of activities (PSNP and non-psnp) on the entire watershed. Twelve micro-watersheds, which cover all PSNP Regions, were selected before the commencement of the fieldwork based on consultation and participation of the PSNP woreda representatives and focal persons. The most important criterion was the covering of more agro-ecologies, in as much as possible, and giving due consideration to the varied and comprehensive nature of PSNP PW activities being implemented in the micro-watersheds in such a way that linkages are easily observable. Micro-watersheds, with upstream and downstream linkages of activities, were given priority. Accordingly, two micro-watersheds each were selected from the four regions of Tigray, Amhara, Oromia and Southern Region making a total of eight. Four micro-watersheds, one each were selected from Harari, Dire Dawa, Somalia and Afar regions. Ten of the micro-watersheds represent the farming communities while the remaining two are from Pastoralist/agropastoralist regions (see list of micro-watersheds in Chapter 3). The study team has used topographic sheets of the respective micro-watersheds to delineate boundaries and major infrastructures constructed by PSNP PW interventions. Besides, the team used GPS readings of coordinates of major infrastructures of the micro-watersheds. Characteristics of the micro-watersheds like soil type, color, vegetation cover, soil erosion status as well as location of major infrastructures have been recorded/located for the consumption of the GIS work. 3.2 Methodology Review of Secondary Sources The methods used for data collection included review of literature and relevant documents on PSNP, gathering primary and secondary data/information. Review of secondary data and information relevant to the PSNP PW activities implemented at regional, wereda and watershed levels published and unpublished documents like reports, midterm evaluations, short and long term plans, etc, has been conducted. The review of secondary data has helped the study team to get an initial picture of the situation of the target group and the socio-economic and institutional Metaferia Consulting Engineers 4

26 context. It has also helped the team to determine gaps and possible contradictions in the available data. In general, the study team has given due attention to the review of: literatures including publications and journals on the conceptual issues, technical standards and practical aspects of watershed development, NRM and related topics as relevant to the Ethiopian context; relevant documents on the backgrounds of the PSNP and its different aspects as well as previous scheduled PW reviews and impact assessments ; bio-physical and socio-economic data of the selected micro-watersheds and targeted households; statistical data of PSNP PW beneficiary households, graduated households, HABP beneficiaries, etc.; type and volume of implemented natural resource rehabilitation activities; type and number of implemented social infrastructures; annual reports (plan versus achievement); and progress and monitoring reports, etc Household Survey A well structured household survey questionnaire was prepared for both beneficiaries and non beneficiaries in the farming and agropastoralist/pastoralist areas and administered in the twelve micro-watersheds (ten farming and two pastoralist micro-watersheds). Separate questionnaires were prepared for the farming and pastoralists in order to capture issues that emanate from the peculiar nature of the two categories. The study team received list of beneficiary and nonbeneficiary households from the Kebelle Agriculture and Rural Development Offices. Stratified and random methodology was used in order to draw an adequately representative sample. Ten percent of the beneficiary households (30% of them women headed) as well as five percent non beneficiary households have been interviewed in each watershed. Wereda and kebele level experts and development agents of the respective Agriculture and Rural Development Offices were selected for running the questionnaire and data collection. These people have wide knowledge and experience of the micro-watersheds under study and the overall implemented activities of PSNP PW. However, the supervisors and enumerators received training for one day to acquaint them with the objectives of the assessment and the details of the questionnaire. Members of the study team were also engaged in overall supervision by filling their own questionnaires for checking and cross checking purposes. The number of enumerators deployed in the assessment varied from watershed to watershed depending on the sample size of respondents. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 5

27 3.2.3 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and KII The study team applied FGDs and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) In order to get more insight into certain topics and to check whether patterns found in the households are validated in the whole group. This methodology was also used to analyze a certain situation or problem in more detail. This was also helpful in the identification and evaluation of potential solutions to these problems. Knowledgeable people, women, men, youth, beneficiary and non beneficiary households of the PSNP PW participated in this process. Accordingly, four FGDs in each watershed that comprises (three groups from beneficiary households categorized as poor, medium and rich as well as one group from non-participants of PSNP) have been undertaken. Each group consisted of people ranging from 8 to 15. A uniform and intentionally designed checklist has been utilized in all FGDs of micro-watersheds Discussion with program officials One of the methods for collecting data and information during the field work was through discussion with program officials working at regional, zonal, wereda and kebele levels. Series of discussions have been held with regional and wereda level steering and technical committees as well as other relevant stakeholders. In Amhara and SNNPR regions, however, discussions were made with zonal technical committees zonal level structures have been found functioning Direct Observation Direct observation has been applied to obtain a better picture of the current situation, more specifically of: The bio-physical situation of the micro-watersheds (soil loss control, vegetation cover, fodder availability, gully control, etc.); and The humanitarian situation (their physical appearance, wellbeing status, their reaction, in relation to the implemented interventions, etc.). These methods have intentionally been applied to enable the Consultant understand the social processes behind the statistics. Generally, as the impact assessment survey is focused on the gathering of socio-economic as well as bio-physical situations of the micro-watersheds (comparing before and after interventions of PSNP PW on the micro-watersheds), the survey methodologies have focused on the analysis of the five major components including socioeconomic status with main focus being on households livelihood impacts, communal resource regeneration and their uses, social infrastructures and services, environmental and social impacts as well as capacity and institutional impacts Case Studies Case studies of some selected households have been undertaken for in-depth analysis of the situation of food security and livelihood. This tool was found to be useful as the ultimate objective of the program is to improve household food security and has planned to implement an Metaferia Consulting Engineers 6

28 innovative, community based activities mainly in the integration of food security with community empowerment. A guiding checklist has been prepared for the administration of case studies in the micro-watersheds as required Economic Impact Assessment Approach & Methodology The approach and methodology utilized for the assessment of the Economic Impacts is treated separately as a matter of emphasis and in depth utilization of the methodologies recommended by the TOR. The Case study method was used intensively for undertaking the economic impact assessment. It was conducted by selecting farmers that are engaged in the different areas of farming activities to determine the benefits of the PWs such as soil and water conservation, afforestation and any other technologies or inputs that are associated with the PWs. The benefits that can be gained by way of improvement in rain-fed farming, irrigation, honey production, livestock, etc., as a result of appropriate implementation of relevant PWs have been assessed and analyzed, in this respect. A separate questionnaire was designed and administered in each of the micro-watersheds. In addition, the assessment has made use of some of the data captured through household questionnaire, FGD, etc., on watershed and environmental and socioeconomic aspects, as found appropriate, in order to elicit economic impacts. The TOR has specified tools for calculating the potential economic benefits of the PW subprojects examined, through the determination of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) covering parameters of net present value (NPV) and benefits-costs ratio (BCR). Economic impact assessment of social infrastructures has also been made using appropriate and comparable techniques of economic valuation. Evaluation can be based on a number of decision criteria including internal rate of return (IRR), benefit-cost ratio (B:C) and net present value (NPV). As the PSNP PW would be implemented under budget constraints and the interventions are mutually exclusive, the discounted cost benefit ratio, as stated by Gittinger (1982), is the most appropriate measure of comparison. For this reason, net present value (NPV) and benefits-costs ratio (BCR) were used in the current economic impact assessment of PSNP PW subprojects. A typical Benefit-Cost (B/C) analysis calculates the discounted benefits per discounted costs to get a benefit-cost ratio over a period of time. NPV is defined as the difference between the sum total of the present value of discounted benefit streams and the discounted value of cost streams over the life of the project. The PSNP PW subprojects considered in this economic impact assessment included SWC (crop and related products productivity), enclosed areas (biomass productivity), irrigation (crop and related products productivity), and social infrastructures (rural roads, rural health facility/ post, and water supply) subprojects in the 12 sample community micro micro-watersheds. In order to identify measure and quantify the economic impacts of these interventions, the following data collection and analysis approaches and procedures were used. i. SWC subprojects: The economic impact of SWC structures like soil/stone bunds, terraces, gully control, etc. on either private cropland or communal hillsides has been assessed in terms of the changes in soil fertility and crop productivity under rainfed Metaferia Consulting Engineers 7

29 ii. condition on-site or downstream (crop land located adjacent and below the structures) compared to non-treated areas in the concerned watershed or micro-watershed. The benefits of SWC measures that are attributed to PSNP activities and structures have been considered. In cases where the SWC interventions were carried out on croplands, the positive impacts on crop productivity was estimated involving well informed beneficiary household from the cropland (on-site estimation). In cases where the SWC intervention carried out were located just above the cropland, the positive impacts on crop production due to reduced run-off and sedimentation have been estimated/ quantified from croplands located just below/ downstream to the treated areas involving concerned beneficiary household farmers (off-site estimation). Investment costs on SWC and annual operational costs and direct benefits obtained from the interventions were considered. For the assessment, production data and involved costs were collected by interviewing at least two informed beneficiary household heads in relevant sites as well as from kebele and DA offices. Average crop prices and related data were also taken from kebele, woreda and regional offices. Enclosed Areas: The economic impact of enclosed areas that are attributed to PSNP PW in terms of changes in herbaceous and woody biomass has been estimated and quantified in the respective micro-watersheds or micro-micro-watersheds. The positive impacts in enclosed areas include changes in woody biomass (trees and fuel wood), forage or grass, beekeeping package, fruits production in relevant community micro-micro-watersheds, as the case may be. The economic impacts originated due to changes in forage or grass and chat or fruit production in enclosed areas were quantified by involving at least two beneficiary household heads in relevant micro-micro-watersheds. Similarly, the productivity changes in honey production, as a result of increased bee forage production in enclosed areas, were quantified using data obtained from concerned beneficiary honey producers as well as from kebele and development agent offices. The economic impacts of woody biomass (tree plantations and fuel woods) were assessed using the quantity of biomass estimated for each micro-watershed under the environmental impact assessment section and supplemented with data obtained from previous research studies. The annual costs and initial investment costs incurred on production of relevant herbaceous and wood biomass products including honey production have been collected by interviewing beneficiary representative individual households (at least two in each case) as a case study for each product that has been practiced in the micro-watershed. Additional data were also taken from Kebele and development agent offices. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 8

30 iii. iv. Irrigation Infrastructure Subprojects: The valuation of irrigation structures attributable to PSNP PW included two types: small scale and spate irrigation. Small scale irrigation generally originates from a rejuvenated spring or an extended base flow resulting from increased rainwater infiltration in a Closed Area. On the other hand, spate irrigation generally uses flooding water and involves a diversion weir or similar structure which may be semi-permanent or re-built each year and used as supplementary irrigation to rainfed crops. Quantified data on economic benefits of either irrigation structures were collected from key representative beneficiary households (at least two in each microwatershed wherever irrigated crop production is practiced). Annual costs incurred on production of crops practiced and initial investment costs were collected in the same way and data on number of beneficiaries practicing irrigation and area put under irrigation were collected from kebele, development agents and woreda offices. Infrastructure Subprojects: In this impact assessment, infrastructure subprojects included water supply, rural feeder roads, and health posts implemented by PSNP PW interventions. The benefits these infrastructure subprojects have been quantified and valuated indirectly in terms of time and cost savings at individual household level. Hence, the benefits in terms of time and cost savings and the annual operating and maintenance as well as investment costs/capital costs were collected from representative individual households (at least two) as case study for each subproject in relevant micromicro-watersheds. Data on number of beneficiaries of the infrastructures and related information were taken from kebele, development agents and woreda agriculture offices. In general, the economic impact analysis of PSNP PW interventions were based on the data collected from key beneficiary households as case study, elaborated above. Accordingly, a total of 75 key beneficiary households were interviewed on economic impact of the sub-projects described above (see table 3.1 below). The data collected through this process was complemented by the assessment made by the different expertise of the team working on benefits brought to environmental and watershed phenomena in terms of the improvements made to the natural environment, agricultural production, and the overall improvement in socio-economic/livelihood aspects of the interventions mentioned above. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 9

31 Table 3-1: Summary of Key Households Interviewed to Provide Data on Economic Benefits and Costs Number of Representative Households Interviewed per sub-project Region Micro-watershed SWC based Crop Production Area Enclosures (Beekeeping, Forage Grass, Fuel Wood, etc) PSNP PW Irrigated Crop Production Economic & Social Infrastructures (Roads, Water Supply, and Health) Total Tigray Adi Tsalka ,, Keshi Aynalem Amhara Mola Geremoch ,, Legabero Wakelo Afar Hale Ela Oromia Gola Gorba ,, Kogna Harari Negadras Dire Dawa Lega Dhugo Somali Bike SNNP Genebo Koste ,, Doyancho Tumedo Total Metaferia Consulting Engineers 10

32 3.2.8 Method of Analysis The data collected from field level and from secondary sources, as specified above, have been classified and quantified in quantity and money terms. The quantified da ta were valuated into stream of benefits and costs using market prices and projected over expected life of the subprojects, which on average is taken as 25 years. Discounting was used to calculate the present value of future costs and benefits using appropriate discounting rates. In this analysis, a financial discount rate of 15% and economic discount rate of 10% (to consider price distortions) were used. Economic analysis using cost benefit analysis, assesses the impacts of interventions on the economy as a whole. The analysis examines whether the intervention will contribute to the development of the total economy. Market prices are adjusted to take into account distortions due to market failures and government policies. Thus, taxes and subsidies are not included. Based on these data, the net present value (NPV) and benefits-costs ratio (BCR) of the subprojects were calculated and interpreted for each micro-watershed. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 11

33 4 DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE MICRO-WATERSHEDS 4.1 Location and Administrative Areas of the Micro-watersheds As indicated above, 12 micro-watersheds were assessed in seven different National Regional States and one City Administration that include Tigray, Amhara, Oromia, Southern, Somali, Afar, Harari and Dire Daw City Administration. The location and names of the Woredas, Kebeles and micro-watersheds assessed and areas covered are indicated in Fig 3.1 and Table 3.1below, respectively. Figure 4-1: Location of Micro micro-watersheds Metaferia Consulting Engineers 12

34 Table 4-1: Administrative Location of the Micro-watersheds Region Woreda Kebele(KA) Micro-watersheds Remarks Name Area (ha) Tigray Ahiferom Zata Adi-Tsalka 1685 Tigray Atsbi- Womberta Barka-Adi Subha Keshi Aynalem 420 Amhara Habru Gosh-Wuha Molla-Germoch 809 Amhara Were-Babo Legebero Wekelo 1158 Oromia Melka Belo Mekenisa Gola Gorba 202 Oromia Habro Legabera Garaguracha/Garayaya 215 SNNP Humbo Bukie dengola Arbegna 99.2 SNNP Lemu Semein Beleisa Doyancho 380 Harari Sofi Sofi Negadiras 1305 Dire Dawa Dire Daw Adada Lega Dugo 2262 Somali Afdem Bike Bulabora/ Biokulul 184 The whole area of the Pastoral KA Afar Yallo Hallie Ella Hallie Ella 112 The whole area of the Pastoral KA Total 8,831.2 Source: Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, December, Metaferia Consulting Engineers 13

35 Area in Hectare by Watershed Actual area, hectars Figure 4-2: Area in hectare by watershed/settlement 4.2 Biophysical Characteristics Though each and every watershed has its own peculiar biophysical characteristics, it was possible to make some generalizations in order to portray the biophysical characteristics in a summarized form. Accordingly, the following generalizations were made and the specific characteristics are presented in table 4.2, below. The rain fall amount varies from 400 mm in Hille Illa in Afar Regional State to 1322mm in Golegorba of Harbo in Oromia Region. Similarly, the slope % varies from 0-2 to 0-39 in Golegorba and Legedugo (Diredawa), respectively. Since rainfall is erratic and unreliable in its amount and distribution in both farming and pastoral areas of PSNP weredas, there exists chronic food shortage in most cases for more than 3 months. It can be said that before the implementation of the PSNP, the micro-watersheds were heavily eroded and degraded due to overgrazing, wanton cutting of woody vegetation, over browsing and continuous cultivation without any SWC measures. The climate, especially in pastoral areas, is dry and warm while the air temperature is mild in the farming areas. The pastoral areas fall mainly in the dry Kolla zone while the farming micromicro-watersheds fall in dry Weina Dega and Dega, though there are some microwatershds witch resemble Upper Dega or cooler area like that of Southern Nations (Hossaina) and Amhara micro-micro-watersheds. These areas are discerned by vegetation species like Erica and Tree lucern, influenced by micro- land forms such as valleys. The productivity of the farming areas, in terms of woody and herbaceous biomass, is better than the micro-micro-watersheds in the pastoral areas both after and before PSNP. Water remains a Metaferia Consulting Engineers 14

36 scarce resource even if it shows improvements after PSNP interventions in sample micro-microwatersheds. The biophysical characteristics of sample micro-watersheds studied/assessed are given in table 3.2, below. Actu al Area (ha) Mean annual RF(mm) Mean annual Tempera ture( 0 c) Major soil color types Major cover/ vegetation Current land use Adi_Tsalka Brown & red Cultivation, plantation, shrub grassland Crop production, Grazing Keish-Ayinalem Brown Cultivation, plantation, shrub grassland Crop production, Grazing Table 4-2: Biophysical Characteristics of sample micro-watersheds Sample microwatershed Altitude range(m) Molla- Geremoch Legeberro- Wekello Black Cultivation, plantation, shrub grassland Brown Cultivation, plantation, shrub grassland Crop production, Grazing Crop production, Grazing Hallie-Ella Black Scattered shrubs grasses & Grazing Browsing & Negadiras Yellow & Brown Cultivation, plantation and wooded shrub grassland Annuals & perennial crops production, livestock rearing Gelegorba Yellow & Brown Same above as Same above as Adada/Legedug Yellow Same as Same as Metaferia Consulting Engineers 15

37 Sample microwatershed Actu al Area (ha) Altitude range(m) Mean annual RF(mm) Mean annual Tempera ture( 0 c) Major soil color types Major cover/ vegetation Current land use o & Brown above above Bikie Grey Scattered trees, shrubs and grasses Grazing and browsing Garaguracha- Garayaya Red & Brown Cultivation, plantation and wooded shrub grassland Annuals & perennial crops production, livestock rearing Arbegna-Kostei Genebo Yellow & Black Same above as Same above as Doyancho Red & Brown Same above as Same above as With regards to vegetation, the sample micro-watersheds revealed wooded shrub-grassland upstream with stony and rocky surfaces intermingling at narrow spots and cultivated at middle and downstream areas. Narrow valleys are cultivated with small scale irrigation or covered with grasses and shrubs at spots. In the pastoral areas, dry scattered shrubs and grasses occur on upper and down slopes without any occurrence of cultivated fields. Hillsides and mountainous areas of the micro-watersheds have been treated with soil and water conservation measures including gully treatments, tree plantations, small scale irrigation schemes and water supply points covering an area of 4, hectares of land. 4.3 Features of the Public Works Micro-Micro-watersheds The micro-watersheds selected for the assessment has shown varied features and characteristics in terms of: spatial inter-linkages and externalities of expected positive and sometimes negative linkages of upstream PW activities to downstream, which was difficult to see within the micro-watersheds delineated due to smallness in size. However, downstream benefits from upstream soil and water conservation activities was very vivid in terms of Metaferia Consulting Engineers 16

38 enhancement of volume in rivers and expansion of irrigation in far away downstream areas as will be explained later; aspects of multiple program objectives, dimensions and determinants covering wide range of activities; long gestation period and difficulties in determining some program benefits; difficulties in determining baseline conditions; and variability of local bio-physical and socio-economic conditions prevailing in the microwatersheds, etc,. 4.4 Socio-Economic Characteristics Households & Family Members Benefiting from PSNP PWs The Woredas, KAs and the Watershed areas indicated in Table 4.2 are registered, known and have been supported by PSNP PWs since the beginning of the Program except Hallie-Ella and Bike of Afar and Somali Regions, respectively. According to the secondary data obtained from respective Agriculture and Rural Development and Food Security Offices, the total number of household heads living in the 12 micro-watersheds is 3,212, as presented in Table-3.3. Table 4-3: Households Benefiting from PSNP PWs in the Micro-watersheds (2011/12) Woreda Watershed No. of HH Ahiferom Adi-Tsalka 172 Atsbi-Womberta Keshi Aynalem 392 Habru Molla-Germoch 46 Were-Babo Legebero Wekelo 109 Melka Belo Gola Gorba 192 Habro Garaguracha/Garayaya 55 Humbo Arbegna 470 Lemu Doyancho 150 Sofi Negadiras 448 Dire Daw Lege Dugo 474 Afdem Bulabora/ Biokulul 450 Yallo Hallie Ella 400 Total 3358 Source: Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, December, Demographic Characteristics of the HHs Benefiting from PSNP PWs Among the total households benefiting from the PSNP PWs in the watersheds both in the highland farming and pastoral community areas, a total of 327 (255 male and 72 female) households were randomly selected for running the household. The total family members of the PSNP PWs participants on whom household survey was conducted were 1,772 (929 male and 843 female), and the average family size of the household participating in PSNP PWs was 5.4. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 17

39 Data collected reveals that the religious composition of the households living in the highland farming communities, within the micro-watersheds and participating in PSNP PWs, consists of Muslims (58%), Orthodox Christians (21.5%), Protestants (19.8%,) and Catholics ( 0.8 %). Similarly, in the pastoral community areas, 95.6 percent were Muslims while Orthodox Christians represent 4.4 percent. In terms of education, 53.5 percent of the households participating in PSNP PWs were illiterate Sources of Livelihood Agriculture is the main stay of the population and it provides the largest share for livelihood in the watersheds and surrounding areas. Smallholder subsistence and mixed agriculture, in which livestock husbandry is closely integrated with crop production, is the main farming system of the population of the areas. Most of the watershed areas and their environs have been suffering from inadequate and erratic rainfall pattern that contributed to recurring production failure and chronic food shortage. Consequently, incomes are very low and poverty has been widespread and deep in many parts of the watershed areas. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 18

40 5 GIS ANALYSIS 5.1 General Description The GIS analysis was made for all the twelve micro-watersheds selected from seven regional states and one city administration as shown in figure 4.1 above. The selected micro-watersheds have diverse biophysical conditions. As indicated above, the rain fall amount varies from 400mm in Hille Illa to 1,322mm in Golegorba of Harbo in oromia region. Similarly, the slope percent varies from 0-2 to 0-39 in Golegorba (harbo) to Legedugo (Diredawa), respectively. However, the temperature is more or less similar in all micro-watersheds. The details are shown in table 5.1 as follows. Table 5-1: Area, rainfall, temperature, slope percent and length of micro-watersheds No. Watershed Actual area, (ha) Altitude Annual Rainfall (mm) Temp.( 0 c) Slope length (m) Slope (%) 1 Aditsalka keshiaynalem Mollagermoc h legeberoweq ello Halie-ella Bike Arbegena Diredawa/Le gadego Negadiras Gara Guracha Doyancho Mekennisa Metaferia Consulting Engineers 19

41 5.2 Objective of GIS Analysis The objective of the GIS analysis is to support the overall impact assessment of the PSNP PWs through: Identifying and delineating the selected micro-watersheds; Generating the input factors (biophysical information) for soil loss estimation; and Providing Land cover change analysis from temporal variations of satellite Imagery. 5.3 Capturing Basic Digital Data and Environmental Analysis of Micro-Watersheds Delineation of the Selected Micro-Watersheds and Mapping of Infrastructures Delineation of the Selected Micro-Watersheds Having obtained topographic maps at a scale of 1:50,000 from the Ethiopian Mapping Agency, a team of experts was deployed to collect spatial data and create polygon on the topographic sheets of the selected micro-watersheds. This was made in collaboration with the respective Wereda Natural Resource Management (NRM) officials. Additional variables on land use, management practices and soil colour were collected at field level, based on land mapping unit, by making traverse walks and taking field notes of observations. Topo-sheets with delineated watershed boundaries and other variables that were obtained from field level studies were scanned and geo-referenced to establish digital map and shape files in ARCGIS. Area of each watershed was then calculated from the shape files. Thematic map of current land use, land management factor and soil colour of all microwatersheds were linked and mapped as indicated below (4.1a-4.1d) for Negadiras watershed of Harar. The results have been crosschecked with the previously prepared small scale digital maps of woody biomass and Ethio-GIS. Figure 4.1-a Figure 4.1-b Figure 4.1-c Figure 4.1-d Figure 5-1:A to D: Watershed boundary and land cover management factor and soil colour maps of Negadiras watershed Mapping of Infrastructures Infrastructures constructed in the micro-watersheds are collected and mapped as shown in the following figures; Figures 4.2 and 4.3 and the details are presented in annex section. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 20

42 Figure 5-2: Infrastructure Map of Aditsalka Watershed Figure 5-3: Infrastructure Map of Keshi Aynalem Watershed Generate Biophysical Information for Soil Loss Estimation Slope length, slope gradient, land cover, land management, soil colour and rainfall erosivity are the input factors for soil loss estimation. The most influential factors for soil loss estimation are land management factor and land cover changes due to various activities. Slope and soil factors do not change significantly in the shorter period of time. Hence, land cover and land management factor, which are mentioned under 4.3.1, are used as input for soil loss estimation. Shuttle Raddar topographic Mission-Digital Elevation Model, SRTM-DEM of 30 meter was bought from the Ethiopian Mapping Agency, for generating contours for each watershed and from which the Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) Model was established. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 21

43 Kilometers Figure 5-4: Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) of Aditsalka Watershed From TIN DEM, slope% and slope angle have been derived. Some examples are illustrated below for Bike and Legedugo micro-watersheds. Figure 5-5: Slope % and Length of Golegorba and Doyancho Micro-watersheds Metaferia Consulting Engineers 22

44 Table 5-2: Rainfall, slope length and % of watershed No. Watershed Rainfall (mm/y) Slope length slop % 1 Aditsalka keshi-aynalem Mollagermoch legeberoweqello Halie-ella bike buke Diredawa Harar Harbo Belesa Melkabelo Land Cover Change Analysis from Temporal Variations of Satellite Imagery As there has not been base line data at a large scale or micro-watersheds level, the method the Consultant followed was to take observation of the vegetation cover change using temporal variation of satellite imagery and band 642 false colour combinations, where gree n colour shows vegetation reflectance. Initially, it was planned to use spot imagery with 5m resolution but it was not possible to get the recent image of the area. Hence, Landsat Satellite image of 1) Imagery date January, 13,2000 as baseline and 2) satellite image of imagery date November-30,2010 both from landsat-7etm+ satellite of spatial resolution 30m, were purchased from the Ethiopian mapping authority. Recently published abstract shows, 8 to 9 years is ideal for environmental monitoring or change detection ( Land Cover Trends - Abstracts of Published Papers, Dec 13, 2012). Hence, as per methodology utilized, it was stated to use 8 years difference with similar type and resolution of images that is for the year 2002 (Before) and 2010 (after) the intervention of PSNP. Unfortunately, we were not able to find images from 2002 to 2004 that represent all sample micro-watersheds. As a result, we were forced to use images of the year 2000 which were available for all selected micro-watersheds as a base for analysis as an alternative. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 23

45 Landsate-7ETM+, satellite image of 2000, dry, clear sky season (December to January) of 30 meter resolution as a base line data (before PSNP intervention) and similar satellite image of the year 2010 (after first PSNP intervention) of the same season of temporal variation or resolutio n was used for land cover analysis. As the micro-watersheds are so small, several recoding and reiterations were done to get the maximum good results using supervised maximum likely hood classifier image classification method. The findings show that there is generally land cover change, increase of vegetation cover as a whole, it could be shrub land, grass land, forest or bush land, at some water sheds it shows new surface water from the black colour spots in the Image, like it is observed in Legebero Wekello. About hectars increase in forest land, about 95.64hectars increase in Bush-shrub land and 34hectrar in grass land The satellite image of the Legebro Wekello watershed signifies the reflectance of the surface as near zero DN values compared to other Micro-watersheds. Here the aim is not to know the amount of moisture content and number of ponds of whatsoever nature; rather to show the changes that have happened to the previously existing land use land cover due to PW interventions. In this respect previously non existing surface water has been witnessed. Figure 5-6: Land cover change of Legebro Woqello Watershed Figure 5-7: Land cover change of Adi-Tsalka Watershed Metaferia Consulting Engineers 24

46 Figure 5-8: Land cover change of Negadiras Watershed As it is shown below, increased vegetation cover or greenness is observed in Keshi Ayanalem (Atsibi) and Legebero-Weqello (Werebabo) micro-watersheds. Figure 5-9: Land cover change map of Keshi Aynalem and Legebero-Weqello Watershed Next to the above mentioned micro-watersheds, better vegetation cover is observed in Adi- Tsalka (Ahferom), Molla Geremoch (Habru), Negadiras (Harar), Legedugo (Diredawa), Arbegna Kostie genebo (SNNPR), Doyancho (SNNPR), Golegorba and Kogna of Oromia Metaferia Consulting Engineers 25

47 Figure 5-10: Land cover map of Molla Geremoch watershed Except, Haile Illa (Yallo Woreda) and Bike (Afdem) of Afar and Somali regions, respectively, slight increment of vegetation cover is observed for all the remaining micro-watersheds. Especially, in Hille Illa of Yallo Woreda, there was no any change in vegetation cover due to the reasons mentioned earlier in this report. Figure 5-11: Land Cover Map of Hille-Ella Watershed The temporal variotions in land use/landcover change attributed to the PSNP PW implementation for the remaining warersheds can be seen in annex section. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 26

48 6 ANALYSIS OF IMPACTS 6.1 Analysis of Environmental and Watershed Impacts of PSNP PWs General It has been clearly recognized that the implementation of soil and water conservation activities is of prime importance as far as the new safety net approach for the attainment of food security is concerned. It is very important due to the fact that the rehabilitation of the environment is an assurance to the maintenance and further improvement of any level of food security attained at both individual and community levels. As such, knowing clearly what is going on in this important area of intervention as well as the achievements and constraints so far directly and indirectly indicates and whether or not the whole issue of the PSNP PW goal, mission and objectives is being addressed properly or not is of paramount importance. The study on environmental and watershed impacts examined the performance of various indicators of agricultural productivity, natural resource management and human welfare. Indicators were collected at the level of watershed project sites from household interviews, group discussions and field observations. To this effect a sample of 12 micro-watersheds were selected from among the numerous micro-watersheds where PSNP PWs are being implemented in the different PSNP regions. The IA study team looked into the following performance indicators using the approaches and methodologies expounded at large above to assess the impacts/measure successes of the PSNP PW on the watershed project sites Estimates of on-site Soil Losses and Reductions due to SWM Activities For assessing effects of watershed development on soil erosion and land productivity, Public Works SWC measures are assessed in terms of their physical effects including the direct on- site effects and the indirect downstream (off-site) effects. The watershed approach on environmental rehabilitation of the PSNP PW at country level has dominantly shown positive impact in soil loss reduction. The main SWC measures planned and practiced in the micro-watersheds include area closure, hill side stone bunds/terraces, trench bunds, micro-basins, eyebrow basins, check dams, tree planting on basins in the upstream portions, mainly above foot slopes, etc. On foot slopes and below foot slopes the activities include stone faced soil bunds and soil bunds with trenches and planting of fodder crops along bunds, at some localities, in agricultural areas. In the eastern and southeastern regions like Harari, Eastern and Western Harergei zones of Oromiya and Driedawa, chat (Catha edulis) is planted along bunds in rows and annual crops in between rows of perennials. Likewise, in Amhara region of Molla-Geremoch watershed pea-gem-pea (cajanus cajan) is well established along the trench bunds of both hillsides and arable lands. To control expansion of deep gullies, rehabilitation of existing ones and preventing new gully formation and different conservation techniques such as loose check dams, gabion check dams, Metaferia Consulting Engineers 27

49 rock plugs, score checks, retaining wall structures combined with vegetative measures have been used for erosion control including seeding with grasses and legumes. Planting of fodder and fruit trees and other similar strategies have been found to be effective for erosion control. The vegetative measure (grasses planted along the river/drainage channels) in Adi-Tsakla, Keshi- Aynalem, Negadiras and Gelegorba micro-micro-watersheds and others have been found to benefit farmers as a source of fodder for their animals. The gabion check dam structure is, however, found to be expensive and very difficult to be adopted by poor farmers unless an external support is in place as done by PSNP PW. Table 5.1 below shows summarized response of households on the SWC implemented in their micro-watersheds of various components. Table 6-1: Have any Soil and Water Conservation activities been carried out by the PSNP PWs in your locality? Place of implementation Frequency Percent Yes, in the closure area Yes, on my farm Yes on communal areas yes in all the above No Total Source: MCE PSNP PW IA HH Survey, December 2012 Based on the farmer's perspective and the study team s field observation, the stone-faced trench bunds, hillside terraces, check dams and other techniques implemented in most micro-watersheds are excellent technologies for moisture conservation and soil erosion control. Although the level of implementation varies from watershed to watershed these techniques seem to be working well, efficient, easily replicable and cheap. Except in Halie-Ella and Bikie, 80% of the sampled households reported that SWC measures along with regeneration of vegetation measures have brought positive environmental impact on their micro-watersheds. Runoff water and soil loss on barren hills that was a stark reality before the treatment was significantly reduced after the interventions. The progressive reduction in soil and water loss and sediment yield, as a result of quick recovery of vegetation on hill slopes and lands adjoining the foothills, has resulted in a greatly improving surface and groundwater regime of the micro-watersheds. During the survey, households were asked whether they implement soil and water conservation individually on their private holdings or not: the summarized response indicated that 62.7% of the households respond 'yes' while 37.3% said 'no'. According to the survey, the main reasons for not practicing soil and water conservation on individual plots were shortage of manpower followed by shortage of land and lack of awareness. The replicability of the stone-faced trench bund in non-arable lands and soil trench bunds in arable lands are found to be tremendous. Farmers are adopting it on their own private lands Metaferia Consulting Engineers 28

50 without external assistance. This is probably a reflection of two factors. First, the areas are severely affected by high moisture stress and farmer's adoption is primarily focused on solving such problem as the trench bund is the most effective technique for moisture conservation. Second, the emphasis on the use of local materials (stone and soil) with these techniques is also evident. Nevertheless, in pastoral areas (Halie-Ella and Bikie) the effect of soil and water conservation activities implemented by PSNP PW is not clearly seen mainly due to the late implementation of the PSNP PW Program and the recurrent drought that occurred in the past two consecutive years. As a consequence, the areas are highly suffering from land degradation and food insecurity. During the study, households in Halie-Ella and Bikie reported that sever environmental degradation affects both communities as well as households in the two micro-watersheds. The most commonly reported problems were soil erosion, recurrent drought, deforestation, gully formation and lack of food and feed resources. Generally, the direct physical effects (on-site) of Watershed Development of PWs intervention activities in the successful watershed areas are tremendous and as such include: Natural herbaceous and woody vegetation rehabilitation; Flood and Soil erosion/detachment control; Interception of erratic rainfall by canopies of woody vegetation; Establishment of wildlife homes and environment Enhancement of percolation of moisture through roots of natural and planted trees and beneath trenches and micro-basins; and Extension of soil moisture availability periods. The productivity effects of SWC activities on the other hand include: Improvement of livestock feed; Appearance of new springs Improvement of spring water availability period; Improvement of land cover; Improvement of soil fertility Improvement of the availability of woods for planned and systematic harvesting and use; and Improvement of soil depth and organic content through weathering and organic matters of decaying leaves and annuals. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 29

51 The indirect (off-site) downstream effects of Upstream SWC intervention in line with on site effects embrace: Reduction of sedimentation and flood destruction; Reduction and control of gully formation; Improvement of soil moisture holding period; Improvement of crop yield and production; Improvement in availability of livestock feed; Community and HH asset creation; Improvement of out migration; Reduction of asset depletion of HHs during drought years; Improvement of land management skills, awareness and knowhow; Dissemination of land development techniques in-situ and neighboring Kebeles; Improvement of river and stream water flow; and Improvement of drinking and irrigation water availability period. The rate of on-site soil losses using scientific techniques and measures were not conducted even before the PSNP project begins. This should have been done by taking water samples from outlets of streams and rivers that leaves the micro-watershed during different seasons of the year (i.e. both in good and bad years). Despite this situation, it has been observed that not much soil is moving down slopes except in times of some conservation structures are broken after PSNP PW interventions as cases indicate in Hossaina/Lemmo /Doyancho micro-watershed. Table 5.2 below provides area treated in different micro-watersheds to control flood and detachment of soils. In general, in all micro-watersheds, more than 2,623ha of hillsides, 2,697ha of cultivated lands and grazing lands as well as 36ha of gullies have been treated with various physical conservation techniques. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 30

52 Table 6-2: Size of Areas treated in the sample micro-watersheds Micro-watershed Land type treated to halt erosion Area treated (ha) Remark Tigray/ Adi-Tsalka Hillsides Tigray/ Kish-Ayinalem Hillside Grassland/grazing Amhara/ Molla Geremoch Hill side Gullies Cultivated land Amhara/ Legeberro_Wekello Hillside Cultivated land Vast area (924) but only small part covered Dredawa/Adada/Legedugo Hillside terrace Cultivated land The whole treated area is 25% of the MWS which is 566 ha Somali/Bikie Demonstration site and gullies 2.00 Nursery site Hill side terrace Oromia/Gelemso/ Garaguracha Hillside Cultivated land Welayita/ Arbegna/Kostei Genebo Hillside terrace Cultivated land Hossaina/ Lemmo Doyancho Degraded land Field estimation Cultivated land Harari /Negadiras Hillside Field estimation Cultivated land (75%) Metaferia Consulting Engineers 31

53 Oromia/Golegorba Hillside Wereda office data Cultivated land Check-dam 4,433.00m Seedling plantation 522,200.(number) Afar/Hallie-Ella Settlement surrounding Source: MCE PW IA Study, December 2012, FGD, KII and field observations and estimation The re-growth of natural woody vegetation (trees and shrubs) and grasses has slowed downward flow of water over the land during rains and increased the power of interception and percolation. Though not measured, the amount of sediments trapped by different types of bunds, trenches and micro-basins constructed indicate that a tremendous amount of soil has been retained in-situ after PSNP, especially in agricultural areas. Increases in percolation and seepages of rain water have also improved the stands and yields of perennial and annual crops as per the land users and participants. Added to that, perennials and some irrigated crops planted along streams and narrow valleys including natural vegetation (Harari, Tigray and Oromiya micro-microwatersheds) were observed to be in good stands due to soil conservation, improvement of soil depth, fertility and moisture holding capacities. An estimation of soil loss rate based on preproject and current-project land cover, land use and management situations and application of the Revised Universal Soil Loss Rate Equation(RUSLRE) modified as per Ethiopian Conditions is given in Table 5.3 below Baseline Soil Losses (before intervention) Non-Public Work participating and non-participating land users told that vegetation and soil degradation were tremendous due to poor management practices in sample micro-watersheds. The watershed areas were generally prone to deterioration either by the accelerated removal of soil, the progressive alteration of soil properties, or the loss of vegetative cover from soil. Some of the causes of land degradation are natural, being the consequence of hazards such as floods, bushfires or drought. Others are the consequences of human activities including overgrazing, deforestation or poor agricultural practices due to high population pressure in the area. Generally, the land resource, in all sample micro-watersheds, can be defined as land, which has mainly lost some or all of its value for human use. During the field survey residences of these micro-watersheds explained earnestly that the areas were completely bare attributed to upstream soil detachment and losses by sheet, rill and gully types of erosion. Landslides were also basic problems on lower slopes and down streams mainly along gullies and streams. In dry areas like Afar and Somali micro-watersheds, soil loses were due to trampling, overgrazing and over-browsing effects and wanton tree cutting for charcoal and Metaferia Consulting Engineers 32

54 fire wood. In Dre Dawa, Adada Kebele, Legedugo micro-watersheds, Acacia wood cutting is still practiced though the effort to halt the problem is in place. According to the Das of the area, the cutting is done by traders of charcoal who, at the same time, are members of the Kebele. As a result yield and production of crops have been declining year after year making the food, feed and wood insecurity gap extremely wide. The negative effects were seasonal and permanent migration and breaking of marriages and families due to successive droughts followed by famine. Estimation of soil loss rates in tones/ha/yr of the visited micro-watersheds are given in Table 5.3 below. Soil loss rate varies from micro-watershed to micro-watershed mainly because of differences in factors influencing the processes mentioned below. The rate of soil loss denoted by A in the formulae for each micro-watershed was estimated using the Revised Universal Loss Equation (RUSLE), which involves factors like Rainfall erosivity, Soil erodibility (K), Slope length (L), Slope gradient (S), Land Cover and Management Practices (P). The equation applied to determine soil loss rate (A) is formulated as A=R*K*L*S*C*P adapted by Hurni for Ethiopian conditions in As per rates of factors adapted by the same and by relating values of factors derived from field and GIS assessment conducted by the Consultant, see Annex section Table 6-3: Soil Loss Rate Estimation Before & After PSNP Pws Interventions based on RUSLRE Sample MWS Land cover Type Estimated Soil Loss Cultivated for Cereals, pulses Degraded grass land/shru b-land rate(tone/ha/year)bef ore PSNP Estimate d Soil Loss rate (t/ha/y) after PSNP Adi-Tsalka X X Keish_Ayinalem X X Molla-Geremoch X X Legebero-Wekello X X Hallie_Ella X Estimated Soil Loss rate Reduction(t/ha/ y) Metaferia Consulting Engineers 33

55 Sample MWS Land cover Type Estimated Soil Loss rate(tone/ha/year)bef ore PSNP Cultivated for Cereals, pulses Degraded grass land/shru b-land Estimate d Soil Loss rate (t/ha/y) after PSNP Estimated Soil Loss rate Reduction(t/ha/ y) X Negadiras X X Gelegorba X X Legedugo X X Bikie X X Garaguracha_Gara yaya X X Arbegna Kostei Genebo X X Doyancho X X Source: MCE PSNP PW IA, calculation based on GIS data and USLE factors adapted for Ethiopia by Hurni (1985) Soil loss and Yield after Intervention (Closed Areas and, Crop Land) The major factor which influences the sustained increase in crop production is soil fertility. Soil fertility decline is a progressive reduction in the productivity of a soil mainly as a result of erosion. It is a complex process demonstrated through deterioration in organic matter content, nutrient availability and biological activity in agricultural soils. It becomes evident through Metaferia Consulting Engineers 34

56 impaired germination, reduced crop yield and declining crop quality, along with increased farming costs brought about by the need for increasing amounts of chemical fertilizer application. The extent and severity of this form of degradation is not well documented, largely because its effects may be attributed to a variety of other causes such as climatic variations, changing farming practices, or the consequences of other forms of degradation such as water and wind erosion. It is known to occur in all studied micro-watersheds. It is particularly likely to occur in cropping lands of low natural fertility, in locations where rainfall is generally variable and marginal. Extensive cropping lands in the micro-watersheds are likely to become increasingly affected. However, field observations in different units of sample micro-watersheds and discussions held with groups of different informants (PSNP Participants, none PSNP participants, Woreda and Kebele task forces and Technical committees and DAs) indicated that soil losses upstream have been reduced tremendously year after year through the implementation of major strategies of environmental rehabilitations that include: construction of stone terraces, soil bunds, and micro dams; establishment of area enclosures (areas enclosed from human and animal interference to promote natural regeneration) and community woodlots (enclosures with enrichment plantation of trees or areas of new plantation); enforcement of grazing restrictions, regeneration of natural herbs and woods that enhanced good land cover in the up slops; planting of trees and fodder crops along bunds on steep slopes; construction of check dams and check dams with gabions in shallow and deep gullies, respectively; and planting of grasses and trees on gully sides and regeneration of natural species. In tackling the problem of land degradation, the PSNP PW approach has gradually moved from mere soil conservation to that of integrated land management. The study team has observed in all studied regions (except Afar and Somali) that the watershed, which is a compact homogeneous unit, has become the obvious choice for planning and management of natural resources. The watershed concept went beyond the physical soil conservation approach to a wider perspective for development, conservation and management of land and water resources. Subsequently, watershed prioritization was taken up as a strategy for planning and a national policy watershed development is formulated to take into account the physical situation and availability of resources along with the needs of the people. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 35

57 6.1.3 Estimation of On-Site Productivity Impacts on Crop, Herbaceous and Woody Biomass Crop Production Perhaps the greatest impact of successful watershed management projects can be viewed in terms of changes in agricultural production. Improved soil moisture management can have dramatic effects on rain fed crop production, which coupled with enhanced ground water availability, can lead to some dramatic increase in total agricultural production on both arable and non-arable lands. In this study, this parameter served to measure the success of the projects, as low agricultural production is the major challenge of the area. In fact, the reason for improvement in crop production also depends on various factors like input utilization, agricultural extension and improved cultural practices. But implementation of the integrated watershed management practices through PSNP PW has contributed to raise the productivity of crops in the selected micro-watersheds as well as at national level, wherever the project is implemented. The watershed management project has brought significant contribution to the improvement of crop production in micro-watersheds especially in those micro-watersheds which started earlier including Adi-Tsalka, Keshi-Aynalem, Garaguracha-Garayaya, Molla-Geremoch and Negadiras. Integrated watershed management has singularly contributed to the development of agriculture in these areas. The lost interest in practicing agriculture has been revived with recovery and rejuvenation of arable lands in the lower areas of the micro-watersheds even if it is too premature to expect a spectacular performance in terms of productivity in a short period of years. Furthermore, the small size of holdings and the allocation of land for more than two crops is a serious limiting factor to estimating size of economic impact. However, the informants told that crop yields improved gratly through PSNP SWC activities around homesteads and crop fields and shortened food insecurity periods at many of the households. It has even enabled rich households to produce more for consumption, sale and creation of additional assets. According to the respondents, the major factors contributing to crop production improvement include: construction of soil faced stone and soil bunds with trenches, plowing against slopes/contour plowing, row planting of fodder crops and perennial crops along bunds, establishment of agro forestry systems and check dams, and utilization of manure, compost and chemical fertilizers as management practices that improved the soil water holding capacities, rooting depths and fertility levels from year to year Crop yields and production, as per analysis of data gathered from randomly selected HHs, indicated substantial increments in crop yields and total production after interventions of PSNP public work programs (Table 5.4 below). The yields of cereals and pulses increased (66.17%) Metaferia Consulting Engineers 36

58 and (22.35%), respectively. The yield of root crops and fruits has also shown a remarkable improvement. Organic and chemical fertilizers have been used in all cases. In line with this, Vncampenhout and et al., (2005), after their research in Tigray, reported that stone bunds have increased crop yields by 7 % taking into account the land taken by the structure. Table 6-4: Crop yield change of PSNP PW Activities in sample MWs Frequency of crops Type of production Prior PSNP/2005/1997EC Post PSNP Yield increment in Qt/ha Yield increment in % Ha Yield/ha in Qt ha Yield/ha in Qt 5 Cereals /5 = /5 = Pulses /3 = /3 = Perennials /3 = /3 = Source: MCE HH survey done in December, Changes in Herbaceous Biomass Production Observation in sample micro-micro-watersheds indicated that herbaceous vegetation cover in the degraded upper, middle and lower slopes of micro-micro-watersheds have tremendously increased specially in closed areas. In successful micro-watersheds at national level the degraded grazing land and the up lands have become potentials for feed resource. On top of this, the project has introduced an improved utilization of the feed resources through cut-and-carry and stall-feeding systems instead of free grazing. As a consequence, the availability and utilization of forage have been improved. However, some stony and rocky surfaces are still bare because of the naturally slow process in the formation of soil, in such areas. The amount of herbaceous biomass production before and after the project were not measured and recorded in terms of Dry Matter (DM) production. Nevertheless, the land users tell that the herbaceous vegetation production in closed areas and on field boundaries and bunds have improved the availability of livestock feed through cut and carry system. Grasses and other herbs are cut from closed areas during flowering stages and are sold to the community. For instance, Metaferia Consulting Engineers 37

59 in Tigray region (Keshi-Aynalem watershed) grass harvested from closed areas feeds livestock for 5 to 6 months. In Amhara region, Legebereo-Wekelo watershed, households have totally stopped purchasing of feed from other areas. Similarly, in Oromia/Garaguracha-Garayaya microwatershed, grasses are cut and sold for an average of 15,000 birr per annum. The money is invested for communal use for construction of offices and meeting halls in the Kebeles. Biomasses are also being produced along bunds in cultivated areas to improve production and stabilization of bunds. On the other hand, out 327 surveyed households, 35 households have been engaged in beekeeping; out of which 25.7% were before PSNP, 31.4% before and after PSNP and 42.9% after PSNP indicating that the number of bee keepers has increased dramatically due to increment in bee flora. Beekeeping has been taken as a good alternative because the average land holding of the farmer is small in almost all watershed projects. 5.5 shows the increment in bee-flora as highly influenced by the physical and biological SWC activities. Consequently, the yield and production of both modern and traditional hives have increased the income of households involved in the business. Beekeeping in the PSNP Areas is becoming the best alternative source of income that does not disturb the environment and increase pressure on the land. Table 6-5: Number of Beehive Owning HHS as indicator of Bee Flora Increment Total Sample HHs Beekeeping participant HHs in number & % Income Reason for income increment Before PSNP Before and after PSNP After PSNP Before PSNP After PSNP low Improved Increment of bee flora Reason for income reduction before Degradation of bee flora 100% 25.7% 31.4% 42.9% Source: household survey done by MCE in December, Changes in Woody biomass productivity Planted Trees In the PSNP watershed areas, tree planting has become a common practice in closed areas as enrichment and on cultivated and homestead areas as agro-forestry systems. Trees planted include fodder crops; fruit crops and trees for shade, fuel and construction. Trees planted include both indigenous and exotic species. On average the woody biomass productivity of planted trees in all micro-watersheds has increased at national level despite the survival rate of planted trees on steep slopes and especially in pastoral areas is very low due to very shallow and shallow soil depths, rockiness and stoniness and erratic rainfall and occurrence of successive droughts. The Metaferia Consulting Engineers 38

60 situation is better in agricultural areas where the soil depth is relatively well and the rain fall variability is somehow better than in pastoral areas. Trees are planted around homesteads, along field boundaries, on sides of footpaths and in degraded areas including gullies in agricultural areas. Planted trees have not only improved the climate, but also upgraded the biomass productivity. The planted trees generate additional income from sale of timbers. For example, in Keshi-Aynalem watershed of Tigray region, more than 129 households have planted eucalyptus trees ranging from 50 to 3000 trees and are making substantial benefits. Trees planted in the Pastoral and agricultural areas, as revealed during transect walks observations in the sample micro-micro-watersheds, are presented in Table 5.6 below. These trees and perennial crops provide fuel wood, shade, construction material, fruits and roots for food and protect the soil from direct rainfall that detaches the soil. Table 6-6:Majo r planted trees, perennials and grasses in pastoral and agricultural sample microwatersheds Pastoral area Agricultural area Perennials Acacia saligna Acacia saligna Chta edulis Leucania liucocephala Leucania liucocephala Papaya, banana, avocado, Sesbania sesban Pea-gem-pea (cajans cajan) Zeitun/ guva, orange, gishta Eucalyptus camaldulensis Sesbania sesban Coffee, sugarcane, cassava Jatropha, True man tree, Eucalyptus camaldulencis Tarro,mango, Pigeon pea, Enset Elephant grass Jatropha, Grevillia robusta, Moringa olifera, Omedla robusta, Tree lucern Source: Field survey result, MCE 2012 Moreover, the study team has determined the change in planted woody biomass in selected micro-watersheds where records of planted seedlings, plantation area and planted rates were available. Accordingly, in Adi-Tsakla, Keshi-Aynalem, Molla-Geremoch and Legebero-Wekelo micro-watersheds the change in planted biomass has been calculated using the above mentioned records. The highest woody biomass change is, therefore, recorded in Adi-Tsalka watershed with 2,500 seedlings/ha planted in 124ha and 82% of volume increment with a total of 248,320m 3 of woody biomass. Whereas, the lowest woody biomass change has been observed in Legeberowekelo watershed with 1,700 seedlings/ha planted in 51.7ha and 58% volume increment with a total of 70,352m 3 of woody biomass. See annex section. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 39

61 Natural Re-growth of Trees The natural regeneration of trees in agricultural areas where the rainfall amount and distributions are much better than in the pastoral areas, have been observed as being faster, denser and containing mixtures of various indigenous species of shrubs and trees. The species composition varies with variability of micro-climate and altitude. Except in pastoral areas, species of trees observed are of mid land/ Weinadega type and in transitional areas the species are mixtures of lowland, midland and high land ecologies. Naturally, rehabilitated species in the agricultural areas were not only common in closed areas but also seen scattered in crop fields, on field boundaries and on minor escarpments occurring in between cultivated and settled areas. Trees and shrubs thus protected from wanton cutting pressures and over browsing are given in table 5.7 below. Generally, these species provide dried wood for fuel and sale; shade for humans and animals; construction wood for sale and local use based on systematic harvesting and planting techniques. Moreover, the naturally re-growing canopies of woody tree species contribute to intercepting and percolating the incoming rainfall and controlling rapid, down slop movement of soils and flood. In addition, the decaying leaves improve the soil conditions and to some extent its fertility level and water holding capacity. These factors contribute to improving crops yields in the micro-micro-watersheds Table 6-7: atural woody species observed in sample Micro-Watersheds Pastoral Area Agricultural area Remarks Acacia etbica Dodonaea viscoassa, Dodonaea angustifolia Acacia tortilis Lantana Camara Balanites aegiptiaca Rhus natalensis, Rhus vulgaris Carissa edulis Croton macrostachyus Combretum collinum Olea africana Combretum molle Rhus natalensis Comiphora habessiniaca. Carissa edulis Grewia bicolor Juniperus procera Grewia ferruginea Dediho(LN)/Euclea schimperi Ziziphus mucronata, Acacia abyssinica Ziziphus spina-christi Cordia africana Ficus Sp Ensilal (LN) Acacia nilotica, Acacia brevspica Terminalia brownii Rossa abyssinica Acacia tortilis Acacia albida Wellenso (LN) Ensilal is a herb with unique flavor used for brewing local hard liquor Metaferia Consulting Engineers 40

62 Pastoral Area Agricultural area Remarks Combretum sp Tatissa (LN) Acacia saligna Omedla robusta Polyscias fulva Dovyalis abyssinica Atat (ln) Arundinaria alpina Phonix reclinata Erica arborea Dokma(LN) Azamir/ Bersaa abyssinica Hypericum revolutum Appeared in micro-climate of Hossaina/Belessa/ Doyancho MWS along streams covered with natural forest Appeared in micro-climate of Hossaina/Belessa/ Doyancho MWS along streams covered with natural forest Appeared in micro-climate of Hossaina/Belessa/ Doyancho MWS along streams covered with natural forest The change in stocks of woody biomass has been estimated using the specific land cover wood biomass stocking rates derived by WBISPP (2005) for Ethiopia. The annual sustainable wood biomass yield rates were also those derived by WBISPP (2005). Hence, for all micro-watersheds, the stocking rate before closure has been calculated by taking vegetation cover of the microwatersheds before PSNP PW was commenced and the current vegetation cover as the change in stocking rates after closure. Accordingly, the highest woody biomass change is observed in Keshi-Aynalem and Garagurecha micro-watersheds with 9.16t/ha and 7.58t/ha, respectively. Discussion with communities and field observations made by the study team corroborate the remarkable vegetation cover gained on previously degraded lands and the supplement fodder and fuel-wood resources made available to the respective communities. However, in the pastoral areas of Halie-Ela and Bikie, there is no increment in woody biomass after closure. As observed, this phenomenon was mainly due to the droughts occurred in the last two years (Annex section) Analysis/Estimation of Carbon Sequestration The contribution of PSNP PWs to carbon sequestration seems significant though each sample watershed covers relatively small area. Carbon is stored (sequestered) above-ground by plants, crops and trees, and below-ground in the soil and roots. Thus, the re-growth and enrichment of natural vegetation in closed areas, planting trees on cultivated fields, along bunds and on road Metaferia Consulting Engineers 41

63 sides and homesteads of PSNP programs are also making similar contributions in regulating weather changes and improving the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide. Perennial and annual crops planted in fields and homesteads are also increasing the absorption rate of carbon dioxide in the same way the reforested and closed areas. Major conservation activities contributing to carbon sequestration in PSNP areas or micro-watersheds and adapted to neighboring areas include stone and soil bunding, trenches, micro-basins, tree and fodder crops planting, perennial and annual crops plantation and regulation of deforestation and forest management. Though the amount of carbon dioxide sequestrated by the PSNP PWs is not yet scientifically estimated for such cover types, the land users of the micro-watersheds witness the reduction in temperature, the increase in vegetation cover and amount of annual rainfall indicating that Green House Gas (GHG) emission is reduced as a result of increase in carbon sequestration. According to Humbo carbon credit area, (a project being undertaken by World Vision support) and other international experiences in carbon trade, the amount of carbon sequestration can only be estimated after five years of watershed management practices so as to arrive at reliable results. In well managed forest areas, the annual GHG removal from one hectare of land is estimated at about 3.5 tons of CO2. In line with this, the current impact assessment study has estimated the effect of PSNP PWs on carbon sequestration as given in table 5.9 below. The calculation was based on data found from different study sources of stoking rates of biomass of different land cover types and applying them for before and after PSNP PW interventions scenario. Researches and studies conducted in Ethiopia and elsewhere in the world indicate that the estimated carbon content of one tone of dry vegetation is about 50% dry weight and that of moist/un-dried is about 55%. On the other hand, the carbon to CO 2 ratio is estimated to be Thus, multiplying the stocking rate change in tones per hectare (above ground biomass) by factors of 0.55 and provides the amount of carbon sequestered in each land cover types of closed areas after PSNP PW intervention (Table 5.8). The sequestrated carbon below ground is estimated at 30% of the above ground weight. Table 6-8: Estimation of carbon sequestration amount after 5 years of PSNP Interventions Cover type before PSNP PW Stoking Rate (tone/ha) Cover type After PSNP interventions Stoking rate (tone/ha) C: CO 2 ratio Stocking rate change (tone/ha) Estimated carbon content (%) Estimated Amount of sequestrated Carbon in (tons/ha) Degraded Grassland Open shrub land 2.67 Open shrubland 7.74 Dense shrub land Bare soil 1.09 Grassland Source: Calculation based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) recommended method (Parson et al., 2005) Metaferia Consulting Engineers 42

64 6.1.6 Changes in Water Availability The effect of soil and water conservation measures on hill slopes and wastelands along with regeneration of vegetation usually reduces runoff water losses. Consequently, in the successfully managed/implemented micro-watersheds, the water table rises from year to year and people use this water for watering animals, drinking and irrigation. Irrigation practices have been increasing. For Example, in Adi-Tsalka watershed the coverage of irrigation in the area was very minimal before PSNP PW and limited to only 62 hectares. Now, many plots of land are cultivated under irrigation. The number of hand dug wells and motor pumps have increased. Currently, about 187 hectares of land is cultivated under irrigation in the watershed. In fact, no research has been conducted in the sample watershed areas of the PSNP public works to determine changes in water availability. However, during the PSNP PW Impact Assessment, the experts have investigated to understand the situation from different sources such as interviews, focal group s discussions and observations. Except in the pastoral areas, where the PSNP PW activities are being carried out in settlement surroundings or comparatively small areas and the intervention periods are short (not more than 2 years), there is significant improvement in the availability of both ground and surface water. For instance in Tigray, Amhara, Oromia and SNNPRS micro-micro-watersheds, availability of water has significantly improved. The availability of ground water is enhanced through rainfall collection in trenches, micro-basins, percolation ponds, and natural seepages through roots openings of herbaceous and woody species. In Tigray ground water is available now at a depth of 4-5 m in the areas where the program has been implemented. Majority of household respondents in Adi-Tsakla, Keshi-Aynalem, Legebero-Wekelo, Gelegorba and Negadiras micro-watersheds agreed that surface water in their watershed increased (the time of flow was prolonged and discharge rate of surface water increased) because of the conservation activities carried out by the projects. The significance of surface water improvement varies from watershed to watershed. Similarly, groundwater depth is greatly improved, influenced by soil and water conservation interventions on the upper catchments. In areas with good conservation activities, groundwater rises to the level of 5meters and this has created great opportunity for irrigation development through development of springs and construction of shallow hand dug wells. Nevertheless, in the pastoral areas (Halie-Ella and Bikie) where less conservation activities are implemented, depths to groundwater have dropped. Out of the 28 households who currently use irrigation in the sample WSs, 20 households (71.4%) reported that they started to use irrigation after PSNP PW project has commenced and while 8 households (28.6%) started prior to PSNP PW interventions. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 43

65 Assessment of downstream effects of SWC Public Works SDR (Sediment Delivery Ratio) Due to lack of recorded data, the downstream effects of PW SWC activities were covered by discussions held with upstream and downstream communities and experts working in the sample micro-watersheds. According to the results of the discussion, the soil and water conservation measures undertaken upstream have greatly: reduced the existence of flood created gullies; reduced the amount of sediment load carried downstream and destroyed crop fields; reduced severe soil erosion; increased availability of moisture; and improved crop yield and production in neighboring kebeles and micro-watersheds through soil moisture availability. The amount of sediment loads reduced and the increase in crop production was not compared with measured data due to lack of records. One of the off-site effects of soil and water conservation measures being reduction of sediment delivery ratio(sdr) entering into streams through runoff from hillsides and cultivated fields, it would have been appropriate to estimate the amount based on base line data. Nevertheless it seems appropriate to mention that sediment delivery after SWC interventions could be calculated based on measured data before intervention. Sediment delivery ratio being constant (i.e. 0.66) both for cropland and grazing land with 0.65 and 0.95 percent SWC efficiency, respectively, sediment delivery after interventions and sediment reduction (tones per year) can be calculated. Thus it is essential to determine baseline micro-watersheds in the future where the PSNP PWs are implemented Downstream Water Availability In areas where SWC measures contributed in controlling soil erosion and enhanced percolation of rain fall, this has not only improved availability of in-situ water but also increased the amount of base flow in the streams. It also improved soil moisture downstream through seepages. As a result new springs flourished and amount of flow per second and length of periods of availability of water improved and prolonged. Volume of water increased in streams and rivers to enable irrigation practices. For example, in Adi-Tsalka watershed of Tigray region and Legebero-Wekelo watershed of Amhara region new perennial streams have been developed down at the outlet of the micro-watersheds, along the treated gullies and created great opportunity for irrigation as well as livestock water supply services. Similarly, in Eastern Oromiya Zone, Melka Belo wereda, Gelegorba micro- Watershed, availability of water has been extended by 3 months (i.e. instead of end of September to the end of December). On the other hand, in Tigray and Amhara sample micro-watersheds, Metaferia Consulting Engineers 44

66 availability of water due to upland conservation has transformed agriculture to two to three seasons of crop production per annum. As a case in point, in Keish-Ainalem watershed in Tigray, 80 ha of land is under irrigation. Individual households in narrow valley bottoms and homestead areas using small ponds, springs and streams are practiced in most of the sample micro-microwatersheds except in Harari/Negadiras, Dredawa/Adada/Legedugo, Welayita/Humbo and in Afar/Hallei-Ella and Somalei/Bikie settlements where springs did not appear very much due to the effect of extended drought Environmental and Social Manage ment Framework (ESMF) Identification and Assessment of Potential Adverse Impacts of PW Projects Even though all activities implemented by PSNP PW are focused on natural resources rehabilitation and social infrastructures promotion which, of course, is expected to bring positive impacts, they could also have some environmental and/or social adverse impacts in the areas where the projects are implemented. Appreciating such inevitable fact the PSNP PW has introduced an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) with clear implementation guideline described in the Program Implantation Manual (PIM). Hence, according to data and information from pertinent stakeholders, especially the woreda and kebelle PSNP PW technical committees, each and every activity is screened using this guideline by the evaluation committees set from wereda to watershed level. In fact, sometimes comparative advantage is taken in to account to evaluate a single project and weigh its environmental and/or social impact towards the targeted objectives. For example, in all studied micro-watersheds some respondents (mainly those who are based at the foot of the hills) were complaining about area closures restricting free movement of livestock and consequently decreasing their stocks. This can be taken as a social adverse impact of the area closure but most of these households later realized area closure is providing much better fodder than free grazing. Besides, benefit of households based at the foot of the hills is compensated through beekeeping practice as they are more accessible for the rehabilitated and flora cover of the micro-watersheds. On the other hand, vast majority residents of the micro-watersheds are in favor of the project and they want to close the hillsides from livestock movement. In this regard decision makers at all levels try to keep the balances of the adverse impact and anticipated benefits plus community/majority interests Natural Resource Base Preparation of natural resource conservation and management plans has been found to be guided by PSNP Project Implementation Manual (PIM) and Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF). The manual and the framework provide guidance on how to identify and screen subprojects using screening, implementation, follow-up, and monitoring and evaluation formats. It was learned that the potential impact of any PSNP PWs on the natural resource base such as the forest, soil, water, etc was carefully screened in order to avoid or minimize adverse impacts. To effect plans and sub project activities, coordination offices, task forces, and Technical committees have been established on regional, zonal, werda and kebele level Metaferia Consulting Engineers 45

67 administrations. The required training has been provided to all levels of implementers as per the PIM Social Impacts The intensive physical and biological soil and water conservation activities implemented in all micro-watersheds (except Halie-Ella and Bikie) together with the social infrastructures like access road, school, health post, rural access road, water points, market centers, etc undertaken by PSNP PW have brought numerous social impacts on the beneficiary households. Above all, most households have developed internal confidence and their lost interest in agriculture has been revived with recovery and rejuvenation of arable lands in their localities. Besides, apart from crop production many households have started to look for other alternatives income generating schemes like beekeeping, eucalyptus tree, fruit production, fattening, etc. Moreover, households have started to permanently stay at their localities with their livestock by avoiding out migration to other places in search of food, water and feed. This in turn enabled them to continuously manage and sustainably utilize their watershed resources. Especially, the ultra poor households (the first target of PSNP PW) have gained significant benefits including narrowing of food gaps and asset creations triggered with improving of social status. On the other hand, the constructed social infrastructures are playing vital roles in reducing of social burdens like travelling time to access school and health services, alleviating of water born diseases, establishment of market linkages, etc. Generally, the PSNP PW activities have dominantly positive social impacts on the studied microwatersheds and residents mainly in mitigation of natural resource degradations, improving of livelihood status and contributing for poverty eradication at large. Moreover, as most of the implemented activities of the PSNP PW are planned in consultation with the local communities and focused on environmentally friendly interventions not much of any significant negative social impacts has been witnessed. Nevertheless, there are also some adverse social impacts seen during the assessment such as area closures are affecting few households nearest to hillsides to decrease their livestock number, constructed infrastructures (schools, health posts, roads, FTC, etc) are computing individual households farm and grazing lands, few households have lost their access to hillsides and their private trees, etc. The low quality infrastructures constructed by PSNP PW are also affecting proper delivery of public services. For example, in most micro-watersheds schools constructed by the program have no plastered floor, they are not fitted with windows and doors and they lack school desks. Such shortages in turn severely affect the teaching and learning process and health situation of school children at large. These have been assessed in line with the ESMF but there was limitation in resources to mitigate them. Hence, some sort of compromise is going on by bearing some of the transitory problems hoping a good future. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 46

68 Assessment of the ESMF performance During the field assessment all respective regional, woreda and kebelle officials as well as beneficiary households have confirmed that they apply social and environmental screening of any proposed activities before implementation is started. In connection with this, standard format is developed and training is given to all stakeholders who involve in the evaluation and screening process. In fact, the involvement of local communities on the screenings of the proposed activities through the checklists in the standard format is found to be minimal. Much of it is done by experts both at wereda and kebelle levels. They are the major actors as far as the undertaking of ESMF is concerned. In other words, the available documents and the field interaction with the communities during the study in all micro-watersheds suggest that the ESMF evaluation processes in the PSNP PW activities largely followed a "top-down" approach. This should be replaced by "bottom-up" approach in that all stakeholders should be provided with the chance to participate in ESMF evaluation processes. The study team has tried to review the existing formats and found it quite relevant except the requirement of minor amendments. Based on the ESMF screenings undertaken in some micro-watersheds have totally changed or amended proposed activities which were believed to come with adverse social and natural impacts. For example, in Adi-Tsakila watershed of Tigray region a community access road was proposed to be constructed stretching from the hillside but after screening/evaluation the proposed route was changed due to its impact on distraction of vegetation. Similarly, in Legebero-Wekelo watershed of Amhara region a proposed spring development aimed at irrigation development was dropped by wereda technical committee after its negative impact on potable water supply of the area was found to be significant. 6.2 Analysis of Livelihood and Social Impacts Livelihood Capital Asset Community Natural Capital The assessment and analysis made by the study team with respect to changes in natural capital (land, water, vegetation, biodiversity, etc.) and environmental services show significant changes that contributed to the improvement of the livelihood of the targeted population. These are presented below under several sub-headings. i) Land on Hillside and Mountain Areas The qualitative and quantitative data collected using different methodologies and tools from the 12 micro-watersheds and Woredas indicate that tremendous soil and water conservation intervention measures were implemented to rehabilitate the degraded watershed areas through PSNP PWs, which have been going on since The major areas of intervention focused on activities that included soil and water conservation (hillside terrace, hillside terrace with trench, herring bones, soil sedimentation dam( SSD), and trench bunds); gully treatment (stone check dam, gully reshaping, gully plantation, gabion check Metaferia Consulting Engineers 47

69 dam); hillside plantation (pitting, planting of different kind of species and area closure); water harvesting (check dam pond, community hand dug well, household level owned hand dug well); small scale irrigation development(diversion check dam, concrete canal); community road construction (earth road and culvert/ford) and development of social infrastructures (additional classrooms construction, satellite school construction, dry pit latrine construction, health post, Farmer Training Centre (FTC), Development Agent(DA) and Teachers Houses, and the like). The different soil and water conservation activities implemented in the assessed microwatersheds have contributed to the rehabilitation of the natural resources like land, water, vegetation coverage and biodiversity. Overall, the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) made with rich, middle and poor farmers of the community members in each of the micro-watersheds, observations made during the transact walk in the micro-watersheds and the household survey analysis confirm that: Soil erosion within the micro-watersheds areas reduced, Enclosed hillside and mountain areas are covered with rehabilitated grasses, exotic forest, different wood types and new planted trees, Bare lands are changed into green areas, Ground water recharge within the watershed has increased, Sever flood occurrence has reduced, Gully areas have been rehabilitated and used for production of horticultural and fodder crops, Wildlife survival within the rehabilitated areas increased, and Infiltration of moisture into the ground has increased, and availability and volume of water resources for human and livestock use increased, Similar to FGD participants 82.4 percent of the HHs survey response indicates that there are positive changes in the development of natural resources including land, vegetation cover and improvement in increased volume of streams, spring waters and underground water table within the micro-watersheds in which impact assessment was conducted. ii) Ownership of Land on Hillside and Rehabilitated Mountain Areas The ownership title and use right of hillside and mountain areas rehabilitated with natural resources varies from region to region. In the case of Tigray s Adi Tsalka and Keshi Aynalem communities, the natural rehabilitated resources on the hillside and mountain areas are proposed to be transferred to the youth groups, who will be organized into a cooperative society. The project will be used as income generating scheme to the cooperative through beekeeping, livestock fattening,, and tree plantation for fuel and other wood products. However, in both micro-watersheds assessed, the youth are not yet well organized to take over the natural resources rehabilitated on hillside and mountain areas. As a result, the natural resources rehabilitated are still controlled and managed by the watershed communities and individual farmers. In the micro-watersheds of Gera-Moch and Lege-Bero-Wakelo, the rehabilitated hillside and mountain areas are divided among all the household community members living within the watershed regardless of their participation in the implementation of PSNP PWs. Similarly, the management, maintenance and the use of the natural resources rehabilitated on the hillside and Metaferia Consulting Engineers 48

70 mountain areas are left to the individual owners, and it is the individual household that uses the grasses and trees (naturally grown and planted ones) for his own consumption and as a source of income generation. This implies that both in Tigiray and Amhara regions, those who own natural capital (land) benefit from the natural resources rehabilitated due to the PSNP PWs intervention than those who have been participating in natural resources rehabilitation(swc) activities. In the case of micro-watersheds of Negadiras in Harari, Lega- Dugo in Dire Dawa, Gele- Gorba and Gera-Guracha Gera Yaya in Oromia, Bukie Dengola and Arbegna Kostei in Wolayita and Doyancho in Hadiya in SNNPRS, the rehabilitated natural resources on hillside and mountain areas of the micro-watersheds are owned by Kebele Administrations(KAs) rather than the watershed communities. Management of the micro-watersheds that include protection, maintenance, and income generated through cut and carry and sell of grasses and other products from the watershed areas is under the jurisdiction of the respective Kebele Administrations. The community members who participated in the implementation of soil and water conservation measures do not get income from grasses and plants that are sold from the rehabilitated natural resources. However, both participants and non participants of the PSNP PWs have the right to buy at cost grass and trees grown on the rehabilitated hillside and mountain areas. This implies that those who have resources (cash) would benefit more regardless of their participation in the PSNP PWs. This also indicates that the community resources are managed and controlled by Kebeles, which are under the government structure, means that the community have no right on the resource and the benefits are not equally distributed across all wealth groups (poor, middle and wealthy) In Afar, Yallo Woreda, Halle Ella KA and Somali, Afdem Woreda, Bikie KA, Bulaburoa Biokulul sub-ka, the soil and water conservation measures taken through PSNP PWs support didn t contribute much to the rehabilitation of the natural resources due to continuous erratic rainfall and drought occurrence in the regions. According to the information obtained from Yallo Woreda Administration and KA level conducted FGD, there has been severe drought in the Woreda for the last two years and the newly planted trees in the treated gullies died and the majority of the population have migrated to the highland areas of Amhara and Tigray regional states. iii) Small Scale Irrigation Development According to the FGDs held in each of the micro-watersheds and the secondary data obtained from the respective Woredas, it was confirmed that the different types of soil and water conservation interventions (gully treatment, planting of trees on hillside and mountainous areas, etc.) implemented within the micro-watersheds have contributed to the increased volume of water recharge both in streams and underground water resources. Similarly, 85.6 percent of the household survey respondents indicated that springs and underground water recharge have increased since the implementation of PSNP PWs within all the micro-watersheds except Hale Ella, Bike and Dire Dawa City Administration, where it was reported that there was no improvement in the status of water availability both for humans, livestock and pasture since the last two years. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 49

71 In spite of the overall opinions expressed by FGD participants engaged in PSNP PWs implementation, irrigation development and its usage are mainly practiced in Adi Tsalka and Keshi Aynalem micro-watersheds. It was also found that some households practiced small scale irrigation in Legebero Wekelo (Amhara) and Gola Gorba (Oromia) micro-watersheds. In the case of Adi Tsalka Watershed, in 2007/8, a farmer living in the watershed tried to dig a hand well for about 12 meters to get water for irrigation but failed. However, after the implementation of the different soil and water conservation activities like, terraces, soil and stone bund, check dams, half moon, area enclosure, gully treatment, planting trees on hillsides, mountainous, river banks and on individual farm land plots, etc.,the volume of underground water table, streams and springs have increased within the micro-watersheds. According to the secondary data obtained from Ahiferom Woreda and Adi Tsalka watershed, there are 5 hands dug wells, 3 diversion check dams with 108 meters concrete canal and 2 check dam ponds currently owned by the community members. The hand dug wells and diversion check dams are owned both by community members and individual farmers. Irrigable farm lands are owned individually by those who own plots within the schemes. Those who do not have irrigable farm lands within the irrigated areas do not get benefit from the enhancement of water for irrigation development. However, they benefit from payments for their labour contributions. During the FGDs held with the three groups of farmers (rich, middle and poor) in the watershed, the participants confirmed without any hesitation that the increased volume of streams and underground water within Adi Tsalka watershed is the result of the different soil and water conservation intervention measures taken during the last PSNP PWs implementation period ( ). The secondary data obtained from Ahiferom Woreda also indicates that irrigable farm land within Adi Tsalka watershed has increased from 62 hectares prior to the start of PSNP PWs implementation to 187 hectares in 2011/2012. In the case of Keshi Aynalem watershed, it was reported by the three FGD participants (rich, middle and poor) that about 80 percent of the watershed is covered by different types of soil and water conservation interventions like hillside terrace, stone faced trench bund, soil trench bund, deep trench, hillside terrace with trench band, stone bund, SS dam, half moon, eyebrow basin percolation pit, etc. that contributed to increased volume of down flow streams and springs within the watershed. Most of the irrigation users/beneficiaries of the increased volume of underground water and stream flowing down from Keshi Aynalem watershed are the youth organizations in Hayalome Kebele Administration. Some households of Keshi Aynalem watershed who own plots of farmland in the irrigable area and rehabilitated gullies are also using the irrigation for the production of horticulture and other fodder crops. Overall, 21.4 percent of the households interviewed in the 12 micro-watersheds reported that they are engaged in irrigation farming with the major part of the water coming from stream diversion (53.6%), hand dug shallow well (10.7%), water harvesting in ponds(17.7%), flood(10.7%), and others(7.1%). Majority of the irrigation users responded that they are using it Metaferia Consulting Engineers 50

72 since the start of the PSNP PWs, and the average farm land used for irrigation is less than one eighthof a hectare. iii) Water Supply Sources As stated above, the different soil and water conservation interventions in each of the microwatersheds have contributed to the creation of increased volume of underground water, springs and steady flow of streams throughout the year. Except in Halle Ella, Bulabora, Biokulul and Lega Dugo, shortage of water supply is not reported as a serious issue. The household survey finding also indicates that out of the total households interviewed, percent reported that they get protected/safe water for consumption, while 47.8 percent reported that they use unprotected/unsafe water. Interviewed household responses also indicate that PSNP PWs have contributed to the increase of available safe water within their community, to reduction of water borne diseases, reduction of travel time and drudgery of women to fetch water from far distances Assessment and Analysis of Changes in Social Capital: networks, groups, social relations, etc. i) Social Relations Created The PW strategy was designed in such a way that it involves all community members in a form of organized group in the identification, selection, prioritizing and implementation of projects at the watershed level so as to achieve the overall goal of integrated watershed management. The implementation process carried out for selection of the poorest of the poor households to participate in the different types of PSNP PWs implementation has brought changes on community members outlook and attitudes towards maintenance, protection and management of the natural resources. Working on soil and water conservation interventions and other public works in organized manner and on a group basis that consisted of both male and female members helped the PSNP PWs participants and the non participants: to be gender sensitive, to realize the necessity of equal payment for both male and female, to identify, prioritize and select sub-project activities based on the demand of community members with special emphasis on natural resources rehabilitation and other public works, sharing of women s burden through apportioning light public works for women, categorizing community household members as rich, middle and poor based on the criteria set by community members and objective reality of each of the household to participate in PSNP PWs and to be graduated from it, Metaferia Consulting Engineers 51

73 to understand that action oriented community mobilization and organization could bring change in the rehabilitation of the devastated natural resources, and created willingness to work on public owned interventions and promoted working habit/culture in the entire micro-watersheds including pastoral communities. The field level assessment of the PSNP PWs participants and non participants opinion on the implementation of the program is very much similar and all agree that action taken by the community members to rehabilitate natural resources of the hillsides and mountain areas of the micro-watersheds through the implementation of PSNP PWs has contributed very much. In addition to the creation of cohesive social relations among the community members on the implementation of PSNP PWs, sustainable social groups that would facilitate future development programs have also been organized. Attitude of the watershed community members including PSNP PWs participants and non participants have positively changed towards the rehabilitation and management of natural resources. Taking care of and protecting the rehabilitated hillside and mountain areas with bushes, grasses and trees both on individually and communally owned has greatly increased. Open grazing of livestock has decreased and its impact on natural resources rehabilitation has been recognized by the community members. Consequently, bylaws/regulations were passed by the communities for the protection and management of the rehabilitated natural resources. Following are some of the social groups created within the watershed due to the set up requirement of the PSNP PWs implementation process. ii) Kebele and Community Watershed Planning Committees & Food Security Task Forces Established The assessment made in each of the Woredas, Kebele Administrations and Community Microwatersheds indicates that there are organized Kebele level and Community Level Watershed Planning and Food Security Task Forces to facilitate identification and selection of microwatersheds. Identification, prioritization and selection of sub-projects; and selection, organization and mobilization of PSNP PWs participants is conducted with full participation of the watershed community members. At Kebele level, Community Watershed Planning Committee and Food Security Task Force are comprised of members from Kebele Administration, DA, Women and Children s Affairs, Information Desk, Health Extension, School Director, Elders and Youth and Sport and Development Cadres. Similarly, at Community Watershed level, Kebele Food Security representative, DA, Development Cadre, Forman, men and women, youth and elders are represented both in Community Watershed Planning and Community Food Security committees. The creation of such structures at Kebele Administration and Watershed levels has contributed to the smooth implementation of the integrated watershed management programs. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 52

74 iii) Rural saving and Credit Cooperative Society (RUSACCOs) Formation Unlike the previous Household Package of Other Food Security Programs (OFSP), which used to be distributed through administrative bodies like Kebele Development Committees and agencies that have no specialization in financial services (e.g. Multipurpose Agricultural Cooperative Societies), the current Househld Asset Bulding Program (HABP) loan is envisaged to be channeled through specialized financial institutions like RUSACCOs and MFIs. However, the envisaged strategy of channeling HABP loan fund, particularly through RUSACCOs is not practiced in the micro-watersheds assessed. This is mainly due to lack of organizing RUSACCOs within the micro-watersheds and other factors related to it. For example, secondary data obtained from Ahiferom and Atsbi Womberat Woredas indicates that 10 and 16 RUSACCOs are, respectively organized, but are not active in the provision of credit to their members. This is also confirmed by FGD participants that the organized RUSCCOs are very weak in their financial capacity because most of them depend on members saving, which is not adequate to give credit to their members. The envisaged channeling of HABP loan fund through RUSACCOs was not put into practice and the impacts expected to be achieved from distribution of loan fund to PSNP PWs participants are not significant. Households survey responses on credit distribution to the PSNP PWs participants indicates that access to credit was mainly made from HABP through Agricultural Office (39.9%), Micro Financial Institutions own finance (20.9%), Informal Sector (4.6%), and Agricultural Multipurpose Cooperative Societies (3.9%), RUSACCOs own finance (0.7%) and the remaining from combinations of the above MFIs. iv) Water Users Groups/Water Users Associations Among the 12 micro-watersheds assessed and supported by PSNP PWs, small scale irrigation (SSI) is mainly carried out only in Adi Tsalka Watershed and in the other communities of the same Kebele Administration named Zata. The secondary data obtained from Zata KA indicates that, there are 342 male 140 female household heads owning plots of irrigated farm land organized into Water Users Groups through which stream diversion canals and sharing of water are managed. Overall, among the households who use irrigation, 75 percent of them responded that they are organized into Water Users Groups/ Water users Associations. v) Market Groups/Cooperatives Vegetables and horticultural crops producers within the watershed of Adi Tsalka are not organized in Marketing Groups/Cooperative Societies nor linked to market organizations. Each individual household engaged in the production of vegetables and horticultural crops takes his produce to the market place(s) located outside the watershed and the KA using his own donkey or camel. Apart from the lack of organization into marketing groups or marketing cooperatives, lack of accessible road that connects the watershed with the market is another challenge the Metaferia Consulting Engineers 53

75 producers encounter. The labour based RR9 road of about 5 kms constructed through the support made by PSNP PWs within the Zata Kebele Administration is not accessible and below standard for vehicle transport. As a result, vegetables and horticultural crops produced within the watershed do not get adequate market. FGD participants of the watershed have indicated that the produced vegetables and horticultural crops are sometimes spoiled at the farm gate Assessment and Analysis of Changes in Human Capital (Skills, knowledge, good health and ability to engage in labour) i. Skill Development Information and data obtained from the FGDs conducted in the micro-watersheds indicates that PSNP PWs participants engaged in the different types of soil and water conservation activities have gained sufficient skills. Similar to participation in the implementation of soil and water conservation activities, PSNP PWs participants engaged in the construction of infrastructures like earth road, additional class rooms, dry pit latrine, teachers residence, satellite school, fencing of school, health posts etc, have acquired additional skills from foramen and DAs. As a result, PSNP PWs participants could make design of soil and water conservation activities and infrastructure structures to be constructed within their micro-watersheds without any external support. Therefore, the participation of PSNP PWs participants in different soil and water conservation and infrastructure development activities helped them to develop different skills like masonry, building, carpentry, etc.., and this has changed the livelihood status of the participants. i) Knowledge Gained Awareness creation and practical trainings given on site for the PSNP PWs participants on soil and water conservation interventions and infrastructure development by DAs, Woreda level staffs of Agricultural and Rural Development, Food Security, Administration, other Sector Offices, Steering Committees, Task Forces and Development Committees have contributed to increased knowledge of PSNP PWs Participants and the community members of the watershed, in general. The FGDs carried out in all the micro-watersheds and observation made during the assessment clearly showed that knowledge on the issues of natural resources management, infrastructure development, income generating activities, saving and asset building concepts and practices, etc.., have increased. In this regard: PSNP PWs participants and community members of the micro-watersheds gained knowledge of maintaining soil and water conservation structures when broken or mismanaged both on individual farms and plots given for individual household from rehabilitated areas; Knowledge of cut and carry system, from the rehabilitated area, and feeding livestock is developed; and cut and carry system of wood products for fuel, other home use and/or for market gained; Metaferia Consulting Engineers 54

76 ii) Knowledge of planting trees, horticultural crops and vegetables on irrigated farm, in homestead areas and farming plots have increased; and knowledge of agro forestry is increasing since the start of PSNP PWs; Knowledge of using pigeon peas and other tree crops for fodder and home consumption has increased; Knowledge of saving income earned from PSNP PWs payment/transfer is developed and some PSNP PWs participants are able to own oxen, milking cows, sheep, goats, donkeys, heifers, etc.,; Knowledge of fattening at household level and the use of cut and carry system is promoted; Knowledge of pond construction and preparation for water collection for various uses including small scale irrigation and for livestock use has increased; Knowledge of bee keeping and honey production is promoted; and Some households in the Pastoral Community areas have gained knowledge of crop farming in places where there is adequate rainfall and possibility of using irrigation for the production of crops. Working Culture Improved Information and data obtained from FGDs carried out with PSNP PWs participants in the highland areas engaged in mixed farming and also with those in Pastoral Community Areas engaged in livestock herding indicates that different types of working practices have been improved or newly acquired. Among the work practices that have been adapted mainly due to the implementation of PSNP PWs include: Working in organized group and arranged manner on the different types of soil and water conservation interventions and infrastructure development on program base promoted ; Starting and ending the PSNP Public Works to be performed at the same time depending on the completion of the work unit (PD) given; Using own implement/tools required for the implementation of soil and water conservation interventions and infrastructure construction when there is inadequacy of tools and implements provision from the concerned office has improved ; Working in group sprit and cohesiveness among the different groups engaged in the implementation of PSNP PWs is practiced and strengthened; and Satisfaction of the watershed community members, PSNP PWs participants and non participants for the rehabilitation of hillside and mountain areas for common use through common action is enhanced. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 55

77 Assessment and Analysis of the Potential Impacts of Infrastructural PW s (schools, clinics and roads) Infrastructure is one of the components of the Public works (PW) sub-projects of the productive safety net program (PSNP). Unrestricting efforts were made to carry out the impact assessment of the constructed infrastructure in selected sample micro-watersheds/kebelles through conducting site visit and visual observation of the physical status of each of the structures and discussions made with FGD of PW participants, non-participants, task forces, HHs survey, and transect walk was also made. Numerous types of infrastructures (sub-projects) have been constructed and rehabilitated within the selected sample micro-watersheds/kebelles. As it was observed during site visits and discussed with stakeholder meetings, there has not been base line data, planning and design documents for the infrastructures in all the surveyed micro-watersheds, which would have helped the task of the current impact assessment. Hence, on the basis of the physical observation made during the site transit walk and secondary data obtained from the respective Weredas and kebeles, the following findings were obtained. The Infrastructure sub-projects are categorized into three groups, which include water supply and small-scale irrigation infrastructure social and community road infrastructure as listed below. Water supply for humans, domestic animals and small-scale irrigation projects; Social Infrastructure sub-projects o Schools and additional classrooms including dry latrines and fences; o Health posts with fences; o Farmers Training Centers (FTCs); o DAs and teachers houses; o Kebele administration offices; o Credit facilitation office; o Grain /satellite store; Community Road and bridging structures The types and nature of infrastructures constructed and rehabilitated and their locations by Woreda and sub-watershed is given in annex section Assessment and Analysis of Impacts of PSNP PWs Infrastructures a. Impact assessment of Water Supply and Irrigation Under the water & small-scale irrigation subprojects category, all types of subprojects including construction of different types of ponds, irrigation channels and hand dug wells were assessed and it was learnt that the respective communities were involved in the selection and planning process of the subprojects. PSNP has not fully funded the irrigation systems; its involvement was limited to funding construction of canals and other related structures. However, it has funded a considerable number of water supply related infrastructures for both domestic/livestock water Metaferia Consulting Engineers 56

78 use and minor irrigation schemes, especially for vegetables. River diversion, hand dug wells and rain water harvesting technologies are used by irrigation scheme beneficiaries and their knowledge and practice of irrigation has greatly improved. To site some of the outstanding examples: Two ponds were constructed in Lemmo Woreda, Doyancho watershed, mainly for livestock and irrigation use. Moreover, one spring was developed in Melka Bello Woreda, Golegorba watershed for multipurpose use like water supply for humans, livestock, seedling raising, etc. There were 5 community hand dug wells and 3 diversion check dams in Adi-Tsalka community watershed while in the case of check dam ponds, there are 4 ponds in which two are in Adi-Tsalka and two check dam ponds and one community pond in keshi Aynalem micro-watersheds. Currently, about 80 hectares of land is being cultivated under irrigation. Moreover, 2 springs were developed in two community-micro-watersheds of which one is in Molla Geremoch and the other one in LegeberoWekelo watershed. Positive impacts These water sources have enabled the community to have access to water both for humans and livestock. The beneficiaries of these water sources are both PSNP and non PSNP beneficiaries. Hence, the following positive impacts are observed through site observation, FGD and household survey responses. The burden of water-borne diseases has substantially decreased; Time to fetch water for domestic purposes was reduced. Increased quantity and quality of drinking water to households. Due to the upper catchments treatment water table of the command area and downstream increased and a number of hand-dug-wells constructed for irrigation purpose in Keshi- Aynalem watershed. The effect of successful soil and water conservation activities has increased the number and amount of streams on the surface as well as raised the water table of ground water in the Legebero-Wekelo watershed. As a result access to potable water mainly from the developed spring increased. Crop production increased, income of the community increased and meet the objectives of food security due to development of irrigated agriculture in most of the microwatersheds Metaferia Consulting Engineers 57

79 Figure 6-1: Irrigation infrastructure for horticultural crops at Keshi-Aynalem Watershed, Negative impacts Generally, it can be said that limited or no environmental impacts have been observed due to the type/scale of the projects. However, the following negative impacts may be noted. The household questionnaire survey analysis showed that out of the total respondents, 10.5% responded that soil erosion in the irrigated farms increased due to irrigation development. 5.3 % of the respondents mentioned that there were some people dislocated due to scheme construction and 21.1 % responded that irrigation development caused conflict between the upstream and downstream water users. 26.3% of the respondents mentioned that irrigation development has contributed to incidences of malaria and other water born diseases. Additional springs have been developed within the watershed; however, as per the perception (FGD) of the community of Molla-Geremoch watershed in South wello zone, existing springs and volume of flowing streams have been reduced due to increased eucalyptus tree plantation within the area. Metaferia Consulting Engineers 58