Plant and Equipment. Student s Book. NQF Level 2. L. Maraschin

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2 Plant and Equipment Student s Book NQF Level 2 L. Maraschin

3 FET FIRST Plant and Equipment NQF Level 2 Student s Book FET First L. Maraschin 2009 Illustrations and design: Troupant Publishers (Pty) Ltd 2009 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act, 1978 (as amended). Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable for criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 2009 Published by Troupant Publishers (Pty) Ltd P O Box 4532 Northcliff 2115 Distributed by Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd Cover design by René De Wet Typesetting by Hand-off design & publishing services Edited by Renette Pickering Printed by ISBN It is illegal to photocopy any page of this book without written permission from the publishers.

4 Contents Topic 1: Introduction to Plant and Machinery 1 Module 1: An overview of mechanisation and its benefits 3 Overview 3 Unit 1.1: A historical overview of the role of tools and machines 3 Unit 1.2: The effect of tool mechanisation on technical progress and productivity 7 Unit 1.3: The influence of choosing appropriate equipment on productivity and quality of work 11 Unit 1.4: The importance and economic benefits of maintaining and caring for equipment 12 Summative assessment for Topic 1 15 Topic summary 15 Topic 2: Legislation and safety regulations 17 Module 2: Safety regulations and documents used in construction 19 Overview 19 Unit 2.1: Legislation and regulations governing health and safety in the construction industry 20 Unit 2.2: Dangerous situations and noncompliant equipment in a workplace 22 Unit 2.3: Problems to be rectified by employees and problems to refer to management or third parties 24 Unit 2.4: Events or findings in the workplace to be documented 24 Unit 2.5: The safety requirements before commencing site erection work as indicated in the OHS Act 25 Unit 2.6: A Safe Erection Method Statement (SEMS) or Risk Assessment 26 Unit 2.7: The purpose, revision, acceptance and adherence to SEMS by all role players in the construction process 27 Unit 2.8: A safe working at heights method statement and its content 30 Unit 2.9: Dangers and safety rules when working at heights 37 Unit 2.10: The role and purpose construction documents 40 Module 3: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) according to national safety legislation 47 Overview 47 Unit 3.1: Appropriate PPE for different cirumstances 47 Unit 3.2 The importance of wearing PPE 50 Summative assessment for Topic 2 52 Topic summary 52 Topic 3: Basic first aid 53 Module 4: Rendering basic first aid 55 Overview 55 Unit 4.1: Identifying emergency situations quickly and correctly 56 Unit 4.2: Risks threatening the safety of injured and non-injured persons 59 Unit: 4.3: Identify vital signs and serious injuries that take priority over less severe injuries 60 Unit 4.4: How to render first aid during accidents 62 Unit 4.5: Listing emergency service telephone numbers 75 Summative assessment for Topic 3 77 Topic summary 77 Topic 4: Hand tools 78 Module 5: Basic hand tools for different trades 81 Overview 81 Unit 5.1 Identifying different hand tools in a range of categories 81 Unit 5.2 The functioning, proper use and mainenance of hand tools 83 Unit 5.3 Mark out, cut and assemble plywood to create a simple shutter used as a concrete mould 155 Unit 5.4 Mark out, cut and finish a polygon steel plate to conform to specifications with a reasonable tolerance 158 Unit 5.5 Why a blunt tool is more dangerous than a sharp tool 160 Unit 5.6 Sharpen high-speed steel (HSS) drill bits, using a small bench grinder and quench trough 161

5 Unit 5.7 The relationship between a hole diameter and cutting speed when boring holes through mild steel with HSS drill bits 164 Unit 5.8 Drill precision holes in mild steel 165 Unit 5.9 Sharpen wood chisels and plane irons with an oilstone 166 Unit 5.10 The cutting edge angle 167 Unit 5.11 Making a simple oil stone box from two solid pieces of timber 168 Summative assessment for Topic Topic summary 169 Topic 5: Ladders 170 Module 6: Erect and use ladders 173 Overview 173 Unit 6.1 Ladders for different applications 173 Unit 6.2 When temporary scaffolding should be used 179 Unit 6.3 Inspecting ladders for safety 181 Unit 6.4 Determining whether a straight or extension ladder has been inclined at the correct angle 182 Unit 6.5 Carrying toolboxes and materials when ascending and descending ladders 182 Unit 6.6 The projection and lashing of a straight or extension ladder 183 Unit 6.7 Safe work procedure when the top of a ladder cannot be lashed or secured 184 Unit 6.8 The dangers of very tall A-frame stepladders when used outdoors 184 Unit 6.9 Over-reaching 184 Summative assessment for Topic Topic summary 187 Topic 6: Builder s trestles, access scaffolding and mobile towers 188 Module 7: Erecting and inspecting builder s trestles 191 Overview 191 Unit 7.1: Inspecting and erecting builder s trestles safely 191 Unit 7.2 The maximum permissible platform height 193 Module 8: Describing, erecting and inspecting access scaffolding 194 Unit 8.1 Scaffolding components 195 Unit 8.2 Erecting and dismantling a scaffold 202 Unit 8.3 Setting up scaffolding on sloping ground 208 Unit 8.4 Explain and set up a standard able to bridge an excavation 209 Unit 8.5 Inspect a scaffold and identify faults and non-compliances 209 Unit 8.6 Safe working load capacity and the maximum number of working platform levels 212 Unit 8.7 Correct loading of scaffolds 212 Unit 8.8 Training certification requirements for scaffolds in excess of 6m height 213 Unit 8.9 The requirements for a handover certificate 213 Unit 8.10 The requirements to inspect scaffolding and record results 214 Module 9: Describing, erecting and inspecting mobile towers 216 Overview 216 Unit 9.1 Different mobile towers 216 Unit 9.2 Brakes on wheeled mobile towers 217 Unit 9.3 The correct use of wheeled mobile towers 217 Unit 9.4 Bracing 218 Summative assessment for Topic Topic summary 220 Glossary 221 PoE Guideline 224

6 Topic 1 Introduction to Plant and Machinery

7 Introduction In this Topic, we are going to look briefly at the history of ancient tools and equipment. We ll look especially at the types of tools used for construction purposes. You ll see how the ancient tools provided the foundation for the modern machinery used today. We ll also explore the benefits of mechanisation and the importance of using the correct tools and equipment in the workplace. Then, because these tools and equipment must be looked after properly, we ll examine the benefits of proper maintenance. 2 Topic 1: Introduction to Plant and Machinery

8 Module 1 An overview of mechanisation and its benefits Overview At the end of this Module, you should be able to: provide a short historical overview of the role of tools and machines describe the effect of tool mechanisation on technical progress and productivity explain the influence of choosing appropriate equipment on productivity and quality of work explain the importance and economic benefits of equipment maintenance and care. Unit 1.1: A historical overview of the role of tools and machines From the earliest of times, people have always used some form of tool to assist in easing the hardships of existence. Rocks were used as hammers, pieces of bone as knives to hunt with, and wood to make simple bows and arrows. The earliest tools date back to the Stone Age, also known as the Paleolithic Age, roughly three million years ago. Ancient humans used flint knives, weighted digging sticks, hand axes made of quartz and spears tipped with bone or horn. People found that poles acting as levers gave a mechanical advantage, which was enhanced when iron was discovered approximately six thousand years ago. Fig.1.1 The wheel was one of man s most important inventions. Did you know? Words & Terms Tools are devices that supplement the action of our arms. Machines are devices that convert natural forms of energy (like wind and water) into other forms that can provide motion and do useful work. A water wheel converts the energy of flowing water (kinetic energy) into power that can turn a millstone. A windmill uses the kinetic energy of the wind to do useful work. kinetic energy: the ability of a body to do work as a result of its motion. Module 1: An overview of mechanisation and its benefits 3

9 With the Iron Age came vast improvements in our ability to hunt, defend and build. The invention of the wheel was perhaps our most important development. Without the wheel, the pyramids could not have been built, transport would have been impossible, and even Stonehenge in England would not be in existence. Most people think of a machine as a complicated piece of equipment with gears, pulleys, levers and so on. But however complex a machine appears to be, its various parts can always be shown to be applications of simple concepts. Let s now consider some of the basic principles that were used in ancient machines, and are still in use today. Firstly, let s consider the definition of a machine: A machine is any device by which a force applied at one end (effort) can be used to overcome a force at the other end (load). One of the earliest and most simple machines is the lever. A force is applied at one end, by a human pushing down. At the other end, an object, for example a rock, can be raised. Did you know? Stonehenge is an ancient circle of tall stones found in England. To this day, there is no clear explanation as to its purpose. The stones were transported from Wales a few hundred kilometres away. Did you know? Load Effort An invention is something produced for the first time by man, whereas a discovery is something found for the first time. For example, light bulbs are an invention, whereas electricity is a discovery. Fig.1.2 The lever is a simple machine. Did you know? The principle behind tools and machines is known as the mechanical advantage. This principle is the ratio of the output or resistance to the input or effort. The mechanical advantage is only useful in simple machines, as it does not take into account the effect of friction. The velocity ratio of the machine is the distance moved by the effort divided by the distance moved by the load. The effort required to move a load is always less than the load itself, but because of the conservation of energy, the distance moved by the load is always less than that moved by the effort. Archimedes, the famous Greek inventor and mathematician, once said about the lever: Give me a firm place to stand and I will move the Earth. An example of a simple machine that works on the lever principle is a claw hammer (see p.114) used by a carpenter. The claw is placed under The ancient Egyptians used a beam that could pivot in a vertical forked branch. It had a bucket on a rope attached to one end and a counterweight attached to the other end, and was used to lift water out of a well. The counterweight was slightly heavier than the water-filled bucket. The beam was pulled down to lower the bucket and to fill it. The counterweight was then used to raise the filled bucket with the minimum of effort. It is still used today in many Middle Eastern and African countries. 4 Topic 1: Introduction to Plant and Machinery

10 the head of a nail and the handle is pulled. The mechanical advantage allows the nail to be pulled out. The wedge is an inclined plane which also works on the lever principle. It is used to raise loads by pushing or pulling them. The ancient Egyptians used a series of inclined planes built around the pyramid to raise the rocks. Another machine that enabled great advances to be made by humans was the windmill, which was used to grind grain. Nowadays, the same principle is used to generate electricity. Assessment activity 1.1 Individual activity 1. On many farms in South Africa it is usual to see a windmill next to a large tank. 1.1 What does the windmill do? 1.2 For the windmill to work, what position should the blades take? 2. Look around you and try to find as many levers as possible. For example, a light switch is a lever. 2.1 Make a list of all the levers you can find. Compare your list with that of other students. Keep your completed project in your Portfolio of Evidence. Write your name and today s date on your project. Early civil engineering tools and machines In ancient times, various earthwork tools, similar to the ones found nowadays were used to loosen and dig earth and stone. Spades and picks were used for digging trenches. These tools were made of iron, which is not as strong as the steel that is used for the manufacture of tools today. For shaping and breaking rock, chisels and hammers were used. Again, the drawback was that they were made of iron. For removing sand and rock, wooden wheelbarrows were used. For lifting, the most common tool was the crowbar (a lever). It was cheap and strong, but difficult to use when required to lift a load more than a short distance. The load would have to be lifted, and then packed with a wedge so that it could not move. The crowbar was then removed and a spacer was placed below it. Then the load was again lifted a short distance. The whole procedure would have to be repeated many times. A lifting trestle was developed to advance the use of the lever. This simple machine allowed the crowbar height to be adjusted without having to keep packing it and the load. An improvement that was used to lift loads was the screwjack. Made of wood, the thread and nut was used to easily lift loads. The drawback of this tool was the material that it was made from. Some jacks were made with worm Fig.1.3 Wooden wheelbarrows were used for moving sand and stone. Module 1: An overview of mechanisation and its benefits 5

11 gears, which allowed easy movement in one direction (lifting) but difficulty in moving the opposite direction, thereby preventing the load from slipping back. The screw principle was used to clamp and press, as well as lift. Grapes could be pressed to make wine and olives pressed to make oil. Wooden differential pulley blocks were also invented around this time. The top block contained two sheaves of different diameters, mounted together so to form one piece. The bottom block contained one sheave only. A rope passed first round the larger top sheave, then round the bottom sheave and then round the smaller top sheave. When raising or lowering the load, the loose chain passing from the larger top sheave was pulled. Effort Load Fig.1.4 Differential pulley. Fig.1.5 The wooden wheel and hub of earlier wagons and trailers caused high friction making them difficult to move. To transport loads, rollers and wagons were used extensively. Timber rollers have been used since ancient times. Some had slots cut in their ends. A lever could then be inserted and a considerable propelling force could be exerted. Simple wagons and trailers were also used. They had a huge drawback due to the high friction created between the wheel and hub. This was caused by wood rubbing on wood, which can produce a high resistance to movement. Tall scaffolds with winches were used to lift columns into position. The scaffolds were made of timber. To dig the hole for the column to fit into, pile drivers were used. A pointed weight, attached to a rope so that it could be raised, was dropped from these tall scaffolds. The constant dropping of the weight eventually created a deep hole. Solid steel rollers were used to compact earth for road building. Some had a mass in excess of 600kg. Surveying instruments were also used extensively and worked similarly to those used today. These simple machines laid the foundation for the development of more complicated and power-driven machines during the Industrial Revolution. Words & Terms scaffold: any temporary elevated platform (supported or suspended) and its supporting structure (including points of anchorage), that supports workers and materials. winch: an instrument for pulling or raising by means of a rope or chain wound round a rotating drum. Did you know? Tools have been discovered in Kenya that date back years. 6 Topic 1: Introduction to Plant and Machinery

12 Assessment activity 1.2 Individual activity 1. Research the tools and equipment that were used by the following people: 1.1 The ancient Romans 1.2 The ancient Egyptians 1.3 South Africans, from thousands of years ago until about the 19 th century 1.4 The ancient Chinese. 2. Stonehenge in England was built by ancient people with little or no mechanisation to assist them in transporting, shaping and erecting the amazing structure. 2.1 Do some research, using the Internet and books, to find out how Stonehenge came into being. 2.2 What tools and equipment could have been used? Keep your completed project in your Portfolio of Evidence. Write your name and today s date on your project. You have now learnt about the use of tools and simple machines by early civilisations. In the next section, we are going to look at the effect industrialisation had on the way we make things. Unit 1.2: The effect of tool mechanisation on technical progress and productivity The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 18 th century and then spread to other countries. It changed countries from rural (farm) to urban economies. This was due to an improvement in agricultural techniques and the use of farming machinery. Out-of-work farm workers migrated to towns and cities to seek employment. The availability of coal and iron ore in vast quantities and the development of the steam engine led to the mechanisation and automation of the machines and tools that were previously operated by hand. The spinning wheel, used to make cloth, was now driven by steam, making it faster and more reliable. The steam engine allowed for the development of railways and steam-powered ships to export goods to other countries. With steam power came electricity. This led to the construction of factories, which created a demand for machines and tools. The discovery of electricity also aided the development of new equipment for use in the construction industry. The roller that weighed 600kg and was previously pushed by hand was replaced with a steam-powered vehicle. It was faster and cheaper. The development of the internal combustion engine further accelerated the invention of better and more efficient machines for use in the construction industry. Did you know? The Industrial Revolution made Britain one of the richest and most powerful nations of the era. However, the migration of the population from the countryside to cities created social and economic problems. Slum housing, child labour and low wages were just a few of the resulting social ills, which are still present today in many countries. Module 1: An overview of mechanisation and its benefits 7

13 Productivity and mechanisation Productivity is the difference between the quantity of goods produced (output) and the quantity of resources required to produce them (input). Productivity is increased when the output is increased without a significant increase in input. High productivity keeps costs down. This, in turn, makes manufacturing cheaper. Cheaper manufacturing increases the market, enabling a larger number of people to afford a product. This principle also applies to the construction industry. The cheaper that a contractor, such as a plumber, can carry out work, the more competitive he or she can become. Keeping the above in mind, any type of work must be carried out as quickly and cheaply as possible, without sacrificing quality. The advent of tool mechanisation and the easy availability of specialised equipment has had an enormous effect on productivity. Work is now less labour intensive. This has led to many social problems, because machines now carry out tasks that previously employed numerous people to carry out. Other than productivity benefits, people also have to be trained to use specialised equipment. The purpose of any tool is to assist a worker to perform a task. Over the last few decades, great technical progress has been made, especially with regard to tools and equipment. The advent of the computer and specialised programs resulted in enormous increases in productivity. In the construction industry, design and architectural computer programs are used every day, making drawing and design quick and accurate. The days of the drawing board are definitely over. Nowadays, even dayto-day scheduling and production planning are done on computers. Laser Furthermore, laser equipment is now used in surveying and levelling on construction sites. This equipment is also used to align objects easily and is taking over from the more Lens conventional measuring equipment. A small laser tape measure can easily measure up to a 40m distance in ideal conditions. The amount of surrounding light affects the distance it can measure. The distance laser can be used in place of a tape measure. It is highly accurate and simple to use. Some of the better models have a memory in which the first measurement is stored. When the second measurement is taken, it can be subtracted from, added to or multiplied with the first. This makes it easy to calculate areas. Fig.1.6 The invention of the steam engine led to the mechanisation of many hand-held tools. Fig.1.7 The laser measuring tape. Readout Function buttons 8 Topic 1: Introduction to Plant and Machinery

14 Distance to be measured Fig.1.8 The distance laser of a small laser tape measure can accurately measure up to 40m. Large advances in mechanisation have been made in all other areas in the construction industry. Stronger, more powerful and more versatile heavy-duty machines are easily available, either to buy or to hire. Bulldozers, cranes, mobile cranes and earth-moving equipment are seen every day on building sites. Ready-mixed concrete is delivered even to smaller sites, making for higher productivity. Nowadays, for example, the breaking of a concrete floor is not done by means of a hammer and chisel, but rather by means of jack hammers that are pneumatically powered. For laying concrete, small batches of concrete are mixed in a compact concrete mixer. When placed, there are vibrators available to compact and remove any air from the concrete. These days, controlled explosions are used to demolish large structures. A few years ago, demolition would have been carried out by other time-consuming methods. Of course, new materials are also being used. This, in turn, requires different types of tools and equipment. A few years ago, all plumbing was done by means of galvanised pipe, which was hard to work with. Threading machines were needed, so that two pipes could be joined together. Nowadays, the plumber uses either copper or plastic pipes, and even aluminium is being used more and more. The use of these materials has meant that work can be carried out much faster and is less labour intensive. With modern machinery and the variety of tools available these days, it is very important for us to select the correct tools for the job that needs to be done. Proper selection will be covered in the next section. Module 1: An overview of mechanisation and its benefits 9

15 Unit 1.3: The influence of choosing appropriate equipment on productivity and quality of work There are four basic types of tools and equipment used in the construction industry, namely: hand tools portable electric tools light machines and equipment, and heavy machines and equipment. Hand tools are operated and powered by humans. Examples are screwdrivers, planes, saws and hammers. Portable tools are normally electrically powered (sometimes pneumatically or hydraulically) and examples are electric drills, grinders and routers. Light equipment can be fairly easily moved about, for example step ladders, scaffolds and wheelbarrows. Heavy equipment consists of items such as trucks, cranes, forklifts and bulldozers. There is a saying that applies to the use of tools and equipment: Always use the correct tool for the job or Use a tool for what it is meant. For example, a screwdriver should only be used to insert and remove screws. A screwdriver is neither a crowbar nor a chisel, and should not be used as such. Furthermore, the correct size screwdriver should be used to turn a screw. If the slot of the screw is too large for the screwdriver, then damage may occur to the screwdriver and the head of the screw. It may then be necessary to use other methods of removing the damaged screw. This may lead to loss of productivity and the screwdriver may have to be repaired or replaced. Before carrying out any job, consider the tools and equipment that are needed for the work. Select all the tools beforehand and make sure that they are in good working order. Damaged tools and equipment will lead to loss of quality and productivity, and may also lead to injury. Careful planning and an understanding of the work to be carried out are prerequisites to the successful and economical completion of any work. For example, if you are required to remove half a ton of rubble, it is not good practice to hire a 10-ton truck to do this. It is a waste of resources. The equipment must also be available at the correct time. This involves careful planning. A bulldozer should not be made available long before or after a site is ready to be cleared. It should ideally arrive just in time. Fig.1.9 Hand tools. Fig.1.10 An electrical hand drill is a portable tool. Words & Terms prerequisites: a requirement that must be satisfied or met in advance. 10 Topic 1: Introduction to Plant and Machinery

16 Large pieces of equipment and machinery must be able to access the site that they are meant to service. For example, if access to a site is just a narrow lane, a large bulldozer may not be able to reach the site. All these considerations must be taken into account to maintain desired productivity. Each individual is also responsible for maintaining quality in an organisation. Work should be carried out with pride. This will automatically lead to quality. Poor-quality work means that the job has to be redone, which leads to a loss of money and time. A company that produces shoddy work will get a bad reputation. This, in turn, will mean less work. Remember that cutting corners and excessive cost cutting leads to poor quality, which will always surface at some stage. Fig.1.11 A wheelbarrow is a piece of light equipment. Fig.1.12 Example of heavy machinery. Did you know? In 2000, the Cape Town Community Housing Company (CTCHC) built about houses in the Cape Flats for extremely poor communities. Soon after the residents moved in, cracks started appearing in the walls of the houses and rain poured in through the roofs. The CTCHC at first denied that there was anything wrong with the houses, but after a forensic engineering audit was carried out by an independent body, they admitted that they were defective. This took five years. During this time, the residents were forced to spend what little money they had on repairs to continue to live in the houses. R35 million was finally set aside to repair the houses, showing clearly that they were extremely substandard. There will be no compensation for the money spent on repairs by the residents. Module 1: An overview of mechanisation and its benefits 11

17 In the workplace Quality control is very important on any building and construction project. Quality checks must be done throughout the project to be sure that the specifications are followed. The work must comply with the NBR (National Building Regulations) and in accordance with the relevant SANS (South African National Standards). NB: The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) has had a name change. It is now known as SANS (South African National Standards) A lot of money and time can be saved if all the tools and equipment that a company uses are properly maintained. The importance of maintenance is covered in Unit 1.4. Words & Terms comply: obey a law or rule. specifications: the exact details of how something is to be made. It can take the form of a written document that states in words what has to be done on a job. maintenance: work undertaken in order to keep or restore equipment to an acceptable standard. Assessment activity 1.3 Individual activity 1. Name the four basic types of tools and equipment used in the construction industry. 2. Why is it important to choose the correct tools for a job? Keep your completed project in your Portfolio of Evidence. Write your name and today s date on your project. Unit 1.4: The importance and economic benefits of maintaining and caring for equipment The care of facilities and the avoidance of failure of machinery is of utmost importance for any organisation. Maintenance should be a planned set of activities that is carried out systematically in order to avoid costly and time-consuming breakdown and failure. There are many benefits to careful maintenance, including saving money and ensuring safety. Lower operating costs Equipment and machinery that constantly breaks down and needs repair can be costly, especially if the cause is due to poor or no maintenance. 12 Topic 1: Introduction to Plant and Machinery

18 Increased reliability Well-maintained equipment and machinery will perform constantly and reliably without disruption to productivity. Increased safety Machines that are not well maintained can prove dangerous to staff. This can lead to injury or even death. Higher resale value A well-maintained piece of equipment or machine can fetch a higher resale price on the second-hand market than one that has been badly looked after. Better quality The output of well-maintained equipment and machinery is of much higher quality than poorly maintained ones. For example, a badly maintained forklift may actually damage the goods that it is transporting. Increased life span Well-maintained equipment and machinery can last longer than badly maintained pieces. There are three main types of maintenance processes: 1. run-to-breakdown maintenance 2. condition-based maintenance, and 3. preventative maintenance. Sometimes more than one type is used simultaneously. The best method of explaining the three maintenance processes is by using a truck as an example. Preventative Condition based Breakdown Fig.1.13 A truck can be used to explain the three maintenance processes. Module 1: An overview of mechanisation and its benefits 13

19 Run-to-breakdown maintenance The light bulbs that are used for the headlights, indicators and so on are only replaced when they stop working. This is known as the runto-breakdown type of maintenance. Condition-based maintenance The tyres of the truck are constantly monitored for their condition. Once they start showing excessive wear, within legal limits, they are changed. This is called condition-based maintenance. Preventative maintenance The engine and gearbox of the truck need a different type of maintenance, as a breakdown can be very costly. It is best to prevent failure in the first place. Therefore, regular servicing after a predetermined number of kilometres or operating hours is made. This is called preventative maintenance. Did you know? Recently, a bridge over the Mississippi River in Minneapolis USA collapsed, killing 13 people. As early as 1990, officials had warned that, owing to the lack of maintenance, serious structural damaged had occurred. This was ignored, with catastrophic results. Words & Terms catastrophic: causing great trouble or destruction. 14 Topic 1: Introduction to Plant and Machinery

20 Summative assessment for Topic 1 1. List and explain six benefits of a maintenance plan. 2. There are three types of maintenance. Explain each one. 3. Explain the term simple machine. 4. Give four examples of each of the following: 4.1 hand tools 4.2 portable electric tools 4.3 light machines, and 4.4 heavy machines and equipment. 5. What do you understand by the term productivity? 6. What effect has mechanisation had on productivity? 7. What are the consequences of poor-quality work? 8. Explain the term mechanical advantage. 9. Explain the term velocity ratio. 10. Research and then write a one-page report on the positive and negative impact that the Industrial Revolution has had on modern society. Compare your findings with the situation of very poor people found in the rural areas of South Africa. Topic summary This topic covered a short history of civil engineering tools and machines. It also discussed the effect of mechanisation on productivity, as well as the benefit of selecting the correct tools and equipment for a specific job. It stressed the importance and positive economic spinoffs of proper maintenance. Module 1: An overview of mechanisation and its benefits 15

21 Topic 2 Legislation and safety regulations

22 Introduction In this Topic, we are going to review the laws that were designed to make the workplace safer and healthier for all workers and other people in the vicinity of the work. We will cover some basic precautions that are needed to work safely when working at heights, to reduce the risk of injury. Towards the end of the Topic, we ll also explain the different contracts found in the construction industry. 18 Topic 2: Legislation and safety regulations

23 Module 2 Safety regulations and documents used in construction Overview At the end of this Module, you should be able to: identify legislation and regulations governing health and safety in the construction industry and describe their purpose identify dangerous situations and non-compliant equipment in a workplace list problems to be rectified by employees and problems to be referred to management or third parties describe events in the workplace to be documented, with reference to important facts to record explain the safety requirements before commencing site erection work as indicated by the OHS Act explain a Safe Erection Method Statement (SEMS) or Risk Assessment explain the purpose, revision, acceptance and adherence to a SEMS by all role players in the construction process explain a safe working at heights method statement and its content explain dangers and safety rules when working at heights list and describe the role and purpose of different construction documents with examples. Introduction Hazards in the workplace do not only affect employees and employers but also visitors. Accidents are caused, they do not just happen. It is the responsibility of every employee and employer to reduce as much as possible the chances of accidents happening. An accident does not only have an impact on the person that is injured and his or her direct family but, if the accident is serious, it also has an impact on the economy of the country. Every year, workplace accidents cost South Africa millions of rands. This money could be better spent on other, more useful, things. Legislation has been created to try to minimise risks and accidents. Legislation provides a standardised set of rules that can be followed by all employers and employees. This legislation takes the form of the Occupational Health and Safety Act No. 85 of Words & Terms hazard: any risk to which a worker is subject as a direct result, in whole or in part, of his or her being employed. Module 2: Safety regulations and documents used in construction 19

24 Furthermore, other bodies are involved in creating safe working environments and methods of carrying out safe work practices. The two main bodies are SANS and NOSA. Unit 2.1: Legislation and regulations governing health and safety in the construction industry The Occupational Health and Safety Act The Occupational Health and Safety Act No. 85 of 1993, also referred to as OHS Act, is a law that applies to all employers and employees in the Republic of South Africa. However, there are exclusions, with the mines and shipping industries having their own legislation. The purpose of this Act and its amendments is to provide for the health and safety of all workers and, by way of the Advisory Council, to provide a framework that is consistent and applicable throughout South Africa. The Act promotes excellence in the management of health and safety and clearly defines the duties of employers, principals of a contract, the self-employed and employees. Another significant development is that it clearly sets out a procedure that must be followed in all places of work to identify, assess and control hazards. The purpose of the Occupational Health and Safety Act is as follows: to protect and ensure the rights of employees to make provision for the health and safety of all people at work to make provision for the health and safety of people using plant, equipment and machinery to ensure that actions at work do not result in harm to other people, including members of the public, and to allow for the creation of an advisory council for the purpose of occupational health and safety. The Occupational Health and Safety Act describes particular responsibilities that must be followed by both the employer and employee. Failure to abide by these responsibilities can lead to prosecution. There are certain duties that employers must carry out to ensure the safety of employees: Within reason, provide and maintain a working environment that is safe and without risk to the health of employees, visitors and others. This duty also applies to contractors. Identify risks and hazards and take appropriate steps to eliminate them. Provide employees with health and safety equipment. Words & Terms occupational health: includes occupational hygiene, occupational medicine and biological monitoring. Words & Terms employee: any person who is employed by or works for an employer and who receives or is entitled to receive any remuneration or who works under the direction or supervision of an employer or any other person. employer: any person who employs or provides work for any person and remunerates that person. Words & Terms contractor: person or company that agrees to perform particular manufacturing or maintenance work in an industry, as per a contract or written agreement. 20 Topic 2: Legislation and safety regulations

25 Prohibit an employer from asking an employee to carry out a task that is dangerous. Provide a safety policy and bring it to the attention of employees. Provide information, instructions, training and supervision. Duties of every employee Every employee must look after his or her own health and safety, as well as the health and safety of other people in the workplace, and not place people at risk. All employees need to be completely familiar with the safety procedures within their organisation and for their particular area of work. Generally, employees need to take the necessary preventative measures to avoid accidents from occurring in the workplace. Every employee must do the following: Take care of his or her health and safety, and the health and safety of other persons who may be affected by his or her acts. Carry out any lawful order given to him or her in the interest of health and safety. Obey the health and safety rules and procedures as given to him or her. Immediately report to his or her employer or health and safety representative any unsafe or unhealthy situation of which he or she is aware. Report an incident that has occurred and may affect his or her health to the supervisor, the company s health and safety officer or the health and safety representative, as soon as possible, but no later than the end of the shift in which the incident occurred. Not damage or misuse any equipment that is provided in the use of health or safety. Keep himself or herself, the workplace and change rooms clean and tidy at all times. Assessment activity 2.1 Individual activity List two duties of each of the following under the Occupational Health and Safety Act: 1. employers 2. employees. Keep your completed project in your Portfolio of Evidence. Write your name and today s date on your project. Construction regulations In addition to the OHS Act, there are regulations that have been established for certain individual industries including the construction industry. Words & Terms regulations: a set of rules that are used to define an Act of Parliament. They clarify and expand an Act. Module 2: Safety regulations and documents used in construction 21

26 Construction regulations of 18 July 2003 (Government Gazette No ) are relevant to the construction industry and cover aspects such as structures, formwork, excavation work and so on. Compliance with these regulations encourages good building practice. These regulations may change as the need arises. The research findings for these regulations are based upon international and South African best practice. They are applicable to all persons involved in construction work, not only employers and employees but also principal contractors, contractors and subcontractors on any construction site. These regulations introduce explicit responsibilities of health and safety that apply to the client and designer. They must take health and safety into consideration at all times. The focus is on the following aspects: supervision of construction work demolition suspended platforms excavations stacking and storage hoists cranes powered tools explosives electrical installations and machinery good housekeeping risk assessment fall protection structures formwork construction vehicles, and mobile plant. Words & Terms subcontractor: person or company that assumes by secondary contract some or all the duties of an original contractor. Fig.2.1 Health and safety regulations should be priority on construction sites. Unit 2.2: Dangerous situations and non-compliant equipment in a workplace Dangerous situations Dangerous situations are often referred to as hazardous conditions. They are situations that could affect the health and safety of people. Any hazardous situation, once identified, must be corrected as soon as possible. This is the responsibility of management and all workers. The identification and control of potentially unsafe conditions is not a simple matter. It has become more difficult as the depth of technology 22 Topic 2: Legislation and safety regulations

27 has increased. Employees are therefore always responsible for taking note of and reporting any incident or anything they see that may pose a danger to themselves, colleagues and any visitors who may be around. An employee should be observant at all times, and take note of items or situations that may be hazardous to guests, staff and visitors. For example: uneven floors no safety guards on machinery poor lighting inadequate ventilation Fig.2.2 People should at all times be made aware bad housekeeping of potentially hazardous situations. wet floors unsafe acts by workers electrical wiring that is not secured and out of the way, and people loitering on or around the property who do not seem to have any particular business there. Non-compliant equipment All the equipment and tools used on a construction site must be properly maintained and cared for. Machines that are not in a good operating condition can become dangerous to the user and others, as well as to the environment. If a machine becomes non-compliant, it must be reported immediately to a supervisor or safety officer. An employee may refuse to operate any tool or equipment that could be a potential hazard. Non-compliant equipment, such as an excessively smoking generator, can cause health problems to people breathing in dangerous fumes. If it is placed in an area that is not well ventilated, it can become lethal. A small dump truck with defective brakes can cause an accident with serious injury. The driver should stop operating the truck immediately until it is fixed. Some examples of non-compliant equipment are: defective electrical connections on power tools machines without safety guards equipment not used for their intended use, and poorly maintained tools and equipment. If an employee notices any of the above situations, it is his or her responsibility to act. The employee should first inform management or his or her immediate supervisor and bring the hazard to their attention. Management should place appropriate signage to alert others to the non-compliant equipment, and contact security and maintenance. Fig.2.3 Defective wiring connections are dangerous. Module 2: Safety regulations and documents used in construction 23

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