Dynamic Changes of Water Conservation Service of Typical Ecosystems in China within a Year Based on Data from CERN

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1 Article Dynamic Changes of Water Conservation Service of Typical Ecosystems in China within a Year Based on Data from CERN Sha Pei 1, Gaodi Xie 2, *, Chunlan Liu 1, Changshun Zhang 2, Shimei Li 3 and Long Chen 1 Received: 26 August 215; Accepted: 9 December 215; Published: 15 December 215 Academic Editor: Vincenzo Torretta 1 Beijing Municipal Research Institute of Environmental Protection, Beijing 137, China; peis.1b@igsnrr.ac.cn (S.P.); chunlan1978@163.com (C.L.); chenl.9b@igsnrr.ac.cn (L.C.) 2 Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 111, China; zhangcs@igsnrr.ac.cn 3 Qingdao Agriculture University, Qingdao 26619, China; li_shimei@163.com * Correspondence: xiegd@igsnrr.ac.cn; Tel.: ; Fax: Abstract: In this study, we compared and analyzed dynamic changes of and its of some typical forests, grasslands, and farmlands in China within a year based on dataset of Chinese Ecosystem Research Net (CERN). Results showed that forest, grassland, and farmland provide different kinds of services which vary in size and dynamic processes within a year. Water of forest consisted of regulation service, here referred to as retaining service, and supply service, while of grassland and farmland mainly regulation service. Different types of forests/grasslands/farmlands can serve different services in both size and change patterns. In general, service and of forests is largest (Xishuangbanna forest being $712 hm 2 year 1, Dingshu Mountains forest being $823 hm 2 year 1, and Changbai Mountains forest being $366 hm 2 year 1 ), and n is farmlands (Yucheng farmland being $147 hm 2 year 1, Changshu farmland being $92 hm 2 year 1, Qianyanzhou farmland being $247 hm 2 year 1 ), and that of grasslands is least (Haibei alpine meadow being $75 hm 2 year 1, Mongolia grassland being $3 hm 2 year 1 ). The ly and its of each ecosystem had its own changing pattern throughout year. Keywords: ; dynamic changes; economic ; CERN; within a year 1. Introduction Ecosystems provide important hydrological services which are referred to a series of services related to [1]. These services include regulation of ground and surface, increase in minimum flow during dry season (base flow), reduction of floods, and increased quality [2,3], which comprehensively are considered flow regulation, and secure supply for human habitation [4,5]. Ecosystem services, including, are not only related to human gains but also important to sustain biodiversity. Concurrently, crisis is becoming more serious. Concern by scholars, governmental agencies, and community groups have devoted mselves to services in regard to ecosystems and to protection and maintainability of se ecosystems [6]. Some concerned change and protective measures of -related ecosystem service [7 9], some concerned amount and of service Sustainability 215, 7, ; doi:1.339/su

2 supplied by ecosystems [1]. The assessment of service by ecosystems is a base to make scientific protective policies through linking nature and human society. Until now, re are two kinds of methods to assess ecosystem service. One is evaluation method, based on a per unit area, which produced by Costanza et al., when y assessed world ecosystem service in 1997 [4]. This method has attracted attention of Chinese ecological researchers over years. Xie et al. used this method to assess ecosystem service of Tibet in 23 [11] and of China in 28 [12] based on local factors obtained through expert knowledge, and improved method in 215 [13]. The or method is evaluation method, based on a per unit ecosystem function. In this method, ecosystem function and per unit of each kind multiplies to get ecosystem service. Many studies have used this method to get ecosystem service on national, provisional, and local scales. To be compared, former is easier and more suitable to large scale, which needs a transfer method, while latter is more complex, which needs more local eco-factors. Actually, results obtained through latter one on small scale is base to obtain more accurate parameters in former method. Chan et al. (26) suggested that governments cannot construct a systematic method to better manage and plan ecosystem services because of a lack of knowledge about dynamic changes in ecosystem services, both locally and regionally [14]. It acknowledged that land use change a major cause of ecosystem service change [15]. There were many studies which focused on ecosystem service change based on land use change data and ecosystem service per unit area [16,17]. In se studies, ecosystem structures, functions, and processes were ignored when ecosystem service change analyzed, and results were macroscopic. There were also relating studies about comprehensive economic assessment of afforestation. Investigations [18 22] showed dynamic changes of ecosystem services of forests over ir lifecycle. Li et al., (21) studied dynamic processes of ecosystem service and of Qianyanzhou planted forest in China over a year-long period [23]. However, very few attempts have been made to compare dynamic changes of a special ecosystem service and its among different ecosystems, except when analyzing differentiation of carbon fixation dynamic processes between different kinds of forests, grasslands, and farmlands in China in a year [24]. There is still a lack of comparison of or types of ecosystem services, including services, among different ecosystems according to ecosystem structures and processes. Mainstreaming ecosystem services concept in policy-making has come along with great expectations from practitioners, policy-makers, and scientists to improve environmental policy and halt loss of biodiversity [7]. Most environmental policies incorporate ecosystem-service-related governance tools, but only a few policies refer to ecosystem service explicitly both in EU and China. The ecosystem-degrading question emerged earlier in EU; thus, request of ecosystem protection and legislation were proposed earlier compared with China. During 196s to 199s, legislation relating environment and ecology in EU countries developed fast, and most of laws are aimed at a single protection subject, such as Water Law, Forest Law, Soil Protection Law, Costal Protection Law etc. The comprehensive laws mainly are Environmental Protection Law and Nature Conservation Law. Until now, strict legislation for ecosystem protection has had a good effect on ecology in EU. With emergence of serious eco-environmental problems in China, request of ecology protection and restoration has become stronger and stronger by scholars, governmental officers, and public since 198s. There are also laws aimed at single ecosystem types in China, such as Water Law, Forest Law, Grassland Law, Wildlife Conservation Law, etc. In 215, China amended Environment Protection Law and stressed to protect natural ecosystems in it. Moreover, China wrote an ecology protection red line in Environment Protection Law for first time. Now, China is carrying on boundary determination of ecology protection red lines all over country. Both in EU and China, re is no ecology legislation directly relating to ecosystem service

3 The aim of this paper is to illustrate and compare dynamic change processes of service and its of different typical ecosystems based on model of service by ecosystems, to aid in our knowledge of ecosystem services evolution and efficient management of ecosystems. The assessment and valuation of ecosystem services demand Sustainability 215, 7, page page researchers not only to consider situation and formation of ecosystems, but should also take into account efficient internal management mechanism of ecosystems. and evolution The assessment of ecosystem and valuation function of [25]. ecosystem Different services ecosystems providedemand different researchers not only to consider services because situation of and different formation vegetation of ecosystems, formation but should andalso structure. Chinesetake Ecosystem into account Research internal Net (CERN), mechanism established and evolution in 1988, of ecosystem investigates function typical [25]. Different ecosystems in China [26]. ecosystems Data has provide been different accumulated which involves services ecosystem because of different structures, vegetation functions, formation processes, and structure. Chinese Ecosystem Research Net (CERN), established in 1988, investigates typical and patterns, to reby study dynamic change of ecosystem service and its. ecosystems in China [26]. Data has been accumulated which involves ecosystem structures, functions, processes, and patterns, to reby study dynamic change of ecosystem service and 2. Material and Methods its Study 2. Material Areas and Methods We chose representative plant communities in some typical ecosystems in China, such 2.1. Study Areas as forests, grasslands, and farmlands. The forests were temperate broad-leaved Korean pine We chose representative plant communities in some typical ecosystems in China, such as forest in Changbai Mountains (Liaoning Province), subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forests, grasslands, and farmlands. The forests were temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest in forest in Dinghu Mountains (Guangdong Province), tropical monsoon forest in Xishuangbanna Changbai Mountains (Liaoning Province), subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest (Yunnanin Province). Dinghu The Mountains grasslands (Guangdong are temperate Province), grasslands tropical monsoon in Mongolia forest and in Xishuangbanna alpine meadows in Haibei (Qinghai (Yunnan Province). The from grasslands east toare south. temperate Thegrasslands farmlands in Mongolia are warm, and temperate alpine meadows winter wheat and summer Haibei maize (Qinghai fields Province) Yucheng from east (Shandong to south. The Province), farmlands subtropical are warm, temperate winter wheat winter and wheat rice fields in Changshu and summer (Jiangsu maize Province), fields Yucheng and subtropical (Shandong Province), early ricesubtropical and second winter rice wheat fields and inrice Qianyanzhou fields in Changshu (Jiangsu Province), and subtropical early rice and second rice fields in Qianyanzhou (Jiangxi Province). The locations of representative plant communities can be seen in Figure 1. (Jiangxi Province). The locations of representative plant communities can be seen in Figure 1. And And environmental environmental characteristics characteristics of of study study subjects subjects are summarized are summarized in Table 1 in [27]. Table 1 [27]. Figure 1. Locations of study subjects. Figure 1. Locations of study subjects

4 Table 1. Characteristics of each study subject. Name Location Vegetation Layers Temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest Subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest Tropical monsoon forest Temperate grassland Alpine meadow Warm temperate winter wheat and summer maize farmland Subtropical winter wheat and rice farmland Subtropical early rice and second rice farmland E~ E, N~ N; in Changbai Mountains, in Liaoning Province E~ E, N~ N; in Dinghu Mountains, in Guangdong Province E, N; in Xishuangbanna in Yunnan Province E, N; in Xinlinhot in Mongolia E~ E, N~ N; in Haibei in Qinghai Province E~ E, N~ N; in Yucheng in Shandong Province E~ E, N~ N; in Changshu in Jiangsu Province E, N; in Qianyanzhou in Jiangxi Province Tree layer, shrub layer and herb layer Tree layer, shrub layer and herb layer Tree layer, shrub layer, herb layer and inter-layer vegetation Annual Temperature Annual Precipitation 3.5 C 7~8 mm 21 C 1956 mm 21.5 C 1557 mm Herb layer.96 C mm Slope Grade: 2 ; direction: north Grade: 25 ~35 ; direction: norast Grade: 12 ~18 ; direction: north In a gentle broad valley in a hill Soil Brown coniferous forest soils Lateritic red soil Latosol Dark chestnut soil Herb layer 1.7 C 426~86 mm Grade < 5 Cold frozen clay Crop layer 13.2 C 53 mm In a alluvial plain Alluvial soil Crop layer 15.4 C 154 mm The terrain is flat. Paddy soil Crop layer 17.8 C 1461 mm The terrain is flat. Paddy soil 16516

5 2.2. Methods In this study, is defined as a comprehensive regulation on resource and supply to humans through a series of hydrological processes of ecosystems, including vegetation interception, surface litter storage, soil storage, and runoff. Water regulation is completed through various interception methods and storage of different layers of ecosystems. Thus, taking into account processes and benefits that humankind derive from hydrological processes, conserved by ecosystems include not only retained by ecosystems, which takes part in runoff regulation and maintains life of ecosystem, but also supplied to humans which is part that humans can use for livelihood and production. Thus, service is sum of retaining service and provision service of ecosystems Methods of Physical Quantity of Water Conservation Service (1) Forest ecosystems Rain onto forests is divided into three parts; one is retained by forest, one is evaporated by forests, and last one is runoff. Water conserved by forests consists of retained and supplied by forests. Thus, evaporation is out of consideration in. The forest retains through forest canopy, surface litter, and soil. The forest has high canopy interception as a result of its complex structure, with seasonal changes varying with distribution pattern of precipitation. The litter and soil of forest has a high capacity for storage. Water supplied to humankind is used for livelihood and production, and is runoff of forest, including surface runoff and underground runoff. According to hydrological processes of forest, and existing methods of accounting canopy interception [28], storage of litter and soil [29] and total hydrological function of forest [3], we established following equations to assess of ecosystem. Water retained by forest can be calculated by Equation (1); V f s V f s1 ` V f s2 ` V f s3 (1) where V f s is total retained by forest, V f s1 is intercepted by forest canopy, V f s2 is contained by surface litter, V f s3 is contained in soil. Water interception by forest can be calculated through Equation (2); where R f is total precipitation, F f b is stem-flow, R f t is through-fall. Water supply can be calculated through Equation (3); V f s1 R f F f b R f t (2) V f p F f F f above ` F f below (3) where V f p is supply by forest, F f is runoff of forest, F f bove is surface runoff, F f below is underground runoff. The total conserved by forest is sum of retained and supply, being expressed in Equation (4); V f V f s ` V f p (4) where V f is total conserved by forest. (2) Grassland ecosystems Grasslands researched in this study conserve mainly through retaining in itself because runoff is small. Moreover, most of retained in grasslands is retained by soil because 16517

6 of small retaining capacity of grass canopy and surface litter. Therefore, conserved by grasslands can be expressed by contained in soil, being expressed in Equation (5): V g V gs1 (5) where V g is conserved by grassland, V gs1 is contained in soil. (3) Farmland ecosystems Water in farmlands is to secure amount of needed by crops to grow naturally. In addition to little capability of retained by crop, refore, conserved by farmland is also in soil, being expressed in Equation (6): where V a is conserved by farmland, V as is contained in soil Methods of Economic Value of Water Conservation Service (1) Value of retention V a V as (6) An ecosystem can be seen as a reservoir because both have function of storing and regulating. The construction and maintenance of artificial reservoirs and depreciation were used in assessment of monetary of storage by forests in study by Mateusz Grygoruk et al. [31]. Here, we can use cost of reservoir construction per unit capacity as a substitution price to calculate total retaining of ecosystem. In light of ecosystem service being a flow concept, here we chose current deposit interest 3.5% to calculate annuity according Equation (7), and n obtained ly cost by dividing annuity by 12. AV PV p1 ` rq n r p1 ` rq n 1 (7) where AV is annuity, PV is total cost of reservoir construction, r is discount rate, 3.5%. At present, average cost of reservoir construction is 6.11 yuan m 3 in China [32]. Irrigation is a big source for in farmland besides precipitation. Therefore, we deducted irrigation cost when calculating retaining service through method of content in soil. Here, we chose average irrigation cost in China $.9 m 3 to calculate cost. In calculating supply service [33], resource fee in China $.79 m 3 used [34] Data Sources Most data generated in paper originated from CERN, and or existing references. Thus, precipitation, stem-flow, through-fall, content of surface litter, amount of surface litter, soil content, and runoff of Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest were from monitoring database from of Xishuangbanna Station in CERN. The precipitation, interception by forest canopy and runoff of Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest were reference data [35], and soil content, content of surface litter, and amount of surface litter were from monitoring database from of Dinghu Mountains Station in CERN. The precipitation, stem-flow, through-fall, content of surface litter, amount of surface litter, soil content and runoff of Changbai Mountains temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest were from monitoring data base from of Changbai Mountains Station of CERN. The precipitation and soil content of Haibei temperate grassland, Mongolia alpine meadow, Yucheng warm temperate winter wheat and summer maize farmland, Changshu subtropical wheat and rice farmland, and Qianyanzhou subtropical early 16518

7 rice and Sustainability late rice 215, farmland 7, page page were, respectively, from monitoring databases of Haibei Station from 21 23, Mongolia Station from 25 27, Yucheng Station from 26 27, Changshu Station from and 26 27, late rice farmland and Qianyanzhou were, respectively, Station from monitoring 26 27databases in CERN. of The Haibei irrigation Station from record 21 data of farmlands 23, Mongolia alsostation from from stations 25 27, of CERN. Yucheng All Station data from used 26 27, to analyze Changshu dynamic Station from changes 26 27, and Qianyanzhou Station from in CERN. The irrigation record data of within a year average data of monitored years. Due to monitoring s in Changbai farmlands also from stations of CERN. All data used to analyze dynamic changes Mountains Station, Haibei Station, and Mongolia Station, we only analyzed dynamic change of within a year average data of monitored years. Due to monitoring s in Changbai Mountains service, Station, and its Haibei Station, of temperate and Mongolia broad-leaved Station, we Korean only analyzed pine forest dynamic from May to September, change alpine of meadow fromservice, April to and October, its and of temperate broad-leaved grassland from Korean May pine toforest October. The software from May used to September, for analysis alpine andmeadow drawing from maps April is Origin to October, 8.5. and temperate grassland from May to October. The software used for analysis and drawing maps is Origin Results 3. Results 3.1. Water Retained by Ecosystems 3.1. Water Retained by Ecosystems Different precipitation and condition of ecosystem in each season within year toger result intodifferent dynamic precipitation changeand process condition of ly of ecosystem retainedin ineach ecosystem. season within The results year showed that toger total result into retained dynamic in different change ecosystems process of and ly dynamic retained processes in ecosystem. differ (Figure The 2). results showed that total retained in different ecosystems and dynamic processes The sequence of studied ecosystems ranked by average ly retained from large differ (Figure 2). The sequence of studied ecosystems ranked by average ly retained to small is: Qianyanzhou subtropical early rice and late rice farmland > Xishuangbanna tropical from large to small is: Qianyanzhou subtropical early rice and late rice farmland > monsoon Xishuangbanna forest > Changbai tropical monsoon Mountains forest temperate > Changbai broad-leaved Mountains temperate Korean broad-leaved pine forest Korean > Yucheng warmpine temperate forest > winter Yucheng wheat warm and temperate summer winter maize wheat farmland and summer «Changshu maize farmland subtropical Changshu wheat and rice farmland subtropical > wheat Dinghuand Mountains rice farmland subtropical > Dinghu monsoon Mountains evergreen subtropical broad-leaved monsoon forest evergreen «Haibei alpinebroad-leaved meadow > forest Mongolia Haibei temperate alpine meadow grassland. > Mongolia The three temperate farmlands grassland. retained The three considerable farmlands because retained of considerable irrigation effect. because Both of grasslands irrigation retained effect. Both less grasslands than retained or less ecosystems. The Mongolia than or temperate ecosystems. grassland The Mongolia retainedtemperate leastgrassland because retained of its location least inbecause arid of its region where location evaporation in arid region much where higher evaporation than precipitation. much higher In than three precipitation. forests, In Xishuangbanna three forests, Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest in south retained more or less as tropical monsoon forest in south retained more or less as Changbai Mountains temperate Changbai Mountains temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest in north. However, Dinghu broad-leaved Korean pine forest in north. However, Dinghu Mountains retained considerably less Mountains retained considerably less, and amount almost same with that of, Haibei and alpine amount meadow. The almost average same ly with soil that of Haibei of Dinghu alpine Moutains meadow. subtropical The average monsoon ly soil forest of in Dinghu study Moutains close subtropical to results monsoon from forest inobtained study by Yin close et al. (23) to [36], results from former obtained being 177 by mm Yin and et al. (23) latter 184 [36], mm. former being 177 mm and latter 184 mm. Figure Figure Dynamic processes of of retained retained by typical by typical forests, forests, grasslands grasslands and farmlands and farmlands within a year. within a year

8 As showed in Figure 2, curve of ly retained by Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest had a large peak and a small peak. The small peak in May and large peak in August. The curve of Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon forest presented an inverse-u shape, and largest in May. The ly retained by Changbai Mountains changed less regularly, and it increased from May to June, decreased in July, increased again in August and reached maximal and n decreased again in September. The ly retained by Haibei alpine meadow increased from April to May, decreased continually in June, July and August, increased in September and decreased in October. The largest in May. The ly retained by Mongolia temperate grassland decreased continually from May to October. The curve of ly retained by Yucheng warm temperate winter wheat and summer maize farmland had a small peak and a large peak. The small peak in March and April and big peak in August. The ly retained by Changshu subtropical wheat and rice farmland from January to April changed little, and curve presented an inverse-u shape from May to December. The largest retained by Changshu farmland in August. The curve of ly retained by Qianyanzhou subtropical early rice and later rice farmland had two peaks, and one in May and or in August. We can observe three forests which retained least Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest, Haibei alpine meadow, and Mongolia temperate grassland retained most in May within a year (being 231 m 3 hm 2 1, 2167 m 3 hm 2 1, and 13 m 3 hm 2 1, respectively), and or ecosystems retained most in August (Xishuangbanna forest being 6575 m 3 hm 2 1, Changbai Mountains forest being 5731 m 3 hm 2 1, Yucheng farmland being 5322 m 3 hm 2 1, Changshu farmland being 5491 m 3 hm 2 1, and Qianyanzhou farmland being 753 m 3 hm 2 1, respectively). The variation of ly retained by ecosystems different while all variation coefficients were less than 25%. The sequence of ecosystems ranked by variation coefficients of ly retained from large to small Mongolia temperate grassland (23.68%) > Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest (13.27%) > Changbai Mountains temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest (5.72%) > Changshu subtropical wheat and rice farmland (5.45%) > Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest (5.1%) > Qianyanzhou subtropical early rice and late rice farmland (4.86%) > Haibei alpine meadow (4.65%) > Yucheng temperate winter wheat and summer maize farmland (2.4%). Water in soil found most in retained by forests, followed by in surface litter, and intercepted by forest canopies least, which could be ignored (Figure 3). Water in soil of Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest accounted for 89% in total retained, Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon broad-leaved forest accounted for 94%, and Changbai Mountains temperate broad leaved Korean pine forest, 9%. Water interception of Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest canopy and Changbai Moutains temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest canopy changed significantly with time during year while in soil of two forests changed little; refore, -retaining processes of two forests had same shape with processes of interception of forest canopies. Water interception of Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon broad-leaved forest changed little with time within year compared to soil ; thus, retaining-process of forest had somewhat same shape with soil change process. 1652

9 Sustainability 215, 7, page page 7 soil forest canopy interception surface litter 6 total retained 7 6 soil forest canopy interception surface litter total retained 5 5 retained (m 3 hm -2 ) Xishuangbanna forest retained (m 3 hm -2 ) Dinghu Mountains forest soil forest canopy interception surface litter total retained 5 retained (m 3 hm -2 ) Changbai Mountains forest 1 Figure 3. Component and dynamic changes of retaining of typical forests Water Supply to Humans The annul runoffs of Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest, Dinghu Mountains monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest, and Changbai Mountains temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest were different and and dynamic change processes of of ly runoffs presented The annual supply of Xishuangbanna tropical forest 625 m 3 hm different characteristics. The annual supply of Xishuangbanna tropical 2, and that of Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon forest 953 m 3 hm forest 625 m 3 hm 2, and that of Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon forest 953 m 2 3. hm 2 According. According to record to record data, total supply of Changbai Mountains forest from May to September 1283 m 3 hm data, total supply of Changbai Mountains forest from May to September 1283 m 2 3. hm 2 The surface. The surface runoff of runoff Changbai of Changbai Mountains Mountains forest in forest non-growing non-growing seasons seasons small; small; thus, thus, total runoff total runoff mostly mostly referred referred to underground to underground runoff in runoff that period. in that period. Supposing Supposing that that runoff underground runoff underground changed little with se s [37], annual supply of Changbai Mountains forest 2192 m 3 hm changed little with se s [37], annual supply of Changbai Mountains forest Thus, m 3 hm 2 it seemed. Thus, that it Dinghu seemedmountains that Dinghu forest Mountains had largest forest had supply largest capacity, supply followed capacity, by followed Xishuangbanna by Xishuangbanna forest and forest Changbai and Changbai Moutains Moutains forest. forest. Precipitation Precipitation one of one offactors factors influencing influencing ecosystem ecosystemrunoff. runoff. Precipitation Precipitationof of Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon evergreen forest largest, next Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest forest and and Changbai Changbai Mountain Mountain temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved Korean Korean pine forest pine forest smallest, which smallest, accounted which accounted for 4% offor that 4% of of Dinghu that of Mountains Dinghu Mountains forest. forest. The ly ly supply supply of of three three forests forests changed changed regularly regularly within within a year. a Since year. Since runoff runoff Changbai of Changbai Mountains Mountains temperate temperate broad-leaved broad-leaved Korean Korean pine forest pine forest from from October October April to April in in next next year year primarly primarly from from underground underground runoff runoff and and it it stable, stable, ly ly supply supply of Changbai of Changbai Mountains Mountains forest forest seen seen as as stable stable in in that that period period and and it it smaller smaller than than ly supply in in growing seasons. Thus, curves of of ly supply of three forests presented one-peak shape (Figure 4) 4) and and peak peak showed showed in in summer. The biggest ly supply of of Dinghu Dinghu Mountain Mountain forest forest earlier earlier and and it it in June in June while while that of that Xishuangbanna of Xishuangbanna forest and forest Changbai and Changbai Mountains Mountains forest forest in August. in August. In that year, In that year, ly ly supply of supply Changbai of forest Changbai forest consistently consistently smaller than smaller that of than Xishuangbanna that of Xishuangbanna forest and Dinghu forest and Mountains Dinghu Mountains forest. The curves forest. The of ly curves of ly supply of Xishuangbanna supply of Xishuangbanna forest and Dinghu forest Mountains and Dinghu forest Mountains collaborated. forest collaborated. The supply of Xishuangbanna forest larger than Dinghu Mountains forest from January to March, and Dinghu Mountains forest exceeded Xishuangbana forest from April to

10 The supply of Xishuangbanna forest larger than Dinghu Mountains forest from January to March, and Dinghu Mountains forest exceeded Xishuangbana forest from April to July, however, Sustainability 215, 7, page page Xishuangbanna forest equaled or exceeded Dinghu Mountains forest again from August to December (see Figure 4). July, however, Xishuangbanna forest equaled or exceeded Dinghu Mountains forest again from August to December (see Figure 4) Xishuangbanna forest Dinghu Mountains forest Changbai Mountains forest supply(m 3 hm -2 ) Figure 4. Dynamic changes of supply to human of three forests within a year. Figure 4. Dynamic changes of supply to human of three forests within a year. The variation of ly supply of three forests rar large. The variation coefficient of ly supply of Xishuangbanna forest and Dinghu Mountains forest within a year both more than 8%, and that of Changbai forest from May to September 59%. All three forests supplied most in summer, more than 5% in annual supply (Table 2). Xishuangbanna forest supplied least in spring, Dinghu Mountains forest supplied least in autumn, and Changbai Mountains forest somewhat equally supplied in spring, autumn, and winter. The variation of ly supply of three forests rar large. The variation coefficient of ly supply of Xishuangbanna forest and Dinghu Mountains forest within a year both more than 8%, and that of Changbai forest from May to September 59%. All three forests supplied most in summer, more than 5% in annual supply (Table 2). Table 2. Seasonal supply of three forests. Xishuangbanna forest supplied least in spring, Dinghu Mountains forest supplied least Xishuangbanna Dinghu Moutains Changbai Mountains in autumn, and Changbai Mountains forest somewhat equally supplied in spring, autumn, and winter. Seasons Runoff (m 3 hm 2 ) Percent (%) 1 Runoff (m 3 hm 2 ) Percent (%) Runoff (m 3 hm 2 ) Percent (%) Spring (March-May) Summer Table 2. Seasonal supply of three forests (June August) Autumn (September November) Xishuangbanna Dinghu Moutains Changbai Mountains Seasons Winter Runoff (December February) (m 3 Percent Runoff hm 2 ) (%) (m 3 Percent Runoff hm 2 ) (%) (m 3 Percent hm 2 ) (%) Spring (March-May) 3.3. Water Conservation and 76 Its Value Summer (June August) Autumn Water Conservation (September November) The period from November to March in following year in Haibei alpine meadow is Winter frozen soil period, and 941 soil changed 15.6 little in this 397 period [38]. Here, 4.17 ly 389 soil (December February) in frozen period assigned average of before frozen and before melting. The soil of Mongolia temperate grassland in soil frozen period also changed little 3.3. Water Conservation and Its Value Water Conservation The period from November to March in following year in Haibei alpine meadow is frozen soil period, and soil changed little in this period [38]. Here, ly soil in frozen period assigned average of before frozen and before melting. The soil of Mongolia temperate grassland in soil frozen period also changed little until next melting period came [39]. Here, ly soil of Mongolia grassland from November to April to next year assigned of October. The soil in winter and autumn (October to March in next year) remained rar stable [4]. Here, ly soil of Changbai Mountains forest from October to April in next year assigned of September. Accordingly, we estimated annual soil of above 16522

11 three ecosystems. The conserved by forests included retained in forest and supplied to humankind whilst conserved by grasslands and farmlands mainly referred to retained in grasslands and farmlands. The research results showed that annual conserved by Xishuangbanna tropical monsoon forest largest (12,18 m 3 hm 2 ), followed by Dinghu Mountains subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest (11,484 m 3 hm 2 ), Changbai Moutain temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest (7318 m 3 hm 2 ), Qianyanzhou early rice and later rice farmland (7214 m 3 hm 2 ), Yucheng winter wheat and summer maize farmland (575 m 3 hm 2 ), Changshu wheat and rice farmland (552 m 3 hm 2 ), Haibei alpine meadow (198 m 3 hm 2 ), and Mongolia temperate grassland (83 m 3 hm 2 ). In three forests, retained and supply of Xishuangbanna forest somewhat consistent, both accounting for about 5%. The supply of Dinghu Mountains forest primary part in, accounting for 82.98%. However, retained of Changbai Mountains forest primary part, accounting for 7.5% Water Conservation Value Water of forests consists of retaining and supply, while of grasslands and farmlands mainly retaining. The sequence of ecosystems ranked according to annual which had slight differences from that according to physical amount conserved by ecosystems. It Dinghu Moutains subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest ($823 m 3 ) > Xishuangbanan tropical monsoon forest ($712 m 3 ) > Changbai Moutains temperate broad-leaved Korean pine forest ($366 m 3 ) > Qianyanzhou early rice and late rice farmland ($247 m 3 ) > Yucheng winter wheat and summer maize farmland ($147 m 3 ) > Changshu wheat and rice farmland ($92 m 3 ) > Haibei alpine meadow ($75 m 3 ) > Mongolia temperate grassland ($3 m 3 ). In three forests, supply primary part in Xishuangbanna forest and Dinghu Mountains forest, accounting for 69.97% and 91.4%, respectively. However, retaining and supply of Changbai Mountains forest were almost same. Compared to physical conserved with economic, it found that although conserved by Xishuangbanna forest larger than that of Dinghu Mountains forest, of Xishuangbanna forest smaller. The supply primary part in Xishuangbanna forest and Dinghu Mountains forest, although percents of physical retained and supply differed considerably in two forests. Water curves of three forests presented same shapes with curves of supply because of small changes in retained throughout year. Water curves of two grasslands presented same shapes with curves of retained curves because conserved by grasslands mainly contained soil. However, curves of three farmlands presented different shapes with curves of retained curves although conserved by farmlands also primarily contained in soil, because of deduction of irrigation cost of farmlands. As showed in Figure 5, each curve of of three forests had one peak and peak of Dinghu Mountains forest displayed in June and that of Xishuangbanna forest and Changbaishan forest in August. The peak of Dinghu Mountains forest largest (being $181 hm 2 1 ). Water of Haibei alpine medow changed slowly while that of Mongolia decreased continually from May to October (from $4 hm 2 1 to $2 hm 2 1 ). The curve of of Qianyanzhou farmland rar gentle, and curve of of Changshu farmland had two peaks. The ly of Yucheng farmland reached a valley in March, and n it increased gradually until August, and it gentle from August to November, and n it decreased in December. The changes of of farmlands were related to irrigation times and amounts. The irrigation of Yucheng farmland distributed from March to July, while Changshu distributed from June to Ocotober, and Qianyanzhou 16523

12 Sustainability 215, 7, page page Sustainability gentle 215, 7, from August to November, and n it decreased in December. The changes of of farmlands were related to irrigation times and amounts. The irrigation of Yucheng farmland distributed from March to July, while Changshu distributed from June to distributed from April to September. The total irrigation of Changshu farmland largest, Ocotober, and Qianyanzhou as high as 1,45 m 3 hm 2 distributed from April to September. The total irrigation of Changshu farmland largest,, as which high as 1, mtimes 3 hm as that of Yucheng farmland and three times as 2, which 2.2 times as that of Yucheng farmland muchand as that three of times Qianyanzhou as much as that farmland. of Qianyanzhou farmland Xishuangbanna forest Dinghu Mountains forest Changbai Mountains forest 1 9 Haibei grassland Mongolia grassland 16 8 ($ hm -2 ) ($ hm -2 ) Yucheng farmland Changshu farmland Qianyanzhou farmland 2 ($ hm -2 ) Figure 5. Dynamic changes of of typical forests, grasslands and farmlands Figure 5. Dynamic changes of of typical forests, grasslands and farmlands within a year. within a year. The variation of of different ecosystems differed. The variation coefficient The of Haibei variation alpine ofmeadow smallest, being of different 3.98%, followed ecosystems in order differed. by Qianyanzhou The variation coefficient farmland, of Haibei Mongolia alpine grassland, meadowchangbai smallest, Mountains being forest, 3.98%, Yucheng followed farmland, in order Xishuangbanna by Qianyanzhou farmland, forest, Mongolia Dinghu Mountains grassland, forest, Changbai and Changshu Mountains farmland, forest, respectively Yucheng being farmland, 8.12%, 23.2%, Xishuangbanna 31.1%, forest, 34.95%, Dinghu 61.33%, Mountains 74.68%, forest, and %. and Changshu The farmland, respectively of being three 8.12%, forests 23.2%, in Spring 31.1%, 34.95%, 61.33%, most 74.68%, within and %. year. The The seasonal of of three two forests grasslands in Spring somewhat same. In farmlands, seasonal of Qianyanzhou most within year. The seasonal of two grasslands somewhat farmland somewhat consistent. Water of Yucheng farmland in winter and same. In farmlands, seasonal of Qianyanzhou farmland spring larger than that of summer and autumn. Water of Changshu in somewhat spring consistent. and summer Water rar bigger, while that of Yucheng of autumn farmland negative in winter which and influenced spring by larger than that big irrigation of summer amount and and autumn. cost in Water autumn (Table 3). of Changshu in spring and summer rar bigger, while that of autumn negative which influenced by big irrigation amount and cost in autumn (Table 3. Seasonal 3). of typical forests, grasslands, and farmlands. Xishuangbanna Dinghushan Changbai Moutains Haibei Table 3. Value SeasonalPercent Value of typical Value forests, grasslands, Percent and Value farmlands. Percent Seasons Percent (%) ($ hm 2 ) (%) ($ hm 2 ) ($ hm 2 ) (%) ($ hm 2 ) (%) Spring Xishuangbanna Dinghushan 5.66 Changbai 77 Moutains Haibei Summer Value 111 Percent Value Percent Value Percent 19 Value Percent Seasons Autumn ($ hm ) 4. (%) ($ 44 ) 49.4 (%) ($ 132 ) (%) ($ 19 ) (%) Winter Spring 128Mongolia Yucheng Changshu Qianyanzhou Summer Value 111 Percent 15.6 Value Value 79 Percent Value 19 Percent Autumn Seasons Percent (%) ($ hm ) (%) 4. ($ hm44 2 ) 49.4 ($ hm ) (%) ($ hm19 2 ) (%) Winter Spring Summer 8 Mongolia Yucheng Changshu 5. 4 Qianyanzhou Autumn Winter Value 7 Percent Value Percent Value Seasons Percent 396 Value Percent ($ hm 2 ) (%) ($ hm 2 ) (%) ($ hm 2 ) (%) ($ hm 2 ) (%) Spring Summer Autumn Winter Annotation: spring (from March to May), summer (from June to August), autumn (from September to November), and winter (from December to February)

13 Sustainability 215, 7, page page Sustainability 215, 7, Annotation: spring (from March to May), summer (from June to August), autumn (from September to November), and winter (from December to February). Except Changshu farmland, cumulative curves of of or ecosystems increased within year (Figure 6). The cumulative curves of ofxishuangbanna forest,, Dinghu Mountains forest and Changbai Mountains forest nearly nearly presented an S an S shape, shape, while while that of that Haibei of Haibei grassland, Mongolia grassland, Yucheng farmland, and Qianzhanzhou farmland were nearly linear. The cumulative of Changshu farmland in June, August, and September decreased because of large irrigation cost in those s (see Figure 6). 1 9 Xishuangbanna forest Dinghu Mountains forest Changbai Mountains forest 1 9 Haibei alpine meadow Mongolia grassland cumulative ($ hm -2 ) cumulative ($ hm - 2) Yucheng farmland Changshu farmland Qianyanzhou farmland cumulative ($ hm -2 ) Figure Cumulative Cumulative processes processes of typical of forests, typical grasslands forests, grasslands and farmlands and farmlands within a year. within a year Relationship Relationship between between Water Water Conservation Conservation Value Value and and Precipitation Precipitation There There existed existed a linear linear between between ly ly and and ly ly precipitation precipitation of of three three forests. forests. In In grasslands, grasslands, re re no no linear linear in in Haibei Haibei alpine alpine meadow. meadow. However, However, re re a a somewhat somewhat linear linear in Mongolia in Mongolia temperate temperate grassland. grassland. All All three three farmlands farmlands had had no no linear linear between between ly ly and and precipitation. precipitation. This This phenomenon phenomenon could could be explained be explained by following by following reasons. The reasons. The of forests included of forests certain included certain supply supply which determined which determined by runoff by that runoff generally that had generally linear had linear with precipitation. with Thus, precipitation. linear Thus, linear between ly between ly of forests and precipitation of forests is and readily precipitation apparent. is The readily apparent. The of grasslands mainly of referred grasslands to mainly retaining referred to which retaining determined by which soil determined by soil that remained rar stable and had some lag effect with precipitation. that remained rar stable and had some lag effect with precipitation. Thus, linear Thus, linear between ly and precipitation not between ly and precipitation not obvious. The obvious. The of farmlands referred to retaining and of farmlands referred to retaining and source included irrigation source included irrigation besides precipitation; thus, re no linear between besides precipitation; thus, re no linear between ly ly and precipitation. The linear regression model of SPSS 13. used and precipitation. The linear regression model of SPSS 13. used to obtain linear equations to obtain linear equations between ly and precipitation. The between ly and precipitation. The results showed that equations results showed that equations of Xishuangbanna forest, Dinghu Mountains forest, Changbai of Xishuangbanna forest, Dinghu Mountains forest, Changbai Mountains forest, and Mongolia Mountains forest, and Mongolia grassland were expressed in Table 4. grassland were expressed in Table

14 Table 4. Linear between ly and precipitation of some ecosystems. 4. Discussion Ecosystems Linear Relationship Equations Xishuangbanna forest y = x, R 2 =.57, p <.1 Dinghu Mountains forest y = x, R 2 =.79, p <.1 Changbai Mountains forest y = x, R 2 =.64, p <.1 Mongolia grassland y = x, R 2 =.5, p <.1 Connotations: y ly ($ hm 2 ), x ly precipitation (mm). Ecosystems provide an important service which refers regulation and supply to human through ecosystem hydrological processes including redistribution of rainfall by plants, litter, and soil, however re still remain controversies about valuation of service and results are different from each or. This dictates a uniform criteria to compare and to manage ecosystem services. Firstly, it attributes to differentiation in physical calculating methods. Currently, re are four methods to assess conserved by ecosystems: balance equation method, storing ability method, precipitation storage method, and runoff method. The balance equation method refers to calculation method of regulation and supply based on balance equation and it is generally used in region [41,42]. The storing ability equation method refers to calculation method of regulated based on ecosystem storage, including vegetation interception, soil, and surface litter, and it is used regionally and locally [43]. The precipitation storage method refers to calculation method of regulated based on storage efficient of precipitation and it is mainly used in a region [44,45]. The runoff method refers to calculation method of supply based on runoff of an ecosystem [46], and it is utilized in a region. Actually, accounting contents vary in different methods. Water storage and supply are accounted in balance equation method. In storing ability equation method and precipitation storage method, only storage accounted. In runoff method, only supply accounted. In all methods, evaporation of plants is excluded in amount of. In paper, we aimed to compare and analyze service based on ecosystem formation and function. CERN could provide monitoring data we need to depict service of ecosystems locally in more depth. Therefore, we chose comprehensive retaining method to calculate regulation service and used runoff of ecosystems to calculate supply service. Up to now, most of researchers analyzed change of ecosystem service and service based on land use change and ecosystem service per unit area [47 49]. There are rare researchers using model, as in our paper, when y study change of service by ecosystems. The model based on hydrological processes of ecosystems can be used to assess more accurately, and we can obtain construction of. However, this method needs more local parameters and more complex. It is also basis of method of per unit area on large spatial scale. To get of whole area, we need to monitor more typical ecosystems in longer time. The results based on data from CERN reflect real status of service of ecosystems. Although construction of field station of ecosystem in China started in 195s, it developed steadily in 199s. Only data from 2 could be used in comparison of several ecosystem fields, hence data years that were chosen in our study. The second factor is price per unit of. It has been accepted to use construction cost of reservoir to calculate regulation service [41 44] and use resource fee to calculate 16526

15 supply service [43]. However, it ignored results of service calculated by per unit reservoir construction cost which actually capital rar than flow. Here, we revised this inaccuracy through discounting reservoir construction cost by present bank deposit interest of China. In study by Grygoruk et al., cost of reservoir construction and maintenance also used to assess unit monetary of storage [31]. The depreciation rate per annum used to obtain annual price of storage service, which similar to our study. In our study, we found that re existed a linear between ly and ly precipitation of three forests. The results were similar with founding by Li et al., who analyzed linear between ly regulation and ly precipitation and linear between ly supply and ly precipitation of four or kinds of forests in China [5]. This indicates that precipitation is a major influencing factor of of forests. The kind of forest type is also anor influencing factor of of forests in same area. In our study [51], we found that of tropical seasonal rain forest 66% higher than that of tropical secondary forest in Xishuangbanna in China where precipitation of field sample of two kinds of forests name. We think re are at least two purposes of our study. One is to obtain of ecosystems more accurately. The accounting method of in paper is more scientific, which reflects flow concept of ecosystem service. Moreover, data and parameters we used in study were locally monitored. We can monitor more places and more times to get spatial and temporal feature of of typical ecosystems. Based on this, we should build database of service ecosystems to get of per unit area of typical ecosystems with all ages. The second one is to make better integrated resources management. Many countries have begun to mainstreaming ecosystem services concept in policy-making. The use of economic valuation method of ecosystem services is necessary to avoid frustration of involved stakeholders. The regional hydrological ecosystem services for integrated resources management have caught researchers attention in China [8]. The service change induced by land-use change has serious impact on amount and quality of in lake and river. Thus, we should make protecting policies integrating both land and area. To get this goal, we need to master between land-use change and service change. It requires us to know conserved and its of per area of ecosystem service with all ages, and some results of typical ecosystems in China can be obtained in our study. The flow and dynamics of ecosystem services is being and will being a hot topic in research. The world s governments are calling for biodiversity and ecosystem-service monitoring to guide and evaluate international policy as well as to incorporate natural capital into ir national account [52]. Our study results help monitoring and its change of typical ecosystems in China and assessment of ecosystem capital. Until now, re are scarce studies concerning this except studies by Li et al., and Pei et al. [23,24]. We should make more effects on building ecosystem field stations and on monitoring change of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Except for by ecosystems, we should monitor and analyze change of ecosystem services based on CERN. Moreover, we also should pay more attention on public people s attitude, request and behaviors on ecology protection to make better assessment of ecosystem services and to make more efficient protective legislation and measures. 5. Conclusions The study analyzed dynamic changes of and its of some typical forests, grasslands, and farmlands in China within a year based on data set of CERN. Results showed that all forests, grasslands and farmlands supply important service to 16527

16 human. In general, service and of forests is largest (Xishuangbanna forest being $712 hm 2 year 1, Dinghu Mountains forest being $823 hm 2 year 1, and Changbai Mountains forest being $366 hm 2 year 1 ), and n is farmlands (Yucheng farmland being $147 hm 2 year 1, Changshu farmland being $92 hm 2 year 1, Qianyanzhou farmland being $247 hm 2 year 1 ), and that of grasslands is least (Haibei alpine meadow being $75 hm 2 year 1, Mongolia grassland being $3 hm 2 year 1 ). Although of grassland is smaller by comparison, grassland usually locates in arid area where is scarcer and more precious. Thus, we should put more efforts to protect grasslands in arid areas to store locally. Results showed that forest, grassland, and farmland provide different kinds of service which vary in strength and dynamic processes. Different kinds of forests/grasslands/farmlands showed different service patterns. Forests undertake storage and supply function for human, while grasslands and farmlands mainly undertake storage function. In three forests, retained and supply of Xishuangbanna forest somewhat consistent, both accounting for about 5%. The supply of Dinghu Mountains forest primary part in, accounting for 82.98%. However, retained of Changbai Mountains forest primary part, accounting for 7.5%. Water and its curves of forests presented same shapes with curves of supply, while curves of grasslands and farmlands presented same shapes with curves of retain. Water curves of grasslands presented same shapes with curves of retained. However, curves of farmlands presented different shapes with curves of retained curves although conserved by farmlands also primarily contained in soil, because of deduction of irrigation cost of farmlands. As far as conserved, variation coefficients of ly retained by grasslands and farmlands throught year were less than 25%, while variation of ly conserved by forests rar large. As far as concerned, variation of forests, grasslands and farmlands crossed. The coefficient of Changshu farmland biggest, being %; while coefficient of Haibei alpine meadow smallest, and being 3.98%. The coefficient of Qianyanzhou farmland, Mongolia grassland, Changbai Mountains forest, Yucheng farmland, Xishuangbanna forest and Dinghu Mountains forest respectively being 8.12%, 23.2%, 31.1%, 34.95%, 61.33%, and 74.68%. Ecosystems are assets which supply ecosystem service flows to humans. In assessment of ecosystem service economic through substitutional engineering cost method, we should choose cost flow as unit monetary of ecosystem service. Combining our study and one or study [31], we suggest utilization of annual cost of reservoir construction and maintenance rar than total cost in assessment of storage service by forests. Acknowledgments: This work funded under National Natural Science Foundation of China (No ) and National Program on Key Basic Research Project (973 Program) (No. 29CB42116). We are also very thankful for Chinese Ecosystem Research Net (CERN) for providing data used in this paper. Author Contributions: Conceived and designed paper: Gaodi Xie, Chunlan Liu. Collected, analyzed data, wrote paper: Sha Pei. Improved language: Changshun Zhang. Partial data collection and processing: Shimei Li. Partial data collection and language check: Long Chen. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Brauman, K.A.; Daily, G.C.; Duarte, T.K.; Mooney, H.A. The nature and of ecosystem service: An overview highlighting hydrologic services. Ann. Rev. Environ. Resour. 27, 32, [CrossRef] 2. De Groot, R.S.; Wilson, M.A.; Boumans, R.M.J. A typology for classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol. Econ. 22, 41, [CrossRef] 16528

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