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1 ~u~~!:~' W Many rulers oppose talian unity. During the irst hal o the 1800's, talian patriots tried a number o times to unite their country. Each attempt ended in ailure because the enemies o talian unity were too powerul to be deeated by small groups o brave talians. Who were the opponents o a uniied taly? 1. Austria, which governed the Lombardo Venetian kingdom in northern taly, was the chie oe o talian unity. Austria was determined to hold on to her talian possessions. Her Uniication o taly 1832 Mazzini ounds Young taly 1848 Revolutions sweep across Europe Victor Emmanuel ruler o Sardinia (King o taly, ) Cavour Premier o Sardinia Napoleon rules France Sardinia enters Crimean War Napoleon agrees to help ree taly rom Austrian rule Austro-Sardinian War Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and Romagna vote or union with Sardinia; France receives Nice and Savoy Naples and Sicily, liberated rom Bourbon rule by Garibaldi, vote to join Sardinia Umbria and the Marches vote or union with Sardinia Victor Emmanuel named king o a united taly Alliance with Prussia against Austria results in return o Venetia to taly Rome incorporated into the talian state; talian unity achieved ~ ~ ~Cjva7i~6y?'r;0 ~ 1: :, ~wa._ti!-~ -']d~?~1~1 secret police spied on talian nationalists, and when uprisings took place anywhere in the talian Peninsula, Austrian troops went into action. 2. The small talian states o Parma, Modena (moh-day'nah), and Tuscany were ruled by princes riendly to Austria. These rulers realized that they would be ousted i taly became united. 3. The Pope ruled the Papal States in central taly. He eared that uniication o taly would end his control o these states. 4. Finally, the Bourbon ruler o the Kingdom o the Two Sicilies (Sicily and the south o taly) also opposed uniication because it would cost him his throne. That taly inally became united was due mainly to the eorts o three talians-giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo di Cavour, Giuseppe Garibaldi-and o Napoleon, Emperor o the French. Mazzini appeals to talian patriotism. Throughout his lie Giuseppe Mazzini (joo-zep'pay maht-tsee'nee) was driven by one desire-to liberate taly rom oreign rule and to unite his people into one nation. To urther this end, Mazzini reminded the talians o the past glories o their land. The ancient Romans had ruled the greatest empire o the ancient world! n the Middle Ages the Church o Rome had carried the message o Christ to all Western Europe. And during the Renaissance talian artists, cratsmen, and writers were the envy o all Europe. But "all is now changed," said Mazzini, the soul o taly is illed with sadness. "We have no lag o our own, no voice among the nations o Europe We are broken up into eight states that are independent o one another~... And all these states that divide us are... governed [by tyrants] without participa- '.~ 1> tion o any sort by the people [in the government]. One o these states, containing almost a quarter o the population o taly, belongs to a oreign power, Austria. The others, either owing to amily bonds or to their own weaknesses, never oppose Austria's will." Mazzini hoped to restore taly to her ormer greatness. With words that reached the hearts o his countrymen, he cried out or unity and independence: "We demand to exist. We demand a name. We desire to make our country powerul. and respected, ree and happy... n other words, we demand independence, unity, and liberty, or ourselves and or our ellow-countrymen." To throw out the hated Austrians and the lesser princes, said Mazzini, the people must unite, take up arms, and shed their blood. He did not expect an easy victory. " one attempt ails, the third or ourth will be successul. And i ailure is repeated, what matter? The people... must learn how to rise and be deeated and rise again a thousand times, without becoming discouraged." To wage the struggle or independence and unity, in 1832 Mazzini ormed Young taly, an organization o dedicated revolutionaries. ts members, many o them students, shared the patriotism and determination o their leader. They took the ollowing oath: give my name to Young taly... and swear: To dedicate mysel wholly and orever to the endeavor... to [make] taly one ree, independent, republican nation. Cavour seeks allies in uniting taly. Mazzini was the soul o the nationalist movement in taly. His words kept alive the dream o a united taly. But the Revolutions o 1848, in which Mazzini participated, showed that iery words, noble thoughts, and brave patriots were not enough. To drive out the Austrians and the tyrant princes, trained soldiers and powerul allies were also needed. The man who understood this better than anyone else was Count Camillo di Cavour (kah-meel'loh dee kah- Uniication Me aile;; q/)eq/} o taly <5'eq.~: Messna voor'), Prime Minister o the Kingdom o Sardinia in northwestern taly. Cavour diered rom Mazzini in both personality and policy. Unlike the excitable Mazzini, Cavour was neither a dreamer nor a speechmaker. " cannot make a speech, but can make taly," he is supposed to have said. Mazzini hoped to establish a democratic republic. Cavour, mistrusting the common people, preerred a limited monarchy. Mazzini called or a mass uprising o the talian people against Austria. Cavour, always cautious and practical, realized that brave students behind barricades were no match or the well-trained Austrian troops. He wanted the Kingdom o Sardinia to !J

2 take the lead in deeating Austria and uniting northern taly and perhaps eventually all taly. But how could this be done? Austria was a Great Power; Sardinia, a comparatively small state. Slowly and careully Cavour made his plans. 1. First he modernized the economy o Sardinia and increased its army. He built railroads, improved agriculture, developed industry, and strengthened the state's inances. 2. Next Cavour looked or allies to support Sardinia in a war against Austria. n 1855 Sardinia became an ally o Britain and France in the Crime an War against Russia.! Cavour had no quarrel with Russia, but he wanted the riendship o Britain and France. The two western powers might prove useul riends in taly's drive or uniication. Moreover, the prestige o Sardinia would be increased i she ought alongside the Great Powers and participated in the peacemaking. At the peace conerence in 1856 Cavour urged the Great Powers to support talian unity. 3. n 1858 Cavour reached an understanding with Napoleon, Emperor o the French. Austria threatened Sardinia, France would help to ree taly rom "the Alps to the Adriatic." n return or such help Sardinia would cede to France two small border territories, Nice (nees) and Savoy. Unortunately the ultimate goals o each partner to this deal conlicted. Cavour hoped to unite taly; Napoleon wished to establish an talian Conederation under French inluence. 4. Once Cavour had France as an ally he stirred up trouble with Austria. When the Austrians moved against Sardinia in 1859, Napoleon kept his promise. The large French army won two quick victories, and it seemed that the Austrians might be driven rom all o northern taly. But to Cavour's surprise, the! The Crimean (kry-me'un) War broke out when France and Russia disagreed over which nation should have custody o the holy places in Palestine. Russia also claimed the right to establish a protectorate over the Christians in the Ottoman Empire French emperor signed a truce with Austria. Sardinia acquired Lombardy but not Venetia. Napoleon breaks his promise to Cavour. Why did Napoleon ail to keep his promise to Cavour? The French emperor had good reasons or making peace. First, he realized that a united taly might prove a threat to southern France. Furthermore, a united taly would include the Papal States. Napoleon had agreed to protect lands ruled by the Pope. Almost certainly French Catholics would blame their emperor or any territory the Pope might lose. Perhaps most important, Prussia, earul lest the war might lead to an increase in French power, had readied her orces on the borders o France. Outtaged by Napoleon's action, Cavour demanded that Sardinia continue the war until all northern taly was liberated. But King Victor Emmanuel accepted the Austrian peace terms. Developments proved the wisdom o this. decision. The aroused people o Parma, Modena, and Tuscany ousted their rulers and voted or union with Sardinia. Romagna (roh-mah' nyah), one o the Papal States, also voted to join Sardinia. Despite his promise to protect the Pope's lands, Napoleon oered to approve this substantial enlargement o Sardinia. n return, he claimed and received Nice and Savoy. Garibaldi strikes a blow or liberty. While northern taly was making progress toward uniication under the guidance o Cavour,important developments were taking place in the south. n the spring o 1860, some 1000 redshirted talian patriots sailed rom Genoa to invade the island o Sicily. They were determined to liberate the Kingdom o the Two Sicilies rom its Bourbon king. Their leader was Giuseppe Garibaldi (gah-ree-bahl'dee), a man whose bravery, patriotism, and love o liberty would make him a hero to all taly. n 1833, ater joining Mazzini's Young taly, Garibaldi became involved in its revolutionary ' }. l,]- activities. Captured and sentenced to death, he managed to escape to South America. There he helped the people in southern Brazil (now Uruguay) ight or reedom rom Brazil. n Brazil Garibaldi learned the skills o the revolutionary's trade. "Shipwrecked, ambushed, shot through the neck, captured, imprisoned, strung up by his wrists or attempting to escape and reusing to say who helped him, marching exhausted or days on end through the jungle with nothing to eat but the roots o plants, and riding at night over the cold sierra [syey'rah, mountain range]," Garibaldi toughened his body and his will or the great struggle that lay ahead. He returned to taly just in time to ight in the Revolution o Garibaldi was a born leader o men. A young talian artist who ought beside Garibaldi in 1848 said o his commander: " shall never orget that day when irst saw him on his beautiul white horse. He reminded us o... our Savior;... everyone said the same. could not resist him. went ater him; thousands did likewise. He only had to show himsel. We all worshiped him. We could not help it. " n 1860 Garibaldi led a small orce against the Kingdom o the Two Sicilies. Soon ater the invasion, thousands o local patriots joined his army. They were inspired by his deeds and his words: talians! The Sicilians are ighting against the enemies o taly, and or taly. To help them with money, arms, and especially men, is the duty o every talian... To arms, then! Let us by one blow put an end to our [constant] misortunes. Let us show the world that this is truly the land once trodden by the great Roman race. n a little more than two months, Garibaldi's Red Shirts, aided by local patriots, liberated Sicily. They then crossed to the talian mainland to liberate the rest o the Kingdom o the Two Sicilies. Early in September, 1860, Garibaldi occupied Naples without a ight. The Bourbon king led, and the overjoyed people o Naples welcomed the "Red Man," as they aectionately called Garibaldi. For him the inal step was an advance on 'Rome, the center o taly. Garibaldi's plans alarm Cavour. Cavour eared that an attack on Rome would compel Napoleon to keep his pledge to deend the Pope's lands. Cavour realized that war between France and taly would be atal or taly. Moreover, Cavour considered Garibaldi too emotional, rash, and stubborn, too attracted to democratic ideas, and too much o a hero to the common people to be entrusted with leadership in the uniication o taly. That goal was to be achieved under Sardinian leadership. Napoleon was equally disturbed by Garibaldi's plans. t was not diicult, then, or Cavour to persuade the French emperor to permit Victor Emmanuel to lead a Sardinian army across the Papal States to head o Garibaldi. A papal orce oered only token resistance, and the Papal States o Umbria and the Marches soon voted or union with Sardinia. n October, 1860, Victor Emmanuel took command o the troops in the Kingdom o the Two Sicilies. The Bourbon army held out until early in But meanwhile the people in Naples and Sicily voted to join the lands ruled by Victor Emmanuel, who was proclaimed King o taly on March 17, Worn out by the tensions o the past twelve years, Cavour, the architect o talian uniication, died June 6, talian unity is soon achieved. Two important regions remained outside talian control. (1) The Pope, protected by French troops, still ruled the city o Rome and adjacent territory. (2) n northern taly, Venetia remained in Austrian hands. taly did not have to wait long to annex these lands. n 1866 Austria and Prussia were at war. By becoming Prussia's ally, taly received Venetia when Austria was deeated. Four years later, when Prussia and France were at war, the 495 J

3 .~ /:1 French garrison was pulled out o Rome. talh ian troops then marched into the city, and the citizens voted by a great majority to become part o a united tiily.2 Thus nine years ater Cavour's death the goal o talian uniicatio was achieved. 2 The loss o papal territory let an open wound b tween the Pope and the talian nation, a wound tha was not healed until \)JL ~. 1. What orces opposed talian uniication? Why? 2. What contributions to talian uniication were made by Mazzini? Cavour? Napoleon? Garibaldi? 3. What progress toward talian uniication was made by war in 1859? 1866? 1870? ~ / The Uniication Revolutions o Germany o 1848 had --_ ~--t~-~.ite~1 aroused great o a united Germany, he/!ally meant that Prus =i:: ~ ~ hopes seen anamong opportunity Germanto nationalists. unite the 39They separate had nate sia, under the other its Hohenzollern German states. king, should domi- 50~ German states into one nation. Many o these Shrewd and practical, Bismarck insisted '! nationalists and students were who wanted liberal the proessors, new united lawyers, Ger- that sword. Germany "Not through could be speeches united and only majority by the;} t. J A'i. () 2;) liberties. many to have But a united constitution and ree guaranteeing Germany basic was he decisions said, "but are the through questions iron and o the blood." day decided," ~ -', ~ ~ -/ not born in When the lames o revolution At the end o the Napoleonic Wars, the Ger-!,t o separate states ruled by kings and princes 300 to 39, a step towards unity. But the rewith had died nearlyout, absolute Germany power. remained a loose union maining their man states owngerman independence had been princes reduced and were thereore rom very more jealous opposed than o ~tje..'1)d/" ' Bismarck and Prussia create a united Ger- any attempt to uniy Germany. The rivalry many. t was unortunate that liberal national- between Austria and Prussia, the two leading ists were unable to unite Germany. Perhaps German-speaking states, was a urther obstacle they could have given Germany liberty as well to uniication. Neither Prussia nor Austria as unity. As it turned out, Germany was united would allow a Germany dominated by the by Otto von Bismarck (on bis'mark) a man other. Austria, in particular, eared that a Gerwho supported absolute power or the Hohen- many united by Prussia might prove to be a zollern (hoh-en-tsohl'ern) king o Prussia and threatening neighbor. Because o all these orces mistrusted parliaments. Bismarck became the opposed to uniication, the 39 states were linked chancellor (prime minister) o Prussia in in a loosely organized German Conederation Bismarck was a Junker (yoong'ker)-an in which Austria had the dominant inluence. aristocratic Prussian landowner. Whereas lib- Determined to increase the power o Prussia, erals wanted to transer power rom the king to Bismarck planned to expel Austria rom the parliament, Bismarck sought to strengthen the German Conederation and to subject the other position o the king, whom he considered the German states to Prussian rule. But the Prussymbol o autocratic and military rule in Prus- sian army was not strong enough to conquer, sia. " believe that am obeying God when occupy, and control all the other German serve the king," he said. When Bismarck talked states. Bismarck thereore shrewdly took ad- vantage o German nationalist eelings to give the impression that he was uniting Germany rather than conquering territory or Prussia. How Bismarck achieved his goal o a' united Germany led by Prussia is a story o three wars: (1) with Denmark, (2) with Austria, and (3) with France. Prussia and Austria deeat Denmark and quarrel over their gains. The coastal provinces o Schleswig (shlays'vihk) and Holstein (hohl' styne) had largely German populations but were ruled by the king o Denmark. That ruler clearly was seeking a way to incorporate Schleswig in his kingdom. Bismarck convinced Austria that this move must be stopped. n 1864 the united orces o Prussia and Austria overran the two provinces in the name o the German Conederation. Once Austria and Prussia had occupied Schleswig and Holstein, however, they violently disagreed over what should be done with them. Austria wished to reer the issue to the Diet (parliament) o the German Conederation, where she was sure o support. Bismarck preerred to settle the question through war. He was conident that Prussia could deeat Austria. Most military "experts" believed that Austria would win the conlict. Austria not only was larger than Prussia but had nearly double the population as well as the backing o most o the other German states. Butthe "Seven Weeks' War" o 1866 proved the importance o expert Prussian planning, eicient railway transportation, and superior weapons. Sweeping aside the orces o Austria's German allies, Prussia crushed the Austrian army. But instead o advancing on Vienna, Bismarck wisely urged King Wilhelm (vil'helm) to make peace with Austria. Through the peace settlement, (1) Austria ceded Venetia to taly, Prussia's ally; (2) the German Conederation was dissolved; and (3) Prussia annexed Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck increases Prussia's power and gains popular support. With Austria excluded rom German aairs, the uniication o Germany Uniication o Germany Formation o S3erman Conederation Wilhelm King o Prussia (German Kaiser, ) Bismarck Chancellor o Prussia Prussia and Austria deeat Denmark in war over Schleswig-Holstein Seven Weeks' War between Prussia and Austria Formation o North German Conederation Franco-Prussian War; Germany gains Alsace and Lorraine German Empire is proclaimed with Wilhelm as kaiser could proceed. Prussia irst annexed about 30,000 square miles o German territory in the north. Bismarck then invited the 21 North German states to join Prussia in a new union, called the North German Conederation. Prussia's supremacy in the new conederation was assured. Although the people o the German states were represented in the legislature, the king o Prussia served as its permanent president. Prussia also had 17 o the 43 members o the upper house o the legislature, as well as control o the armed orces and oreign aairs. Thus Prussia was much more powerul in the new union than Austria had been in the old. n establishing the North German Conederation, Bismarck had strengthened the position o the Prussian king and the Junkers. t seemed that everything was going right or Prussia. By winning two wars, Prussia had increased the territory under her control and become master o the North German Conederation. Bismarck had become a national hero. When he irst took oice, German liberals had strongly opposed him. Bismarck had collected taxes without parliament's approval, and had strengthened the king's power at the expense o parliament. But two successul wars changed the liberals' views r

4 Uniication o Germany Bismarck had weakened parliamentary government, he had given the German people something more important-power. " Germany is aced with the choice between Einheit [ine'hite, unity] or Freiheit [ry'hite, reedom], it must... unconditionally choose the ormer," wrote a liberal newspaper. n late nineteenthcentury Europe, many liberals placed the gloriication o the nation ahead o the strengthening and south naturally pleased French statesmen, who considered a united Germany a threat to France. Some Frenchmen regretted that France had not sided with Austria in the Seven Weeks' War. Having lost that opportunity, France must seek ways to keep Prussia rom absorbing South Germany. Bismarck realized that the surest way to bring the South German states into a united Germany was to arouse a spirit o nationalism so strong that it would overcome separatist tendencies. War with France would serve this purpose, and quite unexpectedly a cause or conlict developed. n 1868 a revolution had driven the Spanish king rom his throne. Two years later the throne o Spain was oered to a German prince o the Hohenzollern amily. The thought o Hohenzollern Prussia to the east and a Hohenzolern king o Spain to the south alarmed the French. Surely the two countries would become allies! The French government, thereore, protested. Tension eased when the prince declined the honor extended him. Unortunately or France, Napoleon ll's advisors persuaded him to demand assurance rom King Wilhelm o Prussia that i Spain renewed the oer, it would again be rejected. Since this was an insulting demand, it was not surprising that the Prussian king would have no part o it. When he sent a telegram reporting the incident to Bismarck, the chancellor was quick to take advantage o the situation. He shortened the telegram and released'it to the press. When the French read this release, they got the impression that their ambassador had been humiliated. To the Prussians, it seemed that their beloved king had been insulted. Soon the people in both countries were demanding war. o democracy. They were nationalists irst and liberals second. Bismarck, thereore, could count on the support o the people, even the liberals, as he carried orward plans or German unity. Bismarck's plans or German unity lead to war Expecting victory, the French suer a crush- Only the our South German states remained outside Prussia's control. The overwhelmingly Catholic population o South Germany had no desire to be dominated by Protestant Prussia. This split between north The French believed that their armies would sweep across Germany as had those o the great Napoleon. "On to Berlin!" shouted French patriots. But France needed more than the memory o Napoleon to deeat with France. The Franco-Prussian War began on July 19, n six weeks the French armies were deeated, and the one commanded by Napoleon himsel had surrendered. Paris was under siege by the Germans. Hoping or a miracle, France reused to surrender. But no miracle occurred; French heroism could not break the siege. As the ood supply dwindled, Parisians ate roots, animals rom the zoo, and even rats. Finally, late in January, 1871, Paris surrendered. A month later negotiations to conclude peace began at Versailles. The peace terms compelled France to pay a large indemnity to Germany. France also had to surrender two border provinces, Alsace and Lorraine. French nationalists swore that one day they would regain their lost provinces. Meanwhile, on January 18, 1871, in the palace built by Louis XV at Versailles, German princes oered the title o "German Kaiser" (ky'zer, emperor) to Wilhelm 1. Ater three wars, Bismarck had united Germany and created a German Empire. The constitution o the new German Empire was based on the constitution o the North German Conederation. Despite the existence o a democratically elected national parliament and o political parties, the real power rested largely with the Prussian king and the Junkers. Bismarck had taught the German people to respe~t power more than liberty. He had convinced them that the sword provided an eective answer to Germany's problems. These were lessons the German people would long remember. ing deeat. United Germany becomes a great power. The Franco-Prussian War resulted in the uniication o Germany. A powerul nation had risen in Central Europe. Her people were educated, i Prussia. Outnumbered, poorly prepared, led by incompetent oicers, and armed with inerior weapons, the French were no match or Prussia's powerul military machine. Moreover, the South Germans, as Bismarck had anticipated, came to the aid o Prussia )

5 Nationalism: Nationalism was ot8n relected in music. Drawing upon myths and medieval literature, German composer Richard Wagner created complex and brilliant operas gloriying German traditions. At right the hero Siegried reorges the magic sword Nothung. Lohengrin (above) deals with Christian German knights. hard working, and eicient; her industry and commerce were rapidly expanding; her army was the irst in Europe. Vigorous and conident, the new German Empire was eager to play an important role in world aairs. Strongly nationalistic, she wanted to become not only the oremost power in Europe but to acquire a colonial empire as well. No nation in Europe was a match or the new Germany. The uniication o Germany helped to create ears, tensions, and rivalries that would lead to world war.,, ~~~ 1. What progress toward German uniication had been made beore 1862? Why did Bismarck wish to expel Austria rom the German Conederation? How was this goal achieved? 2. What was Prussia's role in the North German Conederation? Why did relations between France and Prussia become strained? Why did bot sides come to want war? i, il r!. t r 3. What waswas the German outcome unity o the inally Franco-Pru)"Sian War? How actj(eved? 500 Blessing or Curse? Many view nationalism as desirable. The dreams o talian and German nationalists had been realized. n the struggle or uniication patriotic poets had inspired their countrymen with stirring words. Young soldiers had marched into battle certain that they were ighting or a just cause. talians were thrilled by the deeds o Garibaldi. Germans were proud o their victories over Austria and France and o the creation o the German Empire. n Germany and taly, love o the Fatherland became man's great duty. And so it was throughout Europe, or the spirit o nationalism spread to many lands and to many peoples. n 1871, as in the Metternich era, many people looked upon nationalism as a great good. t was considered desirable or a people with a common history, common language, and similar traditions to be independent o oreign rule, to be united in one nation instead o being broken up into many separate states. Many people identiied nationalism with liberty. They agreed with Mazzini that when nations gained unity and independence, their citizens would enjoy greater reedom. Having ought to gain their own rights, new nations would respect the rights o all nations and all peoples. United in brotherhood, these nations, said Mazzini, would seek to make "things better or all men.... Man will greet man, rom whatever land he comes, with the name brother." Few thought that nationalism might also lead to great evil. But how could nationalism result in evil? Shouldn't citizens love their country? Shouldn't a man be proud o his country's achievements? s it wrong to celebrate national holidays, sing the national anthem, salute the lag, honor the nation's war dead, praise its great men, rejoice in its victories, suer in its deeats, and deend one's homeland against attack? Have not patriots throughout the ages ought to preserve their nation's liberty? Does not a sense o national pride contribute to a nation's cultural accomplishments? Nationalism can be carried to extremes. Few men would deny that national pride is expected o a good citizen. But, as we shall see, in the period ater 1871 nationalism was oten carried to an extreme. Large numbers o people in many lands became chauvinists (shoh'vin-ists)-extreme nationalists or super-patriots. Chauvinism oten lourished in countries that suered rom insecurity. n some cases chauvinists claimed that the nation was threatened by oreign enemies; in other cases they insisted that the nation was endangered by ineective government or strie between political parties. n still other cases chauvinists expressed envy o countries that were stronger, wealthier, or owned more colonies. Chauvinists urged war in order to overcome past humiliations or to enable their nation to obtain the land, prestige, and power in world aairs that they elt it deserved. Chauvinists may be racists. Chauvinists searched or common bonds to hold their people together. Oten they developed racist theories. Rejecting and distorting scientiic evidence, they claimed that some groups belonged to inerior races and that their own people represented a noble, "master" race with a superior biological inheritance. To maintain this superiority and preserve the purity o the race, they opposed intermarriage with "inerior peoples." (They conveniently overlooked the act that no national group is all o one racial stock, but represents a mingling o dierent peoples. Who can say that he is "pure" French or "pure" German or "pure" talian?) As a superior race they had a right to conquer and rule other peoples. The absurd end to which chauvinists carry their racist thinking can be seen in the theories o nazism-{see Chapter 29). Chauvinists may support militarism and dictatorship. Chauvinists oten gloriied war, claim501 ~ ' L o

6 The major obstacle to talian uniication was the political ragmentation o the peninsula. Yet the eorts o our men were to overcome political separatism and unite taly. Mazzini lit the ire o talian patriotism. Cavoux modernized Sardinia, gained the goodwill o Britain and France, and enlisted the support o Napoleon in war against Austria. This war gained Lombardy and aroused people in the duchies to oust their rulers and join Sardinia. Meanwhile Garibaldi undertook an amazingly successul expedition in southern taly and overthrew the Bourbon king o the Two Sicilies, whose people voted to join Sardinia. n 1861 Victor Emmanuel became king o taly. By siding with Prussia in a war against Austria, taly obtained Venetia in Four years later Rome became part o a united taly. German uniication was largely brought about by Bismarck, a Prussian Junker who became chancellor o Prussia in He recing that it brought out the inest qualities in man. They agreed with the German general who said: "Everlasting peace is a dream and an ugly one." To chauvinists, the nations o the world were engaged in a struggle or existence in which only the strong would suxvive. Hence they supported large expendituxes or the army and navy and greater power in the government or generals. Convinced that national greatness was more important than individual liberty and welare, many ardent nationalists advocated dictatorship as the best orm o government. They elt that centralized authority was needed to meet the crises that threatened their country. Experience indicated that democracy oten ailed to provide a government capable o coping with the problems o the times. To chauvinists, world power was ar more important than individual reedom. Chauvinism appeals to men's emotions. Rejecting appeals to reason, chauvinists tried to arouse people's emotions through rallies, parades, and stirring speeches and music. Such appeals to emotion tend to make people irrational-unreasoning and excitable. Human decency, love o one's ellow man, the rights o other people, the ethical teachings o religion have little meaning or men caught in the spell o irrational chauvinism. Swayed by emotional appeals, the masses ollow their leader without question and place the atherland above everything. When nationalism is pushed to an extreme, wrote a German philosopher in 1902, "just and unjust, good and bad, true and alse lose their meaning; what men condemn as disgraceul and inhuman when done by others, they recommend in the same breath to their own people as something to be done to a oreign country." So great has been the power o chauvinism over men's minds and emotions that some historians regard it as the greatest evil o the twentieth century. Many historians maintain that nationalism ailed to unite men in brotherhood and liberty as Mazzini had hoped. nstead, it soon became apparent that love o nation was a stronger emotion than love o one's ellow man, or love o liberty. To build a nation's power and prestige seemed a greater goal than liberty and brotherhood. n the twentieth century, nationalism became as much a "curse" as a "blessing." Chauvinists sought lands to conquer and oreign peoples to dominate. n time the lames o nationalism spread throughout Europe. The entire continent, and other continents as' well, became enguled in wars o conquest and wars o revenge. \)0? t.\ CHECK-UP 1. Why is nationalism desirable? 2. What are causes o extreme nationalism (chauvinism)? 3. What are some o the chauvinism? Summing Up ognized that war would provide' the quickest route to the uniication o the 39-state German Conederation, which was dominated by Austria. Prussia allied with Austria to seize two German states ruled by the king o Denmark. A quarrel over their administration led to war between Prussia and Austria. Victory enabled Prussia to annex Schleswig and Holstein, take over territory rom North German states that had sided with Austria, and eliminate Austria rom playing any role in German aairs. Prus- (:'~:in chauvinists nationalism 1.,::~n.Y''4_-e).~} Mazzin! Bismarck Prussia Cavour Crimean War y~/h;:;~id{;~j{q; j l>j.tl.7jin}{? Y(\ chancel/or Junker Napoleon "' Garibaldi Papal States Young taly Sardinia sia then created a North German Conederation, in which she controlled oreign aairs and the armed orces. The our South German states outside Prussia's control became part o a united Germany when a quarrel over the succession to the Spanish throne led to the Franco-Prussian War. Again Prussia was victorious. The King o Prussia was named kaiser o the new German Empire, which became one o the leading states in Europe. Chapter racist theories Victor Emmanuel Alsace-Lorraine Schleswig-Holstein Seven Weeks' War Kingdom o the Two Sicilies Highlights kaiser German Conederation North German Conederation Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom so 1. Why muchdid later talian than and the German uniication uniication o other come Euro- nwhat '-.S ismarck were in uniying the crucial Germany? decisions made by pean countries? 6. Why did the South German states go their own 2. How did Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi di- way in 1866 only to become part o the German er in their approach to talian uniication? Which Empire in 1871? ader saw... most Clearly how to uniy taly? Why? 7 Wh t 1/ a para es were th' ere n th e process 0 ) Austria and Prussia had been allies n over- uniication in taly and in Gel]l1any? How did it ~. throwing Napoleon and maintaining the peace dier? Wt- WH/ ~?t /'/JA?4 ~t i a ter 1850? 8. What role did nationalism play n the French settlement o Why did they become riv~1 i'h~:"4:. Old France make a mistake in becoming the. ev~lution? n the Napoleon~c Wars? n the un i- ~i- ally o Sardinia in 1859? n not siding with lcatjon o taly and Germany. ~. Austria in 1866? Explain. 9. s nationalism a blessing or a curse? Explain..-."\ -;, 502 i ;t. d:s:" 503