NATIONAL DEFENSE UNIVERSITY NATIONAL WAR COLLEGE. Water Issues in India and Pakistan

Transcription

1 NATIONAL DEFENSE UNIVERSITY NATIONAL WAR COLLEGE Water Issues in India and Pakistan COL STEVEN W. PETERSON, USA COURSE 5604, SEMINAR A THE GLOBAL SECURITY ARENA PROFESSOR CAPT ROBERT B. BRANNON ADVISOR COL HANSON

2 Peterson 1 Introduction India and Pakistan face severe water problems stemming from a host of causes. Problems include flooding and drought in some regions; inefficient and inadequate irrigation; inadequate supplies of clean water in rural and urban areas; groundwater depletion and contamination; lack of pollution control and treatment facilities; and inadequate and poorly maintained infrastructure. To develop and maintain a sustainable water system, a country must address seven critical elements: Comprehensive Strategic Planning/Political Will, Scarcity and Poor Distribution, Unsustainable Consumption, Economic Inefficiency and Waste, Pollution, Funding Shortages, and Management and Enforcement Infrastructure. 1 This paper provides background and questions for discussion during visits to India and Pakistan to aid in developing a comprehensive understanding of water issues and initiatives in each country. The paper is organized in three sections addressing India, Pakistan, and Cross- Border water issues within the context of the critical elements outlined above. 2 Water Issues in India Situation. Although India is not among the world s most severely water stressed countries, there are significant areas of scarcity with one third of its 570,000 villages declared water deficient. 3 Its continuing population growth demands careful management of the nation s water resources. The Himalayan Rivers are snow fed and perennial while the peninsular rivers are seasonal and dependent on the monsoons. The north and east are water rich while the west and south are water short. There are arid, drought prone regions (e.g. Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu) and in the east areas which periodically experience devastating floods. 4 Strategic Planning/Political Will. India has a long history of interest in comprehensive water management both before and after Independence. The Constitution gives primary

3 Peterson 2 responsibility for water issues to the States but the Central government has overlapping responsibilities. 5 The Interstate Water Disputes Act of 1956 was an effort to provide a framework for the resolution of disputes and a basis for court action (e.g. Cauvery river dispute). 6 The government established a National Water Resources Council and adopted a National Water Policy in 1987 to move away from an excessive preoccupation with discrete water projects and towards issues of resource policy. 7 Nevertheless, it was not a wholly effective document and in 2002 a revised National Water Policy (NWP) was adopted. Although this suggests a comprehensive policy, it stops short of a national water law and has been criticized as a patchwork quilt uncharacterized by cogency or coherence. 8 Questions. What are the prospects for passage of a national water law? How would the provisions of such a law be enforced? In 2002, the Prime Minister advocated community control and stakeholder participation in water resource management. How is water user management reflected in national water law proposals? How will new initiatives be funded? Scarcity and Poor Distribution. Currently, three quarters of India s monsoon rainfall runs off into the sea. 9 Efforts to capture and store this water for either groundwater replenishment or dry season use are underway. The Prime Minister s speech upon adoption of the 2002 NWP made rainwater harvesting a key national goal. Demonstration projects in the city of Chennai and in New Delhi show that inexpensive systems can be installed and used by individual homes, businesses, and apartments to capture and store rainfall during the monsoon for use in the dry season. 10 In addition to rainfall harvesting, India is pursuing a country-wide water diversion project. Following droughts in 2002, Prime Minister Vajpayee announced a proposal to link India s largest rivers in a countrywide grid [to] get water from the north to the states of the south and east. 11 This would be the largest water diversion project in the world with 300 reservoirs, 1000 km of canals, flooding of 8000 sq. km. and the displacement of about 3 million people at a cost of from $70 to 200 billion dollars. 12 The project also threatens to disrupt

4 Peterson 3 water flows to Bangladesh and is likely to be a source of continuing dispute. Both the former and current heads of the Ministry of Water Resources have criticized the plan saying that harvesting and storing local rainwater is a more cost effective and less disruptive solution. 13 Such projects are already showing success in Rajasthan where earth and rubble johad s (barriers built around the contour of a slope) are being used to capture and store rainwater. 14 Questions. What are the prospects that India will go forward with the massive redirection effort proposed by the Prime Minister? What is the project s current status? Where is funding to come from? How will the estimated three million displaced persons be compensated and resettled? Why not opt instead for the rainwater harvesting approaches advocated by some leading experts and already demonstrated in places like Chennai, New Delhi, and Rajastan? Unsustainable Consumption/Economic Inefficiency and Waste. Poor economic policies contribute to unsustainable consumption. For example, in Punjab, India s breadbasket, price supports and free electricity encourage farmers to grow water guzzling rice... [and across India] Water is virtually free to most consumers. 15 This creates further waste due to under-pricing. Poorly maintained infrastructure is another source of waste with pipeline leaks leading to significant losses. For example, in Chennai it is estimated that 25 to 30 percent of the pipelines leak. 16 Similarly, the Delhi Water Board states that although the city needs 800 million gallons per day the supply is restricted to 650 million gallons with at least 20 percent lost through leakage and 4-5 percent stolen. 17 In some areas, distribution infrastructure is so inadequate that trucks are used to distribute water to the poor. 18 Questions. What are the significant initiatives to improve the water infrastructure to reduce waste? How are existing facilities to be upgraded to meet the demands of rapid urbanization and population growth? What new water treatment and distribution facilities will be required? With water prices below production costs, how can one correct pricing to allow market forces to work effectively in water management? Will the people accept water price increases? Pollution. India has significant ground and surface water pollution problems in both its urban and rural areas. Industrial and agricultural wastes contribute to the problem and only 10

5 Peterson 4 percent of sewage is treated leaving the rest to contaminate groundwater or surface water flows. 19 Pollution is suspected as a cause in the deaths of 400,000 to 500,000 children under five caused by diarrhea each year. 20 In Delhi, the Center for Science and Environment, estimates that the Yamuna River carries 1800 million liters of untreated domestic waste and 300 million litres of industrial waste. 21 Such pollution is fairly typical and contributes to the spread of disease. For example, in Delhi there were over 69,000 cases of gastroenteritis, 1267 cases of cholera, and 508 cases of hepatitis. 22 Clearly, pollution control is a critical need. Questions. What are the government initiatives to reduce industrial, agricultural, and wastewater pollution? The importation of large quantities of toxic materials in the recycling industry contributes to rampant water pollution what efforts are being considered to curtail these imports? 23 Of 20 major cities in India, nine had no sewage treatment what government or private programs are there to correct this deficiency? 24 How are groundwater reserves being protected from depletion and contamination? What additional measures are contemplated? Management and Enforcement Infrastructure. India lacks effective water management organizations, laws, practices, and policies. The present institutional arrangements in India, including central, state, and local institutions and both formal and informal structures, do not enable comprehensive allocation, planning, and management. 25 India s policies practically guarantee mismanagement. 26 Questions. What efforts are planned or underway to change the way water management is administered in India? To what extent will stakeholder participation be incorporated in revised water management structures? An important part of managing any water system is accurate assessment and monitoring what are the current means of collecting data about the state of the water system? Describe any planned changes? How does the government use the data it collects? What types of enforcement mechanisms are contemplated? Water Issues in Pakistan Situation. Primarily arid and semi-arid, Pakistan depends upon the Indus River basin, the headwaters for which are in India. Fortunately, the Indus Water Treaty signed with India in 1960 provides for continuing water flows and has remained in force even during periods of war. 27

6 Peterson 5 Nevertheless, Pakistan is in a water crisis and faces nearly insurmountable challenges in meeting the demands of its growing population (140 million in 2000; projected to double by 2025). 28 Pakistan s water resources are now at 1200 cubic feet per capita (below the international standard of 1500) and are down from 5300 cu ft per capita in Rapidly declining storage capacity further complicates the problem. Pakistan s two main reservoirs on the Indus, the Mangla and Terbala, are losing storage capacity due to sedimentation (and have already lost 20% and 43% respectively). 30 Pakistan s water problems are further exacerbated by rapidly depleting ground water reserves and salt-water encroachment that is causing increased soil salinity to the detriment of agriculture. 31 The water situation in Pakistan is truly dire. Comprehensive Strategic Planning/Political Will. In the past, Pakistan made some efforts at strategic planning and management of its water system. In the 1950s, it began Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPS) to attempt to reduce and prevent increases in soil salinity. 32 It undertook reservoir construction projects and in 1974 completed the Terbala reservoir in the Indus basin. But unfortunately, it has added no new reservoirs since. (By comparison India and Turkey have completed 89 such projects during that period). 33 The magnitude of the problem Pakistan faces has now finally prompted it to undertake strategic planning. Consequently, the government is now working to finalize a National Water Policy. 34 It is also implementing a plan called Vision 2025 in which irrigation infrastructure and reservoir storage are to be expanded and improved. 35 Some rainwater capture projects funded by the United Kingdom and the UN Development Program are also ongoing and have demonstrated the usefulness of dam construction in the North West Frontier Province. 36 They provide a model for cost effective reservoir construction that will be critical to Pakistan s overall water strategy.

7 Peterson 6 Although Pakistan now clearly has the will to succeed, it remains to be seen whether it will have the time and resources to correct its severe water problems. Questions. What is the status of the National Water Policy? How is Pakistan resourcing its Vision 2025 implementation? How is work proceeding on the plan s projects? What are the prospects for success? What are the significant public-private partnerships and outside investments in the plan? What are the major obstacles to be overcome? Scarcity and Poor Distribution. Pakistan already has a severe water deficit million acre feet (MAF) in 2000 projected to be 108 MAF in Aquifer depletion is occurring at an alarming rate. For example, at present depletion rates in Balochistan aquifer exhaustion will occur within 20 years. 38 Yet, even in the face of such daunting problems there are still political obstacles to taking necessary corrective actions. For example, a reservoir project in the Punjab is meeting resistance from residents in Sind who are suspicious that it will result in a reduction of water flows from Punjab into their province. 39 The Pakistani government must overcome these political problems, complete critical projects and promote rainwater capture and storage nationwide if there is to be any hope of producing a sustainable water system. Questions. What is the status of new reservoir projects on the Indus and throughout Pakistan? How are rainwater harvesting initiatives proceeding? What is being done to recharge ground water reserves? How are agricultural practices being adjusted to reduce demand? How will the government handle inter-provincial water conflict? What are the legal regimes to do so? Unsustainable Consumption/Economic Inefficiency and Waste. Pakistan s population growth represents a monumental challenge. It will be difficult to increase capacity quickly, so Pakistan must work to promote conservation, increase efficiency, and reduce waste in the near term. Opportunities to do so exist in both the irrigation and consumer distribution systems. It is estimated that the irrigation system loses 52% to seepage 40 while the consumer distribution system wastes 30% in leakage. 41 Pakistan s urban water systems are virtually ineffective and economically viable only with government subsidies. For example, in Karachi, residents install

8 Peterson 7 illegal pumps to siphon water from the lines that otherwise do not work due to insufficient capacity. There are known to be 1.2 million water consumers; yet only 750,000 are billed and only 163,000 actually pay. 42 Clearly, waste, inefficiency, and economic challenges must be addressed if Pakistan is to succeed in meeting its population s growing water needs. Questions. How is the government funding its efforts to prevent irrigation and urban water system distribution losses? What types of water conservation programs are being pursued? What market mechanisms are being used to promote efficient allocation and conservation? How will the government increase capacity and ensure funds for system maintenance and operation? Pollution. Water pollution is rampant due to untreated wastewater from both municipal and industrial sources. 43 Contamination from agricultural practices also occurs. As a result, twenty-five percent of all hospital treatments in Pakistan are due to water related illness. 44 As aquifers are depleted, contamination of ground water through salt-water incursion is also a growing problem. Underlying each of these problems is a lack of effective government enforcement. Correcting these problems will require the establishment of law and policies, monitoring to verify compliance, and organizations and mechanisms for enforcement. Questions. Are pollution control laws being drafted? What monitoring and enforcement mechanisms will be put in place? Can ground water reserves still be salvaged? Management and Enforcement Infrastructure. Currently, Pakistan lacks a national water law making it impossible to effectively manage the water system. 45 The government recognizes the need to create adequate structures for planning, monitoring, and enforcement and is working to lay the groundwork for effective stakeholder participation at all levels. Questions. What efforts are planned to change the way water management is administered. To what extent will stakeholder participation be incorporated in revised management structures? What are the current means of collecting data about the state of the water system? Describe any planned changes? How does the government use the data it collects? What types of enforcement mechanisms are contemplated?

9 Peterson 8 Cross Border Water Issues The South Asian countries borders cross water basins making water issues international. There are current concerns; however, the relationships remain stable despite tensions in other areas. India Pakistan. After Partition, India disrupted water flows to Pakistan. Conflict persisted until, with the help of the World Bank, The Indus Water Treaty was signed in September The treaty gives Pakistan access to the flows of the Western tributaries of the Indus River while allowing India use of the Eastern tributaries. Under this treaty, India provides water flows to Pakistan and advises them of potential drought or flood events. The treaty has remained effective even during each India-Pakistan war. 46 However, Indian officials did threaten interruption over Kashmir terror incidents in Negotiation over water issues continues periodically. In January 2004, talks addressing Pakistani concerns over the Indian Baglihar dam project on the Chenab River in Kashmir ended inconclusively. 48 Pakistan believes this project may effect irrigation flows in the Eastern Punjab and India believes it consistent with the treaty. Questions. What further Baglihar negotiations are planned? Are there other cross border issues of concern at this time? What redress to violations does each party have under the treaty? Why do you believe the treaty has been effective even during open war between your countries? India Bangladesh. After decades of conflict over the sharing of waters from the Ganges River, India and Bangladesh signed a 30-year water sharing agreement in This is a significant milestone in water management cooperation. Although successful thus far, the agreement has not eliminated all concerns. Bangladesh has expressed concern over India s intended water redistribution projects involving other rivers affecting their water supply. Questions. What is the status of negotiations over the Teesta and other rivers providing water flows from India to Bangladesh? 50 What are the prospects for resolution in the near term? India-Nepal-Bhutan-China. There is little public discussion of significant cross border issues with these nations at this time. Can you describe any current issues there may be?

10 Peterson 9 NOTES 1. The second through seventh items in this list are adapted from Steven W. Peterson, Water in China: Challenges and Responses, Course 5656 Paper, National War College, National Defense University, Washington, D.C., Each of these elements is addressed in the discussion below; however, funding shortages is not handled separately. Instead, funding questions are incorporated in the other subject areas. 3. Vikas Chaudharry, Gunnar Jacks, and Jan-Erik Gustafsson, An Analysis of Groundwater Vulnerability and Water Policy Reform in India, Environmental Management and Health, Volume 13, Issue 2/3, p. 175 <ProQuest ISSN: > (21 February 2004). 4. The summary of water conditions in India given in this paragraph is derived closely from Ramaswamy R. Iyer s book, Water Perspectives, Issues, Concerns, pp Mr. Iyer is a former head of the Indian Ministry of Water Resources Development and Management. 5. The Indian Constitution divides responsibilities between the State and Centre (national) governments. State jurisdiction is on the State List. Center Jurisdiction is on the Union List. Shared jurisdiction is on the Concurrent List. 6. This dispute dates from the 19th century. It was the subject of violence in 1991 and 2003 and has been a subject of Supreme Court action as recently as 1996 when the Court dictated that the upstream state, Karnataka, release water for use by the downstream state, Tamil Nadu. This court order is still not fully enforced. (Iyer, pp and Boiling Point, by Charles Haviland in Geographical, March 2003, Volume 75, Issue 3, p. 20.) 7. Iyer, p Iyer, p Fred Pearce, Conflict Looms over India s River Plan, New Scientist, 3/1/2003, Volume 177, Issue 2384, pp.4-5, < 10. Never Thirsty Again, Economist, 5/31/2003, Volume 367, Issue 8326, p. 42, < Academic Search Elite, Pearce, pp Pearce, pp Pearce, pp Aradhana Parmer, Health and Clean Water: Rainwater Retention Helps Green Rajasthan, Women and Environments International Magazine, Fall 2003, Issue 60/61, pp , <

11 Peterson Asia: Nor Any Drop to Drink; Water in India, The Economist, Volume 364, Issue 8287, Aug 24, 2002, <Proquest ISSN: >, pp Patralekha Chatterjee, South Asia s Thirsty Cities Search for Solutions, The Lancet, June 8, 2002, London, <ProQuest, ISSN: >, p Chatterjee, p Chatterjee, p Chaudharry et al., p Ganapati, Mudur, India s Burden of Waterborne Diseases is Underestimated, British Medical Journal, International Editions, Volume 326, Issue 7402, p. 1284, <Proquest ISSN: >. 21. Chatterjee, p Chatterjee, p Chaudharry et al., p Chaudharry et al., p Chaudharry et al., p Asia: Nor Any Drop to Drink; Water in India, The Economist, Volume 364, Issue 8287, Aug 24, 2002, <Proquest ISSN: >, pp Undala Z. Alam, Questioning the Water Wars Rationale: A Case Study of the Indus Waters Treaty, The Geographical Journal, London, December 2002, Volume 168, Part 4, pp Pakistan s Water Resources: Problems and Remedies, Economic Review (Pakistan), Jul 2002, Vol. 33 Issue 7, p Pakistan s Water Resources: Problems and Remedies, p Pakistan s Water Resources: Problems and Remedies, p Current Situation of Water in Pakistan, Economic Review (Pakistan), Oct 2003, Volume 34, Issue 10, p Current Situation of Water in Pakistan, p This discussion of the completion of the Terbala Reservoir and comparison to Turkey and India reservoir construction is from Pakistan s Water Resources: Problems and Remedies, p. 18.

12 Peterson Current Situation of Water in Pakistan, p Current Situation of Water in Pakistan, p Rina Saeed Khan, The Quest for Water in Pakistan, Choices, New York, Volume 11, Number 3, September 2003, <Wilson Web, WN: >, pp Pakistan s Water Resources: Problems and Remedies, p Current Situation of Water in Pakistan, p Erik Eckholm, A Province is Dying of Thirst and Cries Robbery, New York Times, March 17, 2003, <ProQuest, AN: >, p. A Pakistan s Water Resources: Problems and Remedies, p Chatterjee, p Ehsan Masood, Thirsty in Karachi, New Scientist, 3/2/2002, Volume 123, Issue 2332, p. 43, < 43. Current Situation of Water in Pakistan, p Chatterjee, p Current Situation of Water in Pakistan, p The discussion of the Water Treaty in this paragraph is derived from Undala Z. Alam, Questioning the Water Wars Rationale: A Case Study of the Indus Waters Treaty, The Geographical Journal, London, December 2002, Volume 168, Part 4, pp and Pakistan s Water Resources: Problems and Remedies, p Fred Pearce, Water War, New Scientist, 5/18/2002, Volume 174, Issue 2343, p. 18, < 48. Sadaqat Jan, Pakistan, India Talks on Controversial Dam End With No Apparent Results, International CustomWire, 01/18/2004 (EBSCO Host, AN: CX W3873), 8 March Sanjoy Hazarika, Sharing the Giants, UNESCO Courier, October 2001, Volume 54, Issue 10, p < 50. Iyer, pp

13 Peterson 12 BIBLIOGRAPHY Alam, Undala Z. Questioning the Water Wars Rationale: A Case Study of the Indus Waters Treaty. The Geographical Journal. London. December Volume 168. Part <ProQuest, ISSN: > (21 February 2004). Asia: Nor Any Drop to Drink; Water in India. The Economist. Aug 24, Volume 364. Issue <Proquest ISSN: > (21 Feb 2004). Chatterjee, Patralekha. South Asia s Thirsty Cities Search for Solutions, The Lancet. June 8, London. P <ProQuest, ISSN: > (21 February 2004). Chaudharry, Vikas et al. An Analysis of Groundwater Vulnerability and Water Policy Reform in India. Environmental Management and Health Volume 13. Issue 2/ <ProQuest ISSN: > (21 February 2004). Current Situation of Water in Pakistan. Economic Review (Pakistan). Oct Volume 34. Issue <EBSCO Host, AN > (8 March 2004). Eckholm, Erik. A Province is Dying of Thirst and Cries Robbery. New York Times. March 17, A4. <ProQuest, AN: > (21 February 2004). Haviland, Charles. Boiling Point. Geographical. March Volume 75. Issue < (21 Feb 2004). Hazarika, Sanjoy. Sharing the Giants. UNESCO Courier. October Volume 54. Issue < (21 February 2004). Iyer, Ramaswamy R. Water Perspectives, Issues, Concerns. New Delhi: Sage Publications, Jan, Sadaqat. Pakistan, India Talks on Controversial Dam End With No Apparent Results. International CustomWire. 18 January 2004 <EBSCO Host, AN: CX W3873> (8 March 2004). Khan, Rina Saeed. The Quest for Water in Pakistan. Choices. New York. September Volume 11. Number <Wilson Web, WN: > (21 February 2004). Masood, Ehsan. Thirsty in Karachi. New Scientist. 2 March Volume 123. Issue , < (21 February 2004). Mudur, Ganapati. India s Burden of Waterborne Diseases is Underestimated. British Medical Journal. International Editions. June 14, Volume 326. Issue <Proquest ISSN: > (21 February 2004).

14 Peterson 13 Never Thirsty Again. Economist. 31 May Volume 367. Issue < Academic Search Elite, (21 February 2004). Pakistan s Water Resources: Problems and Remedies. Economic Review (Pakistan). July Volume 33. Issue <EBSCO Host, AN > (8 March 2004). Parmer, Aradhana. Health and Clean Water: Rainwater Retention Helps Green Rajasthan. Women and Environments International Magazine. Fall Issue 60/ < (21 Feb 2004). Pearce, Fred. Conflict Looms over India s River Plan. New Scientist. 1 March Volume 177. Issue < 6&db=afh>. (21 Feb 2004).. Water War. New Scientist. 18 May Volume 174. Issue < (21 February 2004). Peterson, Steven W. Water in China: Challenges and Responses. Course 5656 Paper. National War College. National Defense University. Washington, D.C., 2003.