CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Transcription

1 188 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1 INTRODUCTION In the last two chapters, the discussion was around two related themes of the study, namely, water supply including willingness to pay and affordability to pay and sanitation, hygiene and health in the city of Chennai. While the fifth chapter dealt with the factors of water supply, sanitation and health in a descriptive manner, the sixth spoke of the same variables in analytical terms. However, the analysis in the chapter was both about water supply, willingness to pay and affordability to pay as well as sanitation, hygiene and health using factor analysis. Whereas 15 variables were entered in the first analysis of water supply and allied aspects, 16 variables were entered in the second analysis. A 5-factor matrix for water supply and a 4- factor matrix for sanitation, hygiene and health were retained from the analyses to understand the nature of the two even as they were assumed as an intricately related components. In this chapter, the purpose is to quickly summarize the thesis by the chapters commissioned and then capsulate the findings and conclusions from the study, especially from the core chapters (Chapters 5 and 6). Recommendations to improve water supply, sanitation, hygiene and health as well as suggestions for further research are given in the chapter.

2 SUMMARY The thesis was organized in to seven chapters, reflecting the progression of research objectives. The first chapter is introductory and deals with a general description of water resources, need for the study, the objectives formulated and the limitations. A review of literature on the water sources, supply, willingness to pay and affordability to pay, contingency valuation method, sanitation, hygiene and health problems is made in the second chapter. The third chapter deals with a description of the study area, which incorporates the description of the city zones and wards and the characteristics of the north and south Chennai. The research methodology adopted for the research is presented in the fourth chapter, which focused on the selection of respondents, sampling framework, sources and tools of data collection, components of interview questionnaires, and data analysis through the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and GIS. The fifth chapter presents the simple frequency and percentage analysis (one-way and twoway) of data and interpretation of the results on the north and south Chennai as well as present sources of water supply, water distribution, water requirements, water connections, access to consumers, infrastructures in water main length ratio, water pipe street ratio, and domestic water uses in the households of Chennai city. Furthermore, the sixth chapter is a comparative analysis of water supply, related factors, WTP and ATP on the one hand and sanitation facilities, hygiene and health problems, and indoor and outdoor risk factors on the other. The last chapter is the conclusion and it offers recommendations and suggestions for further studies. Implications of the study are also presented in the seventh chapter. The general objective of the study is to examine people s attitudes with regard to their willingness to pay and also affordability to pay for water

3 190 and sanitation, hygiene and health problems in the city of Chennai. However, the specific objectives of the study are: To examine the patterns of water sources, supply, access to consumer, connections in Chennai city and infrastructures; To estimate the quantity of water supplied, access to water and quantity of water for multiple uses in the study area; To analyze the Willingness to Pay (WTP) and Affordability to Pay (ATP) for water supply among the people of Chennai; and To examine and analyze sanitation, hygiene, illnesses, indoor and outdoor risk factors for health in the study area so as to make recommendations and suggestions for overcoming them. The area selected for the study is Chennai city, one of the major metropolitan centres and the fourth largest in India. It lies between N to N latitudes and E to E longitudes and covers a total area of km. 2 Chennai city consists of 10 Corporation Zones and 155 Wards. Chennai is one of the metropolises in India with chronic water problems which is dependent mostly on both groundwater supply and surface water received from the nearest to city catchments. Groundwater in Chennai is replenished by rainwater and the average rainfall in Chennai is 1,276 mm. - cite_note-0#cite_note-0 Chennai receives about 985 million litres per day (lpd) from various sources against the required amount 1,200 (mld). Its surface water supplies which are received from Krishna river, Veeranam Lake, Poondi Reservoir, and Red Hills Lake are treated with water treatment plants located at different places. Chennai Metrowater is responsible for collection, storage, treatment and distribution of water in Chennai city and its peri-urban areas. In an effort to

4 191 alleviate the woes of Chennaiites, Tamil Nadu Government has forged into projects to acquire freshwater by desalinating sea water. Water supply and sanitation require a huge amount of capital investment in infrastructure such as pipe networks, pumping stations and water treatment works. International attention has focused upon the needs of Chennai to meet the Millenium Development Goal target of halving the proportion of the population lacking access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015.Current annual investment is in the order of USD 10 to USD 15 billion would need to be roughly doubled. This does not include investments required for the maintenance of existing infrastructure. Once infrastructure is in place, operating water supply and sanitation systems entails significant recurring costs to cover personnel, energy, chemicals, maintenance and other expenses. The sources of money to meet these capital and operational costs are essentially either user fees, public funds or some combination of the two. But this is where the economics of water management has started to become extremely complex as they intersect with social and broader economic policy. Chennai consumers are willing to pay a higher price for water than the tariffs charged. How much higher depends however on how much water is being used by them. People are willing to pay very high prices for basic minimum water requirements to ensure the survival of their households. Willingness to pay diminishes rapidly with non-essential levels of water use, though; therefore, the relationship between WTP and water use can be shown by a downward sloping demand curve. Contingent Valuation Method has increasingly been advocated by economists and sector specialists as a useful tool for gathering reasonably accurate data about how much a household can afford and is willing to pay for

5 192 particular water and sanitation options presented to them. It is used in this study as well. A third of the Chennai households are willing to pay and they can afford to pay as well, going by their monthly income as well actual amount paid for water from the Metro Water and from the private suppliers of bottled and tanker waters. Chennai study area is divided into both North and South Zone for the purpose of the present study. However, only select city Zones are covered in the study: for North Chennai, Tondiarpet and Pulianthope Zones are selected and for South Chennai, Adyar and Saidapet Zones are chosen. Tondiarpet zone and Pulianthope zone are divided into 4 wards for administrative purposes. Similarly, Saidapet zone and Adyar zone are divided into 4 wards. With respect to time and resource constraints, it is decided to conduct a field study in Chennai city. A questionnaire survey is done with 319 households, with each of the wards contributing to 21 sample households each. The surveyed population was pre-classified into three groups, namely, high, medium and low income classes, based on guideline values of land in the select 8 wards. Income level is thus fixed based on land value of the residences in Chennai city. 7.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS There are certain research questions, both simple and complex, formulated for the present study. They are given below. What and where are the sources of water supply and water distributors? What are the water related problems? What is total quantity of water supplied?

6 193 Do Chennai households take any effort and time for bringing freshwater from a nearby source? Are they willing to pay? Could theyafford to pay for water? What are the types of sanitation facility? How often do people of Chennai wash their hands before and after preparing and eating food? How often do they wash their hands after use of the toilets? What are the water and sanitation related diseases and how do they seek health and medical care for such diseases? What are the main risks, indoor and outdoor? 7.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study uses primary data. The data have been collected using a structured questionnaire. A stratified sampling technique has been employed, for the first stage. The random sampling technique has been used for the second stage. About 320 households have been sampled from both the areas. The land values are divided into three levels: that is, High, Moderate and Low land values. Depending on the land values, the questionnaire survey samples chosen for the study are 106, 106 and 108, respectively. The collected data have then been analysed using appropriate computer assisted and analytical procedures and using SPSS and Arc GIS software. Primary data collected through questionnaire survey have been coded, tabulated and analysed using SPSS package. The analysed data have then been presented with the help of a series of maps, tables and graphs using digital cartographic techniques. The analysis has been done to assess the different source of domestic water, water access and Willingness to pay.

7 194 Descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution tables, mean and standard deviation have been computed and analyzed to interpret the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. Common factor analysis has also been used to establish relationships between Willingness to Pay and Affordability to Pay factor. 7.5 WATER SUPPLY, WTP, ATP AND SANITATION AND HEALTH The average annual rainfall for Tamil Nadu is 1,005 mm. Groundwater is the major source of water for most of the government drinking water supply schemes in Tamil Nadu. Approximately 90 percent of the rural population and 70 percent of the urban population rely on groundwater for their drinking water supply. The water table has been rapidly declining in Tamil Nadu because of the continuous monsoon failure, overexploitation and deforestation. Additionally, rainfall is the only source of recharge for groundwater. Direct rainfall accounts for 10 to 25 percent of the total recharge. The balance is augmented through a network of traditional rainfall catchment (for example, tanks, ooranis, eris and kanmais). The declining water table indicates that many traditional catchments have been degraded and their holding capacities reduced through siltation, encroachment and conversion of structures for other uses (GOTN 2001). Agarwal and Narain (1999) indicate that two major changes are responsible for the decline of the traditional systems in India: 1. The State has become the major provider replacing communities and households as the primary units for provision and management of water; and 2. There has been growing reliance on the use of surface and groundwater, while earlier reliance on rainwater and floodwater

8 195 has declined, even though rainwater and floodwater are available in much greater abundance then river water or groundwater. 7.6 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS The following are the findings and conclusions from the study: Different sources of drinking water, cooking water, bathing water, and washing water are in use in the city of Chennai. The Metro Water source is mainly used as the drinking water source by the low income group of people. The high and middle income groups of people use mineral water for drinking purposes. The Metro Water is also the main source for cooking, for all the income groups. Most low income people use the Metro Water for the purpose of washing, although sometimes high and medium income groups also use the same source in moderate quantities for washing. Bore well is used by the high and medium income groups. Rest of the people in low and high income groups get their water from hand pumps, at 80.6 percent and 67.6 percent, respectively. Chennai Metro Water sources are a dominant domestic sources of water, the usage of metro water is fulfilling the needs of people in drinking water, cooking water, bathing water and washing water. The bubble can water use for drinking purposes is spread equally in both the zones. Tanker water is supplied only in the northern zone. Bore well water is used for bathing and washing. The accessibility to water in the study area is satisfied through pipe lines, hand pumps, and tanker supplies. The hand pump is

9 196 dominating in both the zones, next to that is pipe line. The tanker and hand pump is accessible only in north zones. Willingness to pay is comparatively high in the southern zone than in the northern zone. Affordability to pay is also high in the southern zone when compared with the northern zone. This is consistent with the higher percapita income of the southern zone and uniform scarcity of water throughout Chennai city. Being in a similar situation, the comparatively richer southern zone people are willing to pay more as their affordability to pay is also better. Economic, social and attitude factors have been identified as the dominant factors controlling people s WTP for the private water. Currently, 34 percent of the surveyed population of North Chennai and 17 percent of South Chennai are WTP and it is affordable for them to pay. Even though 96 percent of the sample surveyed is satisfied with the quantity water supplied by the Metro Water, they are WTP for better quantity of water as they are doing the same now by way of buying drinking water from tanker water. The quantity of water supplied by the Metro Water is insufficient and hence 25 percent of the population is willing to pay for improved quantity of water. There are different types of facilities, for example, types of latrine, sanitation cleaning, and sewage system. The analysis shows that a majority of the high income households use both the Indian and the Western toilets and some of them only the

10 197 Indian type while some others use the Western type alone. The medium income group has the Indian type of toilets to the maximum. Low income group also uses, to a maximum, the Indian type of toilets. A few of them however use public toilets. Sanitation cleaning is done on alternate days by the high income group. About 50 percent of the medium income group cleans the toilets once a week. In the low income group, 43.5 percent cleans them once a week and about 36 percent are not cleaning their toilets at all. The high and medium income groups are served with 100 percent sewage pipe line connections, whereas only 63 percent of the low income group people have sewage connections at all. The rest of the 37 percent does not have any sewage pipe line connections. In general, personal hygiene is an essential habit for all. About 78 percent of the high income group people wash their hands with soap before and after food. Further, 85.2 percent and 75.9 percent of the middle income and low income groups, respectively, wash their hands with plain water. Only 24.1 percent of the low income group people rarely wash their hands before food. A majority of 85.4 percent of the high income group people wash their hands with soap after using the toilets. In the middle income group, however, 78.7 percent of people use water while the rest wash with soap. All the low income group people, that is, 100 percent of them, wash hands with plain water after using toilets. Due to several reasons, health problems of the city are on the increase: 86.4 percent of the high income group of people are not affected much by water related health problems. In both the middle and low income groups, the experience is half and half:

11 198 that is, half the people face health problems while the other half enjoys a healthy life. The middle and low income groups of people report of illnesses such as fever, cold, headache and vomiting due to water related problems. Chikengunya, typhoid and diarrhea are the common afflictions of the low income group. Domestic cleanliness is significant in this case. In the high income group, 32 percent of the respondent households have not answered about their cleanliness. The percentage levels for the unsafe drinking water in all the three groups are 32 percent, 39 percent and 46.3 percent, respectively. Domestic cleanliness is a significant factor also in other groups as well. In all the income groups, however, 50 percent of the people have not answered about their cleanliness. Because of the pollutants, the outdoor risk creates health problems for 34 percent, 22.2 percent and 16.7 percent of the three groups of people, respectively. Inadequate sewage disposal is the highest risk of the middle income group. The risk factor is high in the low income group because of the mosquitoes. The analysis shows that in all the three groups, 27.2 percent, 38 percent and 49.1 percent of them, respectively, have not answered about the outdoor risk factors. Except for the domestic water, drinking water is supplied by tankers, water supply to Chennai is controlled by the Metro Water (High income group uses bottled water and private water supply, whereas the middle income group with low pressure hand-pumped water. Low income group depends on metro hand pumps installed on the streets). Hence, improvement in the

12 199 present situation mainly depends on the policy decision of the Metro Water Board. The study, conducted in the select urban areas of Chennai city, has shown significantly high incidence of water and sanitation related diseases in low income groups. The environmental problems in low income groups are aggravated due to a number of factors such as their location at environmentally unsafe sites (near polluted water ways), lack of no sewerage and sanitation in the communities, poor personal hygiene due to low availability of water, poverty and lack of education. Although the solutions for health problems may lie in a multisectoral approach, achievements including overall socioeconomic development of the nation, provision of safe and adequate water and sanitary facilities for the low income groups and effective wastewater management are among the major issues and immediate concerns for reducing the burden of such diseases and consequent impediments. Water is received from different sources such as the Metro Water and private sources (can water, bore well water and lorry tanker water). Metro water has high percentage of usage in the north of Chennai (37.7 per cent) and also south of Chennai (34 per cent). In most households, water sources are indeed a combination of both public and private sources. Water is received from different sources such as the Metro water and private sources (can water, bore well water and lorry tanker water). Metro water has high percentage of usage in North

13 200 Chennai (37.7 per cent) and also South Chennai (34 per cent). In most households, water sources are indeed a combination of both the public and the private sources. Hand pumps are a major type of water supply in both North and South Chennai with 54.7 per cent and 49.4 per cent of the households depending on them, respectively. The second most important means of water supply is the pipe or the tap, with 24.5 per cent of the households in north Chennai and almost double the number (48.8 per cent) of households in south Chennai being supplied through pipes and taps. Trucks are a very expensive means of water supply but in the absence of adequate infrastructure, pipelines and hand pumps or bore wells, they are reliable when considering time and quantity of supply of metro water. Every household that uses metro water pays a cost for the water they use. It is a common fee, a water tax, at Rs. 100 a month. This is however collected in half-yearly payments by the households. The survey of North Chennai (159) and South Chennai (160) households for the study has shown that (a) the minimum of the total quantity of water consumed by a North Chennai household is 65 lpd while the maximum is 390 lpd. Thus, there is wide variation in the midst of North Chennai households. As for South Chennai households are concerned, (b) the corresponding figures are 59 lpd and 559 lpd, with a ten-times difference between the minimum and the maximum of total water consumption. The range is dramatically larger in South Chennai when compared to North Chennai.

14 201 The average quantum of water consumed by North Chennai households is 166 lpd with a standard deviation of 59.9 and a variance of (Figure 5.21(a)). The average of total water consumed by South Chennai households is 187 lpd with a standard deviation of 78.7 and a variance of (Figure 5.21 (b)). There is thus a distinct and significant difference between North Chennai and the South Chennai households with regard to total consumption of water. The average consumption for the city of Chennai as a whole is 13.2 lpd for drinking water, 17.1 lpd for cooking water, 60.4 lpd for bathing water and 86 lpd for washing water. The standard deviations for the four different types of consumption for the whole city, as deduced from the survey, are 5.7, 7.4, 34.4 and 39.3, respectively, for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing waters. Economic, social and attitudinal factors have been identified as the dominant factors controlling people s WTP for private water. Currently 62 per cent of South Chennai households and 42 per cent of the North Chennai households are WTP and it is affordable for them to pay. Eventhough 96 per cent of the sample are satisfied with the quantity of water supplied by the Metro Water and they are WTP for better quantity and quality of water as they are currently buying the drinking water from the bottled water and lorry tanker sector.

15 202 The quantity of water supplied by Metro water is insufficient and hence 25 per cent of the population is willing to pay for improved quantity water. Except for the bottled water and the drinking water supplied by tankers, the time of water supply is controlled by metro water (high income group uses bottled water and private water supply whereas middle income group uses hand pumps. Low income group depends on metro hand pumps on the street). Hence, any improvement in the present situation depends on the policy decision of the Metro Water Board. One of the observations of the scholar is that most such toilets, bathrooms and drains, and even those of the high and medium income households, need thorough cleaning. The one excuse people give is that there is not enough water to do so or not enough time to do so. A large majority of the high income households (85.4 per cent) uses soap for hand wash after toilet use, while an equally large majority of the middle income households (78.7 per cent) uses only water for hand wash after toilet use. All of the low income households cannot afford the use of soap for hand wash after toilet use, even if that is exactly required to be clean and hygienic after the activity. It is therefore evident that middle and low income households suffer from various diseases in slightly higher proportions than the high income households. A majority of 52.4 per cent of the high income households, 45.4 per cent of the middle income households and 46.3 per cent of

16 203 the low income households have indicated their ideas of indoor risk factors for health. A good majority of the three income groups 72.9 per cent of the high income, 61.9 per cent of the middle income and 51 per cent of the low income people perceive these as the outdoor risk factors for sanitation and health of the city of Chennai. 7.7 RECOMMENDATIONS Sanitary Infrastructures:Public and Pay and Use Toilets Public toilets in most places are either absent or awfully inadequate for the people of the city and the floating population. Sanitary infrastructure must be constructed in a way that no individual is left unserved, because the absence of such public toilets, of size, number and quality required by them, puts the people in a health jeopardy. Whereas the institutions such as bus stands, railway stations, schools, colleges, universities, hospitals and primary health centres and government institutions do have sanitary infrastructures in place, they are first of all never properly maintained; they are often overused because the number of people using them is always far higher than the number for which they have been put in place. It is often a sad commentary on the sanitation and health of the people of the city that the hospitals breed diseases and infections are omnipresent instead of preventing such things from happening. It is important to provide free access to public toilets for the floating population and also the people on the streets of the city at any given time. In the absence of free public toilets, pay and use toilets may be provided for these population at a price affordable to them.

17 204 It is common knowledge that toilet maintenance is conspicuously absent because no money is allocated for maintenance of such infrastructures. Where there is some allocation, it is never adequate nor is useful in maintaining them. Water supply to public toilets is often not provided or is inadequate. In some places, the two toilets and the water supply are not found together at all. Unless water supply for public utilities such as these is provided, sanitary cleaning by flushing or by washing will always suffer. There is of course need for the sanitation and health agencies of the State Government and the City Corporation to create awareness among the people about the need for cleanliness. School and NGO based programmes for such awareness may be supported to achieve total sanitation on a war footing. There should also be a total elimination of open defecation in any city neighbourhoods and such practices must be discouraged first and then severely dealt with. Banning of open defecation must accompany the provision of adequate sanitary facilities in the city. There should be staff with responsibility for total sanitation and complete enforcement of laws against open defecation. Attitudinal changes have to be brought about among the poor and marginal population of the city, particularly the slum population and the city fringe areas. Such communities as are those practising open defecation may be identified for special education and awareness campaigns for total sanitation. Most importantly, lip service to such efforts must be avoided and genuine efforts must be made to accomplish total sanitation, in total Closed and Well Maintained Sewer Drains All city areas, irrespective of their current status, must be provided with a complete network of closed sewer drains which end at the sewage water and wastewater treatment plants. While sewer drains, mains and branches, are meticulously planned and executed, care must be taken to cover every city neighbourhood. Again, once provided for, there must be proper and

18 205 concerted efforts at maintenance. Adequate funds for maintenance must be provided for in the Corporation s city budgets and plans. The major thing that must be borne in mind by the city planners, policy makers and implementers, is that no drain is used for the disposal of human wastes just as it is being done now. However, separate efforts may be made in the provisioning for human waste disposals, finding alternatives for septic tanks and public sewage drains Sewage and Wastewater Treatment Plants The city has 6 sewage and wastewater treatment plants which are very inadequate for the city, considering the quantum of sewage and wastewater generated by the current population. There is also the complaint that they are not properly managed and maintained such that they breakdown. It would be ideal to make an estimate of the current quantum of sewage and wastewater as well as project the same for future years mainly for 2020, 2030, 2040 and 2050 and work towards meeting the future needs for treatment and in better ways than presently being done. There are costeffective and better models of treatment plants and technologies that it should be possible for the City Government and the State Government to embark on a properly planned project for execution. The PPP model may also be attempted in creating future sewage and wastewater treatment plants. 7.8 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH There are some suggestions that emerge from the study for future and for enhancing the value of research in practice. Some them are presented here for consideration by the researchers who wish to study city water supplies, sanitation and health.

19 206 A more extensive, contingency valuation based study is in order to understand the widespread prevalence of willingness to pay for water, even when affordability to pay for water is not widespread. In the latter case, the suggested study may focus on how best it is to subsidize water for sanitary cleaning, for the poor and the marginalized people of the city. A contingency evaluation based study on paying for and maintaining water supply and sanitary infrastructure for the city may be conducted on the lines similar to the present study, exploring various possibilities for public-private participation as well as making such a participation a reality. A qualitative, narrative methodology may be used in such a study even as the research is made blending the qualitative with the quantitative. A separate study on hygiene - personal, food and sanitary may be attempted in a megacity or metropolitan city context such that the positive and the negative of hygiene behaviours may be explored and explained. A hygienic behaviour model may be developed such that it could be replicated in several cities to be of greater use in hygiene behaviour construction.