C S H M PREPARATION GUIDE

Transcription

1 C S H M PREPARATION GUIDE VOLUME 1 Area I General Business and Management Section E: Organization Structure Study Notes, Questions and Answer Key Prepared by Steven J. Geigle, M.A., CSHM Published by OSHA Training Network

2 The information in this preparation guide has been compiled from texts recommended by ISHM for study, and represents the best current information on the various subjects. No guarantee, warranty of other representation is made as to the absolute correctness or sufficiency of any information contained in this preparation guide. OSHA Training Network assumes no responsibility in connection therewith; nor can it be assumed that all acceptable safety measures are contained in the preparation guide or that other or additional measures may not be required under particular or exceptional circumstances. As this preparation guide will continue to be updated and revised on a periodic basis, contributions and comments from readers are invited. Additional volumes to this preparation guide will be produced and made available in the future. Disclaimer: OSHA Training Network (OTN) cannot warrant that the use of this preparation guide will result in certification from the Institute for Safety and Health Management (ISHM). While the content is representative of the knowledge required of a safety and health manager, the successful completion of the CSHM examination is depends on many factors including the applicant's academic background, safety management experience and individual study for the examination. This information is for educational purposes only and does not replace any regulations promulgated by state of federal government agencies.

3 SECTION I E: ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE THE EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT Management is literally as old as the Pyramids. These colossal projects required thousands of workers spanning decades to complete. Just like then, nothing in business gets done without sound management. Management theory through the years may be grouped into four general approaches or perspectives: The Structural Perspective. Management schools within this perspective emphasize improving management function by designing effective organizational structures and process. The Behavioral Perspective. This perspective includes management schools that rely on human relations, group dynamics and leadership solutions to improve management. The Quantitative Perspective. The quantitative approach to management includes the application of statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations. The Integrative Perspective. The natural evolution of management theory resulted in an approach that integrates both the structural and human relations perspectives. The Structural Approach to Management Prior to 1900, organizational theory emphasized the division of labor and the importance of machinery to facilitate labor. Not much thought was given to management as most organizations of the time employed the authoritarian military and Roman Catholic Church management models. Adam Smith. In 1776, Adam Smith published An Inquiry into the Nature and Cause of the Wealth of Nations, that included an examination of the concept of division of labor in a pin manufacturing firm. According to Smith, "The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which it is anywhere directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour." With the introduction of the industrial revolution and the factory system from Great Britain after the Civil War, machine power began to rapidly replace human power in manufacturing and transportation. Scientific Management Fredrick W. Taylor. Frederick W. Taylor, considered the "Father of Scientific Management," developed a set of controversial management principles primarily as a result of his experience at the Midvale Steel Company in Philadelphia in the late 1800s. While there, he advanced through many positions, from gang boss to chief engineer. After the turn of the century, consulted with such companies as Bethlehem Steel, conducting the famous pig iron experiment that increased daily output of pig iron from 4 tons/day to 48 tons/day, and increased daily pay from $1.15/hr to $1.85/hr by improving work methods, prescribing rest each day, standardizing output, and establishing payment based on unit of output (piecework). Taylor also held patents for nearly 100 unique inventions and wrote two popular books: The Principles of Scientific Management and Shop Management. According to Taylor, the most important fact facing industry of the time was that most workers believed it was better to adopt a "go slow" work policy, rather than to go work fast. Workers believed that the introduction of labor-saving devices would result in making less work for less people in the various trades. Also, limiting the OSHA Training Network 1

4 wages of employees, no matter how productive they were, resulted in "soldiering," or the purposeful limitation of output. (Today, withholding positive reinforcement is called "extinction" and is a very common reason workers limit their productivity in the workplace.) To overcome these inefficiencies, Taylor believed management would have to take on new responsibilities that are the bedrock of his principles of scientific management. Taylor's Principles of Scientific Management 1. Time and motion studies. The first principle of scientific management is the deliberate gathering together of the great mass of job knowledge by the means of time and motion study. The idea is to turn the wealth of knowledge held by workers in the industry and the data gathered through job analysis into a set of policies, procedures, rules, and formulae to control work in a scientific "one best way" manner. The ideas expressed in this first principles have evolved into the fields of quality control and human engineering. 2. Selection. The second principle of scientific management is the scientific selection of the workers and then their progressive development. It's important to pre-screen workers to make sure they have the requisite skills to do the assigned work. Once they are hired, workers need to be effectively educated and trained in the "science approach" to work so that they are able to continually improve those skills. 3. Cooperation. The third principle of scientific management is the bringing together of this science and the trained worker, by offering better treatment and incentives to the worker. Incentives are power motivators. The only way to get workers to produce above minimum standards is to employ positive consequences. The ideas expressed in principles 2 and 3 have contributed to human resource management. 4. Division of labor. The fourth principle of scientific management involves a complete redivision of the work of the establishment, to bring about democracy and cooperation between the management and the workers. Management, as well as labor have a set of well-defined duties. Management must assume their proper role and make a commitment to fulfilling their responsibilities. If management falls down, labor may figuratively give them a "kick in the pants" for failing to provide resources. Worker complaints against management failures as well as management complaints about worker failures must be addressed and corrected. This principle speaks to idea of creating a "culture of accountability" for both labor and management. 5. The importance of Taylor's work to management theory is better understood when you consider that during the turn of the century the standard of living was generally low and production was very labor intensive. For instance, Midvale Steel may have a crew of twenty workers loading pig iron onto rail cars. Today, the entire daily tonnage of pig iron could probably be accomplished in a few hours by one or two workers and a lift truck. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Contemporaries of Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth developed and analyzed tasks to eliminate wasteful hand-and-body motions. For instance, by carefully analyzing work of bricklayer s Frank Gilbreth reduced the motions in the laying of brick from eighteen to four and one-half. Proper tool and equipment design to optimize work performance were also important to the Gilbreths. He also developed improvements to scaffold design and mortar. The Gilbreths were pioneers in the use of motion picture films to study hand-and-body motions. They devised a unique microchronometer to record time to 1/2,000 second in the field of study being photographed. This allowed the Gilbreths to catch motions missed by the naked eye and determine how long each work motion took to complete. They classified seventeen basic hand motions such as search, grasp, hold that they cleverly called therbligs (Gilbreth spelled backwards with the th transposed) to precisely analyze the exact elements of a worker s hand movements. The work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth achieved are more impressive when you realize that most multi-story buildings at that time were constructed of brick, and that the major cost of a plant was the cost of bricks and labor. OSHA Training Network 2

5 Henry Gantt. Gantt worked for Frederick Winslow Taylor and developed a control chart that is used to this day in production operations. The Gantt chart is considered by some to have been the forerunner of modem PERT (program evaluation and review technique) analysis. The Gantt chart is a visual display chart used for scheduling based on time, rather than quantity, volume or weight. Harrington Emerson. Harrington Emerson set forth twelve principles of efficiency that, in summary, state a manager should: 1. Define objectives 2. Use the scientific method of analysis 3. Develop and use standardized procedures 4. Reward employees for good work Many companies adopted the features of the Emerson Efficiency system, which included production routing procedures, standardized working conditions and tasks, time and motion studies, and a bonus plan which raised workers' wages as efficiency and productivity improved. Classical Management Theory While scientific management emphasized "microscopic" analysis of each employee and supervisor task to improve production, Henri Fayol and Chester I. Barnard developed a "macro" approach that focused on the general processes and functions of management and is considered today as the classical view of management theory. Henri Fayol. Fayol, a French manager and contemporary of Taylor wrote less well-known works that weren't available in English until Both Fayol and Taylor argued that principles existed that all organizations, in order to operate efficiently, should implement. Fayol, like Taylor asserted that there was "one best way" approach to management thinking, but unlike Taylor, he emphasized management as a process of getting things done through and with people operating in organized groups. Fayol's five processes are still relevant today as discussion points. 1. Forecast and plan - to examine the future and draw up plans of action 2. Organize - to build up the structure, material and human of the undertaking 3. Command - to maintain activity among personnel 4. Coordinate - to bind together, unify and harmonize activities and efforts 5. Control - to see that everything occurs in conformity with policy and practise To Fayol, the practice of management was a function very distinct from finance, production, distribution, and other business functions. Rather, management was a common activity in all organizations at work and home. He developed fourteen principles of management that he considered fundamental truths that should be understood and followed. Fayol s Fourteen Principles of Management 1. Division of Work. Division of work increases specialization that, in turn, increases output by making employees more efficient. Similar to Adam Smith s division of labor. 2. Authority. Ensure managers are able to effectively give orders. Authority gives them this right. Along with authority, however, goes accountability. Accountability follow authority. 3. Discipline. Effective discipline is the result of a clear understanding of the organization s rules, effective measurement, leadership, and careful administration of consequences. Employees must comply and respect the policies and rules that govern the organization. 4. Unity of Command. Ensure every employee receives orders from only one superior. 5. Unity of Direction. Make sure each unique function or activity is directed by one manager using one plan. OSHA Training Network 3

6 6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interests. Make sure everyone realizes and accepts the fact that the interests of the organization as a whole takes precedence over the interests of any one employee or group. (Sounds rather "Vulcan" to me ;-) 7. Remuneration. Make sure workers are paid a fair wage for their services. 8. Centralization. Describes the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. Centralized decision-making is limited to management. Decentralized decision-making is opened up to subordinates. The problem is one of proper proportion. The solution is finding the optimum degree of centralization for each situation. 9. Scalar Chain. The line of authority from top management to the employee represents the scalar chain. Make sure communications follows this chain. However, if following the chain creates delays, cross~communications (the "end run") is appropriate if agreed to by all parties and superiors are kept informed. 10. Order. Make sure people and materials should be in the right place at the right time. 11. Equity. Ensure managers are respectful and fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel. High employee turnover produces job insecurity and is inefficient. Make sure personnel manning is planned and that replacements are available to fill vacancies. 13. Initiative. Involve employees in originating and implementing plans so that they will place more value in work and exert higher levels of effort. 14. Esprit de Corps. Promote team spirit to build harmony and unity within the organization. Current management practice and theory today still reflect many of these principles. Actually, the functional view of the manager s job today should be though of as originating with Henri Fayol. Chester I. Barnard. Barnard s ideas, detailed in his 1938 text, The Functions of the Executive, have significantly influenced the management profession. Barnard believed that the most important function of management is to promote cooperative effort between management and labor to achieve the goals of the organization. He believed that cooperation depends on effective communication and on a balance between the contributions of each employee and the their subsequent rewards. Barnard's noteworthy contributions to management include: Recognition of organizations as social "organisms," subject to all the influences of the cultural environment. Awareness of the institutionalized/formal organizational authority. The influence of the informal organization within a formal organization. Bureaucracy Max Weber. Max Weber (pronounced Vay-ber), a German sociologist, described a prototype form of organization that emphasizes order, system, rationality, uniformity, and consistency an ideal organization - a bureaucracy. As a response to the abuses he saw going on within organizations, Weber attempted to formulate an ideal design model for organizations. Weber perceived the bureaucracy as a system characterized by division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations, and impersonal relationships that lead to the equitable treatment of all employees by management. His organizational model, not unlike scientific management in its ideology, has become the choice for almost all of today s large organizations. Weber s Ideal Bureaucracy 1. Division of Labor. Make sure jobs are simple, routine, and well defined. 2. Authority Hierarchy. Organize positions into a hierarchy, with each lower position controlled and supervised by the higher one. 3. Formal Selection. Select all employees on the basis of technical qualifications demonstrated by training, education, or formal examination. Each employee has specific areas of responsibility that are assigned on the basis of competence and expertise. 4. Formal Rules and Regulations. Ensure uniformity and standardization of the actions of employees. Management must ensure that rules are consistent, complete, and learnable. Managers in a bureaucracy OSHA Training Network 4

7 depend on written documents extensively in managing employees. Rules and regulations are may be incorporated into detailed employment manuals. 5. Impersonality. Make sure rules and controls are applied uniformly. Avoid involvement with personalities and personal preferences of employees. 6. Career Orientation. Managers are considered professional officials, not owners of the units they manage. They should work for fixed salaries and pursue their careers within the organization. Decision theory Herbert A. Simon. In the 1950s, Herbert A. Simon and James G. March introduced a decision-making model that elaborated on the bureaucratic model by emphasizing that individuals generally make decisions by examining a limited set of possible alternatives rather than all available options. Decision Theory School theorists believe it's important to: work with the decision itself, or work with the persons or organizational group making the decision, or analyze the decision process The model also states that individuals "satisfice" or choose adequate solutions to problems rather than seeking optimal choices. Managers make choices based on a limited perception of the problem that takes into account just a few of the factors regarded as most relevant and crucial. Petersen's perspective. Until the mid 1950s, management thought favored the Classical School of Management. This was governed by the rules of a bureaucracy, and favored job descriptions, standards of performance, writing up corporate manuals, and determining rules and regulations to govern worker behavior. This school of thought was based on the assumption that "all people are alike" - they will behave as we dictate and will react to management's manipulative schemes, wage incentives, etc. The Behavioral Approach to Management Human Relations School Around the 1920s, the human relations school surfaced emphasizing the importance of employee attitudes and feelings in the workplace. It advanced the notion that roles and norms influence performance. This area of management thought emphasizes that managers can best get things done by working with people: people should understand people when working together to accomplish objectives. The work of those researchers in the behavioral approach to management has resulted in much of what currently makes up the field of human resource management. Promoters of this school generally have the following characteristics: They are oriented to psychology and social psychology. They see human relations as an art that the manager should understand. They see the manager as a leader and sometimes equate management to leadership. They see group and interpersonal dynamics as socio-psychological relationships. Hugo Munsterberg. Hugo Munsterberg is considered the founding pioneer in the fields of Industrial Psychology. As a Harvard professor, he helped redefine psychology into its modern form. In his text, Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, that was first published in 1913, he argued for the scientific study of human behavior to identify general patterns that explain individual differences. He examined workplace problems with monotony, attention and fatigue, and the physical and social influences on work. Munsterberg recommended several innovative changes: Use psychological tests to improve employee selection, Develop training methods based on scientific learning theory Study human behavior in order to understand what techniques are most effective for motivating workers. Hugo Munsterberg's work in industrial/organizational psychology was extremely experimentally based. Much of our current knowledge of selection techniques, employee OSHA Training Network 5

8 training, job design, and motivation is built on his work. Mary Parker Follett. Mary Parker Follett was a social philosopher who wrote during the era off scientific management. She proposed more people-oriented ideas that had practical implications for management practice. Follett believed organizations should be based on a group ethics rather than individualism. She argued that by coordinating group efforts, the manager could effectively release the individual potential of each of the group members. Managers and workers should consider each other as interdependent partners. She believed that it was important for managers to lead through expertise and knowledge rather than rely on formal authority to get things done. Her humanist approach has had great influence on the thinking of greats such as W. Edwards Deming, Peter Drucker and others. Her ideas influenced greatly our notions of motivation, leadership, power, and authority today. Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies. One of the most important contributions to the behavioral approach to management came out of the Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric Company s Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois from 1924 to These studies were initially devised to examine the effect of illumination levels on worker productivity and had a dramatic impact on the direction of management thought. The engineers expected worker output to be directly related to the intensity of light, and this result actually occurred. However, to the engineers' surprise, productivity continued to increase when the lights were subsequently decreased. Only after the level of light had decreased to that comparable with moonlight, did productivity decrease. Confused, the engineers concluded that other unknown factors were involved in explaining the increased productivity. In 1927, Elton Mayo joined the study as a consultant. Mayo introduced numerous experiments examining the influence of the redesign of jobs, duration of the workday and workweek, rest periods, and wage schemes on productivity. In one experiment Mayo evaluated the effect of a piecework incentive pay on productivity. What they found was that incentive pay was less influential on productivity than peer pressure, acceptance, and resulting job security. Cultural norms of the group, therefore, were key determinants of individual work behavior. As a result of this and other studies, Mayo concluded that: Behavior and sentiments were closely related Group influences significantly affected individual behavior Group standards established individual worker output Money was less a factor in determining output than group standards, group sentiments, and security. These conclusions led to the belief that "happy employees are productive workers" that we still see in some workplaces today. According to Mayo, increased employee job satisfaction and higher morale were keys to successful production. Prior to the Hawthorne studies, the dominant view was that people were no more than machines...hired hands that, given the resources, would automatically produce at a predictable rate. The Hawthorne studies transformed this thinking. It validated the notion that a worker was much more than a machine, and the "one best way" promoted in scientific management theory was lacking. Argyris, McGregor, and Likert. Chris Argyris, Douglas McGregor, and Rensis Likert proposed a common theme: People are basically good and, in order to stimulate their performance, management should humanize work. They introduced a strong humanist orientation to the manager s job by arguing for increased employee involvement and participation the decisions that affected them. Management must demonstrate a greater trust and confidence in their people. Management must integrate individual and organizational goals, and transfer monitoring and control of work activities to instead of relying on external control devices. We will discuss the contributions of these researchers in Course 903. Petersen's perspective. The Classical school was replaced by the Human Relations school which said that behavior is dependent upon happiness. A happy worker will be a productive worker and will do what management wants. In this school of thought, the management task was perceived as concentrating on ensuring that the worker was psychologically comfortable on the job. The thought was also based on the assumption that "all people are alike"-happy folks are productive folks. OSHA Training Network 6

9 Group Dynamics School Originating during the 1940s, this school focused on the importance of individual participation in group decision making. Emphasis is placed on improving group performance. Kurt Lewin. Because of a shortage of meat during World War II, Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist at the University of Iowa, conducted studies to see if involving housewives in discussions and decision making about the food they serve at meals would decrease the barriers preventing reduced use of meat. The results of the studies were significant. Housewives involved in discussions were ten times more likely to change their food habits than housewives who merely received lectures on the subject. Lester Coch and John French. Contemporaries of Lewin, Lester Coch and John French, Jr., studied employees at the Harwood pajama plant in Marion, Virginia. Their research found that employees were much more likely to learn and value new work methods if, as a group, they were involved in group discussing and had some influence on work methods. Studies by Lewin, Coch, French and others led to a greatly increased awareness of the importance of group involvement and the relationship between organizational effectiveness and group formation, development, behavior, and attitudes. Leadership School During the 1950s concentrated research into the roles of mangers and leaders in organizations was conducted by Robert F. Bales and Douglas McGregor. Focus was placed on task/social, and Theory X/Theory Y leadership theory. Robert F. Bales. Bales emphasized the importance having both task and social leaders in groups. The task leader was important in helping the group achieve its goals by: Clarifying and summarizing member comments Focusing on the group s tasks The social leader was important in maintaining the group by: Developing cohesiveness and collaboration Encouraging group members involvement Douglas McGregor. McGregor's research concluded that two types of leadership styles predominated in organizations. Theory X leadership style. According to McGregor, these managers believe that workers inherently dislike work, they must be controlled and threatened with punishment to achieve adequate effort, and usually avoid responsibility. Theory Y leadership style. These managers believe employees find work as natural as play or rest, exercise self-direction toward committed objectives, and can learn to seek responsibility. McGregor and other researchers, postulated that these Theory X or Theory Y assumptions affect the way managers treat their employees in the workplace that ultimately affects productivity. The impact of the behavior approach OSHA Training Network 7

10 Both scientific management and the classical management theorists emphasized the design of the structure of organizational "machines." Managers engineered the inputs and made sure the machine was properly maintained. If an employee failed to meet production standards, the manager would reengineer the job, or make the machine run more smoothly by offering the employee an incentive wage plan. Offer the worker more money and they'll naturally work harder. Researchers in the behavioral approach offered an alternative to this simplistic machine-model view. The ideas promoted by the behavior approach to management have provided a foundation for much of the current understanding of motivation, group dynamics, leadership, and communication. The work of its researchers has also resulted in an increased interest in humanizing the workplace to increase productivity and improve employee job satisfaction. The Quantitative Approach to Management Interest in the quantitative approach to management surfaced as a result of the use of mathematical and statistical solutions to military problems during War II. After the war, the private sector adapted and adopted many of the quantitative techniques that had been applied to military problems. The quantitative approach to management includes applications of: Statistics. These models help managers draw conclusions using scientific methods for collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting and analyzing data so that reasonable decision can be made. Examples include: Decision theory, estimation theory, probability theory. Optimization models. Optimization models are exclusively oriented towards producing solutions which optimize certain objectives defined by managers. Examples include: Linear, quadratic, nonlinear, goal programming, hierarchical programming, dynamic, utility maximization models, Multi- Objective/Multi-Criteria Decision Making models (MODM/ MCDM), and stochastic programming. For instance, linear programming can help managers improve resource allocation choices. Information models. Information models simulate relationships between different information resources to best organize and structure the use of information in an organization. Information resources may be categorized as: data, applications, or technology. Unique information models are used to collect and represent each of these three aspects of the organization's information resources. Examples include pictorial representations, semantic representations, diagrams of relationships, or matrices. Computer simulations. Help the manager examine the complex interaction of data construction and analysis, statistical theory, and the violation of key assumptions. The analyst generates data according to a known model and then examines how well the model can be detected through data analysis. The quantitative approach has contributed most directly to management decision making, particularly to planning and control decisions. However, the quantitative approach has not gained as much popularity in solving management problems as has the behavioral approach. Reasons for the limited use of the quantitative approach include: Managers are not familiar with the quantitative tools. Behavioral problems are more widespread and visible. Managers relate more easily to real, day-to-day people problems. Constructing quantitative models can be a very abstract activity. The Integrative Approach to Management OSHA Training Network 8

11 Movement in developing a unifying approach to management began in earnest during the 1960s. The new thrust in thinking is to emphasize the integration of structural and human perspectives. More recently, contingency theory, a third component emphasizing the important of the situation, has been added to the integrated approach. Sociotechnical School The sociotechnical school assumes that neither technology (organizational structure) nor work groups (human relations) can be ignored in trying to understand an organizational system. Members of the sociotechnical school were E. L. Trist, K. W. Bamforth, A. K. Rice, and F. E. Emery. E.L. Trist and K.W. Bamforth. Trist and Bamforth studied the dynamics of work groups when new technology was introduced. Specifically, they wanted to know what effect technology had on performance in groups when jobs become specialized compared to groups who retained their original social structure. They found that absenteeism increased and productivity suffered in the specialized groups. After these and other studies, researchers concluded that both social and technical aspects of jobs must be considered simultaneously. The Systems School Systems theory promotes an integrated and dynamic approach to the management of organizations. The school evolved from combination of economic, sociological, psychological, and natural science theories. It is concerned with the human, structural, environmental, technological, impact on organizations. Harold Koontz. According to Harold Koontz in his 1961 article in the Journal of the Academy of Management, The systems approach requires that the physical, human, and capital resources be interrelated and coordinated within the external and internal environment of an organization. The object of his article was to help identify and overcome the major sources of the entanglement or confusion about the theory and application of the numerous management approached. In this article, Koontz stated the belief that management is art of: Getting things done through and with people in formally organized groups Creating an environment in groups where people can perform as individuals and yet cooperate toward attainment of group goals Removing blocks to such performance Optimizing efficiency in effectively reaching goals Koontz also offered the following improvements to help untangle the management jungle: 1. The Need for Definition of a Body of Knowledge. The first need is to define the field along lines that give it fairly specific content, by limiting the scope of the field for analysis and research. 2. Integration of Management and Other Disciplines. Allied and underlying disciplines are accepted by management schools and their practitioners. Integration of management and other disciplines should occur naturally. 3. The Clarification of Management Semantics. Koontz believes that we should not complicate an already complex field by developing academic jargon that builds language barriers between the theorist and the practitioner. 4. Willingness to Distill and Test Fundamentals. We should not neglect the fact that management may be explained, improved and made more meaningful if we encourage attempts at perceptive analysis of experience by stating principles (or generalizations) and placing them in a logical framework. Katz and Kahn. Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn, among others, considered the typical organization as an open system that interacts with external environmental forces and factors. They thought that organizations are systems that: 1. Consist of a number of interdependent and interrelated subsystems 2. Are open and dynamic 3. Strive for equilibrium OSHA Training Network 9

12 4. Have multiple purposes, objectives, and functions, some of which are in conflict Pope's perspective. One definition of systems as applied to a business organization states: "Systems can be defined as a set of coordinated procedures dealing with fundamental issues of how men, money, materials, and management combine to achieve the corporate objective. In this sense, systems safety is both engineering and management oriented. System safety is technically oriented to product design and its performance during the entire life cycle. The intent is to eliminate or control hazards always with consideration of cost effectiveness. The Contingency School Contingency theory claims that there are no universal rules governing effective management. Rather, correct management technique depends on the surrounding circumstances. This theory emphasizes the fit between organizational and situational variables such as: Size. What managers do in an organization is influenced by the number of people in the organization. Coordination, communication and other methods to control become problematic as size increases. For instance, appropriate methods of coordination in a small company of 20 employees may not work at all in an organization of 2000 employees. Routine. In order for an organization to achieve its purpose, it engages in the process of transforming inputs into outputs. Organizations that are rather stable in this process require organizational structures, leadership styles, and control systems that differ from those required by organizations that experience dynamic internal change often. Certainty. The management process is influenced by the degree of political, technological, sociocultural, and economic uncertainty. Those approaches that work in a stable and predictable environment may not be inappropriate for a rapidly changing or unpredictable environment. The individual. Each individual in an organization is unique in many ways. Each person varies in terms of their motivation, autonomy, tolerance for ambiguity, and expectations. When selecting motivation, leadership, and job designs strategies, it's important that management take these variables into consideration. Bums and Stalker. Tom Bums and George Stalker describe organizational systems that are driven by either mechanistic (machinelike), or organic (living, human, and flexible) characteristics. Mechanistic systems are described in scientific and classical management theory. They rely on rigid structure and strict lines of authority. Organic systems are more flexible and less structured. They reflect more of a humanistic approach to management that allow more employee influence over decisions. Joan Woodward. Joan Woodward found that the type of structure an organization develops depends on the technology of the process. Technology will vary depending on the type of production: unit, mass, or continuous. She suggested the following alignment of technology with system type: Unit production - organic systems Mass production - mechanistic systems Continuous production - organic systems Petersen's perspective. In the seventies the Contingency School of Management Thinking emerged, and for the first time, management's underlying assumptions about people were in tune with psychological reality. The assumption behind the contingency theory of management is that "everybody's different," therefore our management style and how we deal with a worker must be contingent upon the situation, on the worker, and on his needs. How a manager manages must be appropriate to the situation. OSHA Training Network 10

13 As our individual organizations begin to shift from one school of thought to another, we must make sure that our safety programs shift in accordance with the current management approaches and styles. Safety programs that "fit" the culture and climate of the organization must shift with the times. Too often our safety programs have remained firmly rooted in the classical school of thought, depending on standards of managerial performance, corporate safety manuals, rules and regulations to get the job done. While this is perfectly appropriate to 1950 style management, it is most inappropriate to 1980 style thinking in management. Each of us must assess our organization's management school of thought and build the safety program to be in tune with that style of managing. Management Roles Approach Henry Mintzberg. Harvard professor Henry Mintzberg concluded that managers play a number of roles in an organization that focus on interpersonal contact, information processing, and decision making. Managers will perform one or more the roles listed below. The role played depends on the manager s job description, organizational structure, culture, and the situation in question. Roles that focus on interpersonal contact include: The Figurehead. The manager represents the organization when performing various duties such as attending meetings and participation in community efforts. The Leader. The manager motivates and develops self-leaders in subordinates. The manager who communicates, provides resources, ensures training for subordinates performs this role. The Liaison. The manager networks with contacts to gather information for the organization. membership in professional associations and meeting with peer groups helps the manager perform the liaison role. Roles that involve information processing include: The Monitor. The manager checks on the status of systems by gathering information from inside and outside the organization. To do this, the manager may audit processes, attend meetings, review publications, or participate in committees. The Disseminator. The manager shares information with subordinates. The manager may conduct meetings, training sessions, send , write memos, or meet informally with employees to fulfill this role. The Spokesperson. The manager speaks about the organization's performance and policies. The manager who speaks at community and professional meetings fulfills this role. Roles related to decision making include: The Entrepreneur. The manager acts as a change agent, overseeing the design and implementation of change in the organization. The supervisor who redesigns work procedures, introduces innovative work schedules, or introduces new technology performs this role. The Disturbance handler. The manager solves problems that surface when operations break down. A manager who quickly locates suppliers, replaces absent workers, or replaces damaged equipment on short notice performs this role. The Resource allocator. The manager allocates physical and psychosocial resources. Scheduling people, preparing budgets, and managing materials are all aspects of this role. The Negotiator. The manager negotiates with external and internal stakeholders. A manager who works on union contracts, hires new employees, writes subcontractor contracts fulfills this role. Conclusion OSHA Training Network 11

14 Studying the history of management helps us understand theory and its application today. We gain insight into how management concepts have evolved through the years. Current management concepts are the natural outcome of the influence of earlier management concepts. Over 200 years ago, Adam Smith promoted the concept of division of labor to increase productivity by increasing worker skills and dexterity saving considerable time. The Industrial Revolution introduced machine power and made it possible to multiply productivity when coupled with the division of labor. Large factories now required managers skilled in planning, organizing, commanding, and controlling to generated required efficiencies. New Management concepts and principles began to flourish during the first half of the 20th Century. Taylor's scientific management searched for the "the one best way to do each job. Classical management sought principles applied to the entire organization. The behavioral approach emphasized getting work done through the sound management of people. The quantitative approach employed detailed mathematical and statistical techniques to improve resource allocation decisions. And, finally, a unifying approach to management began in the second half of the century to develop a way to synthesize the diversity in management thought. SCOPE AND FUNCTION OF THE PROFESSIONAL SAFETY POSITION Source: OSHA To perform their professional functions, safety professionals must have education, training and experience in a common body of knowledge. Safety professionals need to have a fundamental knowledge of physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, statistics, mathematics, computer science, engineering mechanics, industrial processes, business, communication and psychology. Professional safety studies include industrial hygiene and toxicology, design of engineering hazard controls, fire protection, ergonomics, system and process safety, safety and health program management, accident investigation and analysis, product safety, construction safety, education and training methods, measurement of safety performance, human behavior, environmental safety and health, and safety, health, and environmental laws, regulations and standards. Many safety professionals have backgrounds or advanced study in other disciplines, such as management and business administration, engineering, education, physical and social sciences and other fields. Others have advanced study in safety. This extends their expertise beyond the basics of the safety profession. Because safety is an element in all human endeavors, safety professionals perform their functions in a variety of contexts in the public and private sectors, often employing specialized knowledge and skills. Typical settings are manufacturing, insurance, risk management, government, education, consulting, construction, health care, engineering and design, waste management, petroleum, facilities management, retail, transportation, and utilities. Within these contexts, safety professionals must adapt their functions to fit the mission, operations and climate of their employer. Not only must safety professionals acquire the knowledge and skill to perform their functions effectively in their employment context, through continuing education and training they stay current with new technologies, changes in laws and regulations, and changes in the workforce, workplace and world business, political and social climate. As part of their positions, safety professionals must plan for and manage resources and funds related to their functions. They may be responsible for supervising a diverse staff of professionals. By acquiring the knowledge and skills of the profession, developing the mind set and wisdom to act responsibly in the employment context, and keeping up with changes that affect the safety profession, the safety professional is able to perform required safety professional functions with confidence, competence and respected authority. Functions of the Professional Safety Position OSHA Training Network 12

15 The major areas relating to the protection of people, property and the environment are: A. Anticipate, identify and evaluate hazardous conditions and practices. B. Develop hazard control designs, methods, procedures and programs. C. Implement, administer and advise others on hazard controls and hazard control programs. D. Measure, audit and evaluate the effectiveness of hazard controls and hazard control programs. A. Anticipate, Identify and Evaluate Hazardous Conditions and Practices. This function involves: 1. Developing methods for a. anticipating and predicting hazards from experience, historical data and other information sources. b. identifying and recognizing hazards in existing or future systems, equipment, products, software, facilities, processes, operations and procedures during their expected life. c. evaluating and assessing the probability and severity of loss events and accidents which may result from actual or potential hazards. 2. Applying these methods and conducting hazard analyses and interpreting results. 3. Reviewing, with the assistance of specialists where needed, entire systems, processes, and operations for failure modes, causes and effects of the entire system, process or operation and any subsystems or components due to a. system, sub-system, or component failures. b. human error. c. incomplete or faulty decision making, judgments or administrative actions. d. weaknesses in proposed or existing policies, directives, objectives or practices. 4. Reviewing, compiling, analyzing and interpreting data from accident and loss event reports and other sources regarding injuries, illnesses, property damage, environmental effects or public impacts to a. identify causes, trends and relationships. b. ensure completeness, accuracy and validity of required information. c. evaluate the effectiveness of classification schemes and data collection methods. d. initiate investigations. 5. Providing advice and counsel about compliance with safety, health and environmental laws, codes, regulations and standards. 6. Conducting research studies of existing or potential safety and health problems and issues. 7. Determining the need for surveys and appraisals that help identify conditions or practices affecting safety and health, including those which require the services of specialists, such as physicians, health physicists, industrial hygienists, fire protection engineers, design and process engineers, ergonomists, risk managers, environmental professionals, psychologists and others. 8. Assessing environments, tasks and other elements to ensure that physiological and psychological capabilities, capacities and limits of humans are not exceeded. B. Develop Hazard Control Designs, Methods, Procedures, and Programs. This function involves: OSHA Training Network 13

16 1. Formulating and prescribing engineering or administrative controls, preferably before exposures, accidents, and loss events occur, to a. eliminate hazards and causes of exposures, accidents and loss events. b. reduce the probability or severity of injuries, illnesses, losses or environmental damage from potential exposures, accidents, and loss events when hazards cannot be eliminated. 2. Developing methods which integrate safety performance into the goals, operations and productivity of organizations and their management and into systems, processes, and operations or their components. 3. Developing safety, health and environmental policies, procedures, codes and standards for integration into operational policies of organizations, unit operations, purchasing and contracting. 4. Consulting with and advising individuals and participating on teams a. engaged in planning, design, development and installation or implementation of systems or programs involving hazard controls. b. engaged in planning, design, development, fabrication, testing, packaging and distribution of products or services regarding safety requirements and application of safety principles which will maximize product safety. 5. Advising and assisting human resources specialists when applying hazard analysis results or dealing with the capabilities and limitations of personnel. 6. Staying current with technological developments, laws, regulations, standards, codes, products, methods and practices related to hazard controls. C. Implement, Administer and Advise Others on Hazard Controls and Hazard Control Programs. This function involves: 1. Preparing reports which communicate valid and comprehensive recommendations for hazard controls which are based on analysis and interpretation of accident, exposure, loss event and other data. 2. Using written and graphic materials, presentations and other communication media to recommend hazard controls and hazard control policies, procedures and programs to decision making personnel. 3. Directing or assisting in planning and developing educational and training materials or courses. Conducting or assisting with courses related to designs, policies, procedures and programs involving hazard recognition and control. 4. Advising others about hazards, hazard controls, relative risk and related safety matters when they are communicating with the media, community and public. 5. Managing and implementing hazard controls and hazard control programs which are within the duties of the individual's professional safety position. D. Measure, Audit and Evaluate the Effectiveness of Hazard Controls and Hazard Control Programs. This function involves: 1. Establishing and implementing techniques, which involve risk analysis, cost, cost-benefit analysis, work sampling, loss rate and similar methodologies, for periodic and systematic evaluation of hazard control and hazard control program effectiveness. OSHA Training Network 14