COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL. Index

Transcription

1 R, 113 Accelerated tests, see Test, accelerated Acceleration factor, 242, Acceptable quality level (AQL), see Quality, acceptable level Activation energy, 331, 337 Ada (programming language), Adhesives, AGREE report, 10, 368 ANSI/ASQ Standard Z1-4, 391 Analysis, time series, see Time series analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA), see Variance, analysis of Apollo project, 12 Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), 231 Arcing, 228 Ariane 5, 265, 269 Arrhenius law, 219, 235, 330 Arrival value, 62 3 Assembler language, 300 Attributes, sampling by, see Acceptance sampling Automatic optical inspection (AOI), 399 Automatic test equipment (ATE), 399 Automatic X-ray inspection (AXI), 399 Availability, 12, 148 achieved, instantaneous, inherent, 409 operational, 410 steady state, 147 transient, 162 Average value, see Mean Baldrige award, 446 Ball grid array (BGA), 232 Bathtub curve, 9, 84 Bayes theorem, 24, 66 Bayesian sample size reduction, 365 BCH code, 272 Bellcore, 138 Benard approximation, 83 Bernoulli trials, 48 Binomial distribution, see Distribution, binomial B-life, 85, 212 Black s law, 235 Block diagram analysis (BDA), practical aspects, 156 B-percentile life, see B-life Boltzmann s constant, 219, 235 BQR Reliability Engineering, 188 Brainstorm, 301 2, British Standard (BS) BS 5760, 11 BS 6001, 391 BS 9400, 236, 238 Brittleness, 207, 220 Built-in test (BIT), 187, 416 Burn-in, 8, C, C++ (programming languages), 271 Cables, electrical, 240 Calibration, 417 Capacitors, 239 Capability approval, 236 process, 128 Cause and effect diagram, 396 Caveat emptor, 428 CECC, 234, 236 Censored data, 73, 77 interval censored, 74 left censored, 75 right censored, 73 Central limit theorem, 33, 44 Central tendency, 29 Centroid test, 62 Ceramics, 207, 220 CERT, see Test, combined environment CFR, see Failure rate, constant Chain rule, see Product rule Characteristic life, see Scale parameter COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL Practical Reliability Engineering, Fifth Edition. Patrick D. T. O Connor and Andre Kleyner John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

2 Index 477 Chart, process control, Chernobyl accident, 157 China 299B, 137 Chip scale packaging (CSP), 232 χ 2 (chi-square) distribution, see Distribution χ 2 χ 2 test for goodness of fit, 59 χ 2 test for significance, 56 Cleanroom (software), 275 Coefficient of determination, 218 Cold standby, see Redundancy standby Combined environment reliability test (CERT), see Test, combined environment reliability Compiler (software), 271 Complexity factors for microelectronic devices, 137 Components electronic, passive, 229 mechanical, 189 selection, 220 Composites, 220 Computer-aided engineering (CAE), 184 5, 449 Concorde accident, 157 Condensation, Confidence (statistical), 52 interval, 51 2 limits, 22, 52 on continuous variables, 52 on discrete data, 60 on plotted data, 71, 80 on shape parameter, 38, 68 Configuration control, 198 Confounding, 294 Connectors, electrical, 193 Control factor, 298 Corona discharge, 228 Correction factor, 288 Correlation (statistical), 86 Corrosion, 194 Covariance, 186 Covariate, 347 C-rank method, 365 Creep, 214 Critical items list, 193 Cumulative distribution function (c.d.f.), 31 CUSUM chart, Cut set, 153 Data analysis, exploratory (EDA), analysis for accelerated test, 321 censored, 73 reliability, see Reliability data bases reliability of (software), 139 Debugging (software), 269, 274 Decoupling (capacitors), Defence Standard (UK) 00 40/41, 11, , 309, 432 Degradation analysis, 197 8, Degrees of freedom, 37 Deming, W. E., award, 446 Dependability, 429 Derating, stress, 120 for electronics, 258 Design analysis methods, 231, 314 in test planning, 188 of experiments (DOE), 197, 257 matrix, 291 modular, parameter, 298 for processes, 134, 136 for production, test and maintenance (electronics), 138, 234 for reliability, 177 ratio, review, 220 check lists, 282 simplification ( KISS ), 252 thermal, for electronics, 247 tolerance, for electronics, 254, 255 DfR, see Design for Reliability DFR, see Failure rate, decreasing Distortion, 244 Distribution (statistical), 95 binomial, 58, 66 χ 2 (chi-square), 37 continuous, summary of, 30 cumulative, 31 discrete, 19 exponential, 35 6 extreme value, 38 9 relation to load and strength, 41 F, 40 Ɣ (gamma), 36, 43 Gaussian, see Distribution, normal Gumbel, see Distribution, extreme value independent and identical (IID), 57, 63 lognormal, 35 of maintenance times, 410 mixed, 71, 82, 97, 98

3 478 Index Distribution (statistical) (Continued ) multimodal, 29, 46 normal (Gaussian), 33 Poisson, 50 Rayleigh, 80 rectangular, skewed, 45 triangular, unimodal, 29 Weibull, 37 Distribution-free statistics, see Non-parametric methods Duane method, Ductility, 207, 242 Drucker, P. F., 11, 398, 449 Durability, 1 2, 308 Electrical overstress (EOS), Electromagnetic interference and compatibility (EMI/EMC), 193, 244, 272 testing, 218 Electromigration, 235, 331 Electronic(s) components, 246 hi-rel, 10, 248 passive, 229, 238 design automation (EDA), 184 reliability prediction, 189 Electro-optical devices, 244 Electrostatic discharge damage (ESD), 228 Enabling event, 156 Environmental factor, 309 protection, 216 specification, 267 stress screening (ESS), see Screening, environmental stress Equivalent life, 210 Error, 6, see also Software errors Estimate, 59, 104 ETOPS, 156 Event series analysis, see Series of events European Foundation of Quality Management (EFQM), 447 Expected value, 33 Expected test time (ETT), 354 Exploratory data analysis (EDA), Exponential distribution, see Distribution, exponential Extreme value distributions, see Distribution, extreme value Eyring models, 332 Factorial experiments, 287, 292, 296 Failure causes of, 2, 4 common mode, 146, 155 data analysis (for reliability growth), 197 definition of, 352 foolish, 318 free life, see Life, failure free in time (FIT), 137 intermittent, 219, 239 mode, effect and criticality analysis (FMECA), 184, 272 computer programs for, 157 in maintenance planning, 413, 415 for processes, 2 reliability predictions for, 141 for software-based systems, 272 in test planning, 322 uses for, 187 modes, 98 electronic devices (summary), 235, 237 non-material, software, 64, 302 physics of, 138, 140 rate, xxvi, 84 constant (CFR), 9 decreasing (DFR), 8 increasing (IFR), 9 reporting, analysis and corrective action system (FRACAS), 323, 404 for production QA, 14, 195 for software, 306 review board, Fan out, 249 Fasteners, 221 Fatigue, design against, , 281 high cycle, 313 low cycle, 313 maintenance for, 415 Fault tolerance (software), Fault tree analysis (FTA), FIDES, 140 Finite element analysis (FEA), F-distribution, see Distribution, F Firmware, 281 Fishbone diagram, see Cause and effect diagram Fisher,R.A.,91 FIT (Failure in Time), 137 Flying probe/fixtureless tester, 400 Foolish failure, see Failure, foolish

4 Index 479 FRACAS, see Failure reporting, analysis and corrective action system Fracture, Freak, 237 Fretting, 215 Functional test, see Test, functional F-test, see Variance ratio test Fuzzy logic, 262, 271 Gamma distribution, see Distribution, Ɣ (gamma) GJB/z 299B, 140 Glassivation, 230 Goodness of fit, 59 χ 2 test for, 67 Kolmogorov Smirnov (K S) test for, 96, 115 Griffith s law, 208 Gumbel distribution, see Distribution, extreme value Gumbel slope, 101 Hamming code, 272 Hazard function, 32, 40 and operability study (HAZOPS), 184, plotting, 130 rate, 8 Histogram, 29 Hobbs, G., 319 Hooke s law, 206 Hot carriers, 235 House of quality, 183 Humidity, 219 Hybrid packaging (for ICs), 233 Hypothesis Null, 53 4 Testing, 53 IEC 62380, IFR, see Failure rate, increasing IID, see Distributions, independent and identical In-circuit test, see Test, in-circuit Inductors, Infant mortality, 9 Inference (statistical), 53 4 non-parametric, 57 8, 365 Inspection, 390 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) IEEE Standard 1413, 140 IEEE Standard 1624, 443 Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST), 319, 402 Insulation, Integrated circuits (ICs), see Microelectronics Integrated logistic support (ILS), 418 Integrity, information, 272 Interactions, 135, 152 Interarrival value, 62 3 Interchangeability, 236, 418 Interface, hardware/software, 275, 281 Interference, load-strength, 5, 120 analysis of, 127, effect on reliability, 13, 365 practical aspects, time-dependent, 6, 235 Intermittent failures, 245 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 10, 236 International Standards Organization (ISO) ISO9000, ISO60300, 429 ISO61508, 430 Ishikawa, K., 11, 396 Jelinski Moranda model for software reliability, Jitter, 244 Juran, J. R., 11 Kaizen, 15, 17, 399, 404 Kirkendall voids, 242 Kolmogorov Smirnov test, see Goodness of fit Kurtosis, Language, software, 262 Laplace test, 62 Latch-up, 259 Latin Hypercube, 112 Leadless chip carrier (LCC), 232 Learning factor, 137 Least squares, 85, 443 Life data, 57, data analysis, cycle costs (LCC), 11, 14 16, 269 equivalent, 210 failure-free, 83, 212, minimum, 38, 43, 82, 83, 314 Littlewood models for software reliability, 280 Load protection, Load-strength analysis (LSA), 121, 189 Load-strength interference, see Interference, load-strength Loading roughness, 121 Location parameter, see Mean

5 480 Index Logic controller, programmable (PLC), 271 Logic, fuzzy, 271 Logistic support analysis (LSA), 418 Lognormal distribution, see Distribution, lognormal Lot tolerance percentage defective (LPTD), 391 Maintainability, 12, 148, 201, 408 analysis, 201 demonstration, 418 design for, 418 prediction, Maintenance, 408 corrective, 408 of fatigue-prone components, 214 preventive, 408 reliability-centred (RCM), 413 schedules, 415 technology aspects, of software, 416 time, distribution of, Management, scientific, 430 Manufacturing defects anlyser (MDA), 400 quality (assurance) (QA), see Quality, manufacturing Markov analysis, Mars polar orbiter, 265 Materials, 191 Matrix algebra, 475 Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE), 85, 87, 95 Mean, 30 active maintenance time (MAMT), 408 maintenance downtime (MDT), 410 maintenance time (MMT), 410 ranking, 76 time between failures (MTBF), 7, 8, 36, 314, 357, 361 time between maintenance actions (MTBMA), 409 time to failure (MTTF), 7, 8, 36, 88, 278, 330, 358 time to repair (MTTR), 12, 408, 417, 419 Measles chart, 396 Median, 30 Ranking, 76 tables for, 365, 457 Metal alloys, 220 Metallization, 230, 238 Microelectronics Attachment, 234 failure modes, failure rate model, 141 hybrid, 233 packaging, 233 screening, specifications, 236 technologies, 232 Military handbooks and standards (US) MIL-STD-105, 392 MIL-HDBK-217, 137 8, 229 MIL-HDBK-338, 239, 250 MIL-HDBK-470, 418 MIL-HDBK-472, 417, 418 MIL-HDBK-781, 309, 324, MIL-STD-785, 10, 14, 428 MIL-STD-810, 309, 432 MIL-STD-883, 234, 237, 238, 246 MIL-HDBK-1388, 418 MIL-HDBK-1629MIL-STD-1629, 185, 189 MIL-STD-2164, 402 MIL-STD(Q)-9858, 424MIL- Q-9858, 429 MIL-STD(M)-38510, MIL-M-38510, 393 MIL-STD-38535MIL-STD-PRF 38535C, 236 Miner rule, 210 Minitab R, 64, 285 MLE, see Maximum Likelihood Estimator Mode (of failure), see Failure mode Mode (of distribution), 29, 33 Modular design, 151 Modular software, 268 Modulus of elasticity, see Young s modulus Monte Carlo simulation, see Simulation M(t) method, 377, 380 Multi-chip module (MCM), 234 Multi-vari chart, 397 Murphy s law, 205 Musa model for software reliability, National Astronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 10, 185, 265, 428 NATO ARMP-1, 428 No fault found (NFF), 245, 348, 416 No trouble found (NTF), 416 Noise, electrical, 239 Noise factor, 298 Non-destructive test (NDT), 214, 413 Non-parametric analysis of variance, see Variance analysis, non-parametric methods Non-parametric inference, see Inference, non-parametric Non-parametric methods for reliability measurement, see Reliability demonstration, non-parametric methods Normal distribution, see Distribution, normal NSWC-06/LE10, 137, 139 Null hypothesis, see Hypothesis, null

6 Index 481 Operating characteristic (OC), 298, 299, 370, 391, 394 Operator control, Orthogonal array, 299, 303 Overstress, 205 Palmgren-Miner s law, 210 Packaging, microelectronics, see Microelectronics packaging Parameter design, 255, 256, 298 drift, 226 parasitic, 255 Parametric binomial, Pareto analysis, 327 8, 381, 40 Parts, materials and processes (PMP) review, 14, 191, 228, 250 count, 137 defective per million (p.p.m.), 394 stress analysis, 137, 185 PASCAL (language), 271 Passive components, see Electronic components, passive Passivation, 230 Path set, 153 Pdf, see Probability density function Petri net, 165 Pingridarray(PGA),232 Plastic, 249 Plastic encapsulated device (PED), 219, 238 Point processes, see Series of events Poisson distribution model for software reliability, process, 50 see also Distribution, Poisson Poka yoke, 200 Power spectral density (PSD), 312 PPM, 358 Prediction, see Reliability prediction PRISM R, 139 Probability, 115 conditional, 23 definitions, 29 density function, 28 distributions, 28 exclusive, 24 joint, 22 survival, 32, 36 plotting, 77 for extreme value distribution, 102 for lognormal distribution, 100 for mixed distributions, 97 8 for normal distribution, 100 papers for, 77 techniques, 78 for Weibull distribution, 78 ratio sequential distribution, test (PRST), see Test, probability ratio sequential rules of, 22 3 Process capability, 387 control charts, 389, 396 design, 199 improvement, 180 Product liability (PL), 428, 448 rule, 23 Programmable logic device (PLD), 230 Proportional hazards modelling (PHM), 347 Protection corrosion, 216 fatigue, 226 transient voltage, wear, 226 Quad flat pack (QFP), 232 Qualified manufacturers list (QML), 236 Quality assurance (QA), 441 audit, 445 awards, 446 circles, 398 control (QC), 386 in electronics production, 399 costs, 425 factor, for electronic components, 141 function deployment (QFD), level, acceptable (AQL), 391 management of, 425, 429 total (TQM), 11, 429, 430, 447 off/on-line, 199 standards for, systems, 446 Randomizing (data), 296 Range chart, 389 Ranking, see Mean ranking; Median ranking Rank regression, 80, 85 on X (RRX), 85 on Y (RRY), 85 Rate of occurrence of failure (ROCOF), 8, 339 Real-time systems, 263, 271 Reduced variate, 40

7 482 Index Redundancy, 144 active, 144 in electronics, 252 m-out-of-n, 145 standby, Regression, 85 Reliability, 1 and Maintainability Symposium (RAMS), 12 apportionment, 169 block diagram (RBD), 143 4, 156 capability, 201 centred maintenance (RCM), 413, 419, 472 contracting for, 432 corporate policy for, 421 costs, 425, 426, 427 customer management of, 437, 438 of data, 272 data bases, 135 data collection and analysis, 351 demonstration, 357 use of non-parametric methods, 359 function, 37, 38 growth monitoring, 373, 376 in service, 371 human, 196 integrated programmes for, 421 intrinsic, 132, 135, 189 manual, 471 maturity, 201 measurement, see Reliability demonstration models, 146 organization for, 439 project plan, 449 prediction, 134 for electronics, 228 for FMECA and FTA, 415 limitations of, 134 parts count method, 134, 137 practical approach, 121 for software, 264 standard methods for, 189 probabilistic, 6 7 programme, 13 14, 421 selecting for, specifying, 431 standards, 428 testing, see Testing, reliability training, 439, 440 ReliaSoft, 70 Renewal process, 63, 64, 147 general renewal process, 64, 147 ordinary renewal process, 147 Repairable systems, 9 reliability analysis for, 339 Request for proposals (RFP), 436 Resistors, 233 Re-test OK (RTOK), 416 Return period, 102 Review code, 272 design, 191 Risk, 3 producer s/consumer s, 368, 391 Robustness (software), see Software robustness ROCOF, see Rate of occurrence of failure RoHS, 242 Rubber, 220 SAC305, 242 Safety, 411 integrity level (SIL), 430 margin, 121 standards, 438 Sampling, acceptance, 391 Scale parameter, 31, 33, 38, 78 Schick Wolverton model, 279 Scientific management, 430 Screening environmental stress (ESS), 141, 319, 402 highly accelerated stress (HASS), 198, 403, 469 for microelectronic devices, Seals, 222 Semiconductors, discrete, 239 Sensitivity analysis, 115 Series of events, 61, 62, 312 rule, 23 Services, external, Seven tools of quality, 398 Shape parameter, 38 confidence limits on, 52 Shewhart, W. A., 46 chart, Shock (mechanical), 309 Sign test, 58 Signal-to-noise ratio, Significance (statistical), 294 Simulation, Monte Carlo, 108 for electronic circuit analysis, for life cycle cost analysis, 424

8 Index 483 Six sigma, 48, 387, 446 design for (DFSS), 178, 446 lean, 446 Skewness, 29, 31, 33 Slow trapping, 235 S N curve, Sneak, 6 analysis (SA), 253 for software, 273 Soft errors, 235 Software checking, 272 code generation, 267 compilers, 271 debugging, 269, 279, 283 defensive programming, 269 design, 295 analysis, 264 diversity, 270 in engineering systems, 263 errors correction codes for, 272 reporting, 275 sources of, 267 timing, 267 failure modes, 272 FMECA, 272 fault tolerance, interfaces, with hardware, 263, 264, 281 languages, modularity, 268 programming style, 269 redundancy, 270, 281 reliability, measurement, 277 prediction, 134, 277 re-use, 264 robustness, 267 sneak analysis (SA), 273 specifications, 267 structure, 268 structured walkthrough, 272 testing, validation, 275 verification, 275 Solder, 241 fatigue, lead-free, 242 tin-lead, 222, 241 Specification tailoring, 436 Spectroscopic oil analysis programme (SOAP), 216 Spread, Standard deviation, 31 Standard error of estimate, 52 of differences, 54 State space analysis, see Markov analysis State transition diagram, 160, 164 Statistical process control (SPC), 47, 302, 386, 472 Statistics, 6, 21 computer software for, 64 5 Stochastic point processes, see Series of events transitional probability matrix Strength degradation, protection against, 177 mechanical, 222 theoretical, 207 ultimate tensile (UTS), 206 yield, 206 Stress concentration, 208 mechanical, 206 Structured programs (software), 268 Success-run method, 358 Superimposed process, 63 4 Suppliers, 429 Surface mount devices (SMD), 232 Suspended items, 77, 82 System design, 169 multi-socket, on a chip, 230 Taguchi, G., 297 Technical and Engineering Aids to Management (TEAM) probability plotting papers, 71 Telcordia SR-332, 138 Tellegen s theorem, 256 Temperature effects, factor, 137 Test(ing) accelerated, accelerated, qualitative, 320 accelerated, quantitative, 320 analyse and fix (TAAF), 382 beta, 313 black box, 275 customer simulation, 313 development, 317 electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), 313 environmental, 306, 307

9 484 Index Test(ing) (Continued ) equipment, for electronics, 391 functional, 306 in-circuit, 400 integrated, 307 non-destructive (NDT), 214 planning, 189 probability ratio sequential (PRST), production reliability acceptance (PRAT), 369, 371, 441 reliability, 308 combined environment (CERT), 310, 322 demonstration, 357 for one-shot items, of software, 274 step-stress, 321 temperature, truncated, 361 vibration, 311 white box, 275 yield analysis, 201 Testability (electronics), 258 Thermal coefficient of expansion (TCE), 218 design for electronics, 247 Tie sets, 153 Time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB), 235, 334 Timing (in electronics), 244 Time series analysis (TSA), 62, 63, 341 Tolerance analysis, for electronics, 202 design, 255, 298 statistical, Total quality management (TQM), 10, 429 Total service contracts, Toughness, 207, 209 Transient voltage protection, 246 Transpose circuit, 256 Tree diagram, 161 Trend analysis, 62, 466 Tribology, 215 Useful life, 9, 84, 136 Validation, 198 design, 198 process, 198 product, 198 software, 275 Variability production, control of, 386 Variables, sampling by, 391 Variance, 33 analysis of (ANOVA), 284 engineering interpretation of, 297 non-parametric methods for, 365 ratio test, 56 Variate, reduced, 40 Variation, 4, assignable/non-assignable cause, 47 causes, 388 continuous, control of, 390 curtailed, 44 design for, 130 deterministic, 112 discrete, 48 effects of, 47 functional, 47 in engineering, 41, 65 multimodal, 46 progressive, 44 random, 44 skewed, 60 test programme considerations, 308 Validation, Verification (software), 322 Vibration, 216 Vision systems, 399 VZAP, 246 Walkthrough, structured (for software), 272 Warranty data, 349 formats, 349 improvement contracts, 433 Waterfall plot, 217 Wear, 191 Wearout, 4 Weibull++ R,70 Weibull distribution, see Distribution, Weibull Welding, 222 Worst case analysis (WCA), 256 X chart, 389 Young s modulus of elasticity, 206, 208 Zero defects (ZD), 398 z-notation, 22 z-test for binomial data, 55 for normal data, 33