Materials Science and Engineering

Transcription

1 FOURTH E DITION Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction William D. Callister, Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto Singapore Weinheim

2 Contents LIST OF SYMBOLS xviii /. Introduction Historical Perspective Materials Science and Engineering Classification of Materials Advanced Materials Modern Materials Needs 6 References 7 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding Introduction 9 ATOMIC STKUCTURE Fundamental Concepts Electrons in Atoms The Periodic Table 15 ATOMIC BONDINC IN SOLIDS Bonding Forces and Energies Primary Interatomic Bonds Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding Molecules 25 Summary 25 Implications 26 Important Terms and Concepts 26 References 26 Questions and Problems The Structure of Crystalline Solids Introduction 30 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES Fundamental Concepts Unit Cells Metallic Crystal Structures Density Computations Polymorphism and Allotropy Crystal Systems 37 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS AND PLANES 37 xi

3 xii Contents 3.8 Crystallographic Directions Crystallographic Planes Linear and Planar Atomic Densities Close-Packed Crystal Structures 48 CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS Single Crystals Polycrystalline Materials Anisotropy X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures Noncrystalline Solids 57 Summary 58 Implications 59 Important Terms and Concepts 59 References 59 Questions and Problems Imperfections in Solids Introduction 66 POINT DEFECTS Vacancies and Self-Interstitials Impurities in Solids 68 MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS Dislocations Linear Defects Interfacial Defects Bulk or Volume Defects Atomic Vibrations 79 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION General Microscopy Grain Size Determination 84 Summary 84 Implications 85 Important Terms and Concepts 86 References 86 Questions and Problems Diffusion Introduction Diffusion Mechanisms Steady-State Diffusion Nonsteady-State Diffusion Factors That Influence Diffusion Other Diffusion Paths 103 Summary 104 Implications 104 Important Terms and Concepts 104 References 104 Questions and Problems Mechanical Properties of Metals Introduction Concepts of Stress and Strain 110 ELASTIC DEFORMATION Stress-Strain Behavior Anelasticity Elastic Properties of Materials 117 PLASTIC DEFORMATION Tensile Properties True Stress and Strain Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation Hardness Variability of Material Properties Design/Safety Factors 138 Summary 139 Important Terms and Concepts 140 References 140 Questions and Problems Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms Introduction 148 DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION Basic Concepts Characteristics of Dislocations Slip Systems Slip in Single Crystals Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials Deformation by Twinning 158 MECHANISMS OF STRENGTIIENINC IN METALS Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction Solid-Solution Strengthening Strain Hardening 163 RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH Recovery Recrystallization Grain Growth 171 Summary 173 Important Terms and Concepts 174 References 174 Questions and Problems 174

4 Contents xiii 8. Failure Introduction 179 FRACTURE Fundamentals of Fracture Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture Principles of Fracture Mechanics Impact Fracture Testing 199 FATIGUE Cyclic Stresses The S-N Curve Crack Initiation and Propagation Crack Propagation Rate Factors That Affect Fatigue Life Environmental Effects 219 CREEP Generalized Creep Behavior Stress and Temperature Effects Data Extrapolation Methods Alloys for High-Temperature Use 224 Summary 225 Important Terms and Concepts 227 References 228 Questions and Problems Phase Diagrams Introduction 237 DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS Solubility Limit Phases Microstructure Phase Equilibria 239 EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAMS Binary Isomorphous Systems Binary Eutectic Systems Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds' Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions Congruent Phase Transformations Ceramic and Ternary Phase Diagrams The Gibbs Phase Rule 267 THE IRON-CARBON SYSTEM The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe 3 C) Phase Diagram Development of Microstructures in Iron-Carbon Alloys The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 280 Summary 280 Implications 281 Important Terms and Concepts 282 References 282 Questions and Problems Phase Transformations in Metals: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties Introduction 290 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS Basic Concepts The Kinetics of Solid-State Reactions Multiphase Transformations 292 MLCROSTRUGTURAL AND PROPKRTY CHANCES IN IRON-CARBON ALLOYS Isothermal Transformation Diagrams Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams Mechanical Behavior of Iron-Carbon Alloys Tempered Martensite Review of Phase Transformations for Iron-Carbon Alloys 314 Summary 315 Important Terms and Concepts 315 References 316 Questions and Problems Thermal Processing ofmetal Alloys Introduction 322 ANNEALING PROCESSES Process Annealing Stress Relief Annealing of Ferrous Alloys 323 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS Hardenability Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry 329 PRECIPITATION HARDENING Heat Treatments Mechanism of Hardening 337

5 xiv Contents 11.9 Miscellaneous Considerations 338 Summary 339 Important Terms and Concepts 340 References 340 Questions and Problems Metal Alloys Introduction 344 FABRICATION OF METALS Forming Operations Casting Miscellaneous Techniques 347 FERROUS ALLOYS Steels Cast Irons 355 NONFERROUS ALLOYS Copper and Its Alloys Aluminum and Its Alloys Magnesium and Its Alloys Titanium and Its Alloys The Refractory Metals The Superalloys The Noble Metals Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys 368 Summary 369 Important Terms and Concepts 369 References 369 Questions and Problems Structures and Properties of Ceramics Applications and Processing of Ceramics Introduction 412 GLASSES Glass Properties Glass Forming Heat Treating Glasses Glass-Ceramics 418 CLAY PRODUCTS The Characteristics of Clay Compositions of Clay Products Fabrication Techniques Drying and Firing 421 REFRACTORIES Fireclay Refractories Silica Refractories Basic Refractories Special Refractories 425 OTHER APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING METHODS Abrasives Powder Pressing Tape Casting Cements Advanced Ceramics 431 Summary 433 Important Terms and Concepts 434 References 434 Questions and Problems Introduction 373 CERAMIC STRUCTURES Crystal Structures Silicate Ceramics Carbon Imperfections in Ceramics Ceramic Phase Diagrams 394 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Brittle Fracture of Ceramics Stress-Strain Behavior Mechanisms of Plastic Deformation Miscellaneous Mechanical Considerations 403 Summary 405 Important Terms and Concepts 406 References 406 Questions and Problems Polymer Structures Introduction Hydrocarbon Molecules Polymer Molecules The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules Molecular Weight Molecular Shape Molecular Structure Molecular Configurations Copolymers Polymer Crystallinity Polymer Crystals 457 Summary 460 Important Terms and Concepts 460 References 461 Questions and Problems 461

6 Contents xv 16. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers Introduction 466 MECHANICAL AND THERMOMECHANICAL CHARACTEKISTICS Stress-Strain Behavior Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers Viscoelasticity Deformation of Elastomers Fracture of Polymers Miscellaneous Characteristics 484 POLYMER APPUCATIONS AND PROCESSING Polymerization Polymer Additives Polymer Types Plastics Elastomers Fibers Miscellaneous Applications Advanced Polymerie Materials 499 Summary 503 Important Terms and Concepts 504 References 504 Questions and Problems Composites Introduction 511 PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES Large-Particle Composites Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 517 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES Influence of Fiber Length Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration The Fiber Phase The Matrix Phase Polymer-Matrix Composites Metal-Matrix Composites Ceramic-Matrix Composites Carbon-Carbon Composites Hybrid Composites Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 535 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES Laminar Composites Sandwich Panels 541 Summary 542 Important Terms and Concepts 544 References 544 Questions and Problems Corrosion and Degradation of Materials Introduction 550 CORROSION OF METALS Electrochemical Considerations Corrosion Rates Prediction of Corrosion Rates Passivity Environmental Effects Forms of Corrosion Corrosion Environments Corrosion Prevention Oxidation 578 CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 581 DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS Swelling and Dissolution Bond Rupture Weathering 584 Summary 585 Important Terms and Concepts 586 References 586 Questions and Problems Electrical Properties Introduction 592 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION Ohm's Law Electrical Conductivity Electronic and Ionic Conduction Energy Band Structures in Solids Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models Electron Mobility Electrical Resistivity of Metals Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 602

7 xvi Contents SEMICONDUCTIVITY Intrinsic Semiconduction Extrinsic Semiconduction The Temperature Variation of Conductivity and Carrier Concentration The Hall Effect Semiconductor Devices 616 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS Conduction in Ionic Materials Electrical Properties of Polymers 624 DIELECTRIC BEIIAVIOR Capacitance Field Vectors and Polarization Types of Polarization Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant Dielectric Strength Dielectric Materials 633 OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OE MATERIALS Ferroelectricity Piezoelectricity 634 Summary 635 Important Terms and Concepts 636 References 637 Questions and Problems Thermal Properties Introduction Heat Capacity Thermal Expansion Thermal Conductivity Thermal Stresses 652 Summary 654 Important Terms and Concepts 655 References 655 Questions and Problems The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior Domains and Hysteresis Soft Magnetic Materials Hard Magnetic Materials Magnetic Storage Superconductivity 683 Summary 686 Important Terms and Concepts 687 References 688 Questions and Problems Optical Properties Introduction 693 BASIC CONCEPTS Electromagnetic Radiation Light Interactions with Solids Atomic and Electronic Interactions 695 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS 697 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS Refraction Reflection Absorption Transmission Color Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 705 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA Luminescence Photoconductivity Lasers Optical Fibers in Communications 712 Summary 715 Important Terms and Concepts 716 References 716 Questions and Problems Materials Selection and Design Considerations Introduction Magnetic Properties Introduction Basic Concepts Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 667 MATERIALS SELECTION FOR A TORSIONALLY- STRESSED CYLINDRICAL SHAFT Strength Other Property Considerations and the Final Decision 725 AUTOMOBILE VALVE SPRING Introduction 725

8 Contents xvii 23.5 Automobile Valve Spring 727 ARTIFICIAL TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT Anatomy of the Hip Joint Material Requirements Materials Employed 736 THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM ON THE SPACE SHUTTLE ORBITER Introduction Thermal Protection System Design Requirements Thermal Protection System Components 741 MATERIALS FOR INTKGRATED CIRCUIT PACKAGES Introduction Leadframe Design and Materials Die Bonding Wire Bonding Package Encapsulation Tape Automatic Bonding 753 Summary 755 References 756 Questions and Problems Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering Introduction 760 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS Component Design Materials Manufacturing Techniques 761 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL CONSIDERATIONS Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 764 Summary 766 References 767 Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 768 Appendix B Electron Configurations for the Elements 770 Appendix C Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 774 C.l Density 775 C.2 Modulus of Elasticity 777 C.3 Poisson's Ratio 779 C.4 Strength and Ductility 781 C.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 787 C.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 788 C.7 Thermal Conductivity 791 C.8 Specific Heat 794 C.9 Electrical Resistivity 796 CIO Metal AUoy Compositions 799 C.ll Glass-Transition and Melting Temperatures (Polymers) 801 Appendix D Mer Structures for Common Polymers 802 Appendix E Taxonomic Charts 807 E.l Strengthening Techniques 808 E.2 Heat Treatments 809 Glossary 810 Answers to Selected Problems 825 Index 830