List of elements with their symbols (up to atomic number 92) Name Name Name

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List of elements with their symbols (up to atomic number 92) Name Name Name Actinium Holmium Radon Rn Aluminium Hydrogen Rhenium Re Antimony Indium In Rhodium Rh Argon Ar Iodine Rubidium Rb Arsenic

1 List of elements with their symbols (up to atomic number 92) Name Name Name Actinium Holmium Radon Rn Aluminium Hydrogen Rhenium Re Antimony Indium In Rhodium Rh Argon Ar Iodine Rubidium Rb Arsenic A5 Iridium Ir Ruthenium Ru Astatine At Iron Fe Samarium Sm Barium Ba Krypton Kr Scandium Sc Beryllium Be Lanthanum La Selenium Se Bismuth Bi Lead Pb Silicon Si Boron B Lithium Li Silver Ag Bromine Br Lutetium Lu Sodium Na Cadmium Cd Magnesium Mg Strontium Sr Calcium Ca Manganese Mn Sulfur 5 Carbon C Mercury Hg Tantalum Ta Cerium Ce Molybdenum Mo Technetium Tc Cesium Cs Neodymium Nd Tellurium Te Chlorine CI Neon Ne Terbium Tb Chromium Cr Nickel Ni Thallium TI Cobalt Co Niobium Nb Thorium Th Copper Cu Nitrogen N Thulium Tm Dysprosium Dy Osmium Os TIn 5n Erbium Er Oxygen 0 TItanium TI Europium Eu Palladium Pd Tungsten W Fluorine F Phosphorus P Uranium U Francium Fr Platinum Pt Vanadium V Gadolinium Gd Polonium Po Xenon Xe Gallium Ga Potassium K Ytterbium Yb Germanium Ge Praesodymium Pr Yttrium Y Gold Au Promethium Pm Zinc Zn Hafnium Hf Protactinium Pa Zirconium Zr Helium He Radium Ra

2 B. G. Lottermoser Mine Wastes

3 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

4 Bernd G. Lottermoser Mine Wastes Characterization, Treatment and Environmental Impacts with 65 Figures and 45 Tables Springer

5 DR. BERND LOTTERMOSER School of Earth Sciences James Cook University PO Box 6811 Cairns, Queensland 4870 Australia ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists thispubhcation in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at < This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically ilie rights or translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of thispubhcation or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law or-september 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be ootained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in Sot1:cover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 2003 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations ano therefore free for general use. Product liability: The publishers cannot guarantee the accuracy' of any information about the application of operative techniques and meaications contained in this book. In every individual case tlie user must dieck such information by consulting the relevant literature. Data conversion: Baro Stasch ( ) Uwe Zimmermann, Bayreuth Cover design: E. Kirchner, Heidelberg Printed on acid-free paper 32/3141hlS

6 Preface This book is not designed to be an exhaustive work on mine wastes. It aims to serve undergraduate students who wish to gain an overview and an understanding of wastes produced in the mineral industry. An introductory textbook addressing the science of such wastes is not available to students despite the importance of the mineral industry as a resource, wealth and job provider. Also, the growing importance of the topics "mine wastes", "mine site pollution" and "mine site rehabilitation" in universities, research organizations and industry requires a textbook suitable for undergraduate students. Until recently, undergraduate earth science courses tended to follow rather dassicallines, focused on the teaching of palaeontology, crystallography, mineralogy, petrology, stratigraphy, sedimentology, structural geology, and ore deposit geology. However, today and in the future, earth science teachers and students also need to be familiar with other subject areas. In particular, earth science curriculums need to address land and water degradation as well as rehabilitation issues. These topics are becoming more important to society, and an increasing number of earth science students are pursuing career paths in this sector. Mine site rehabilitation and mine waste science are examples of newly emerging disciplines. This book has arisen out of teaching mine waste science to undergraduate and graduate science students and the frustration at having no appropriate text which documents the scientific fundamentals of such wastes. There are books which cover the principles and practices of environmental management at mine sites (Hutchison and Ellison 1992; Mulligan 1996) and the environmental impacts of mining (Ripley et al. 1996). There are also a number of books and reports addressing particular mine waste topics such as tailings (Ritcey 1989), sulfide oxidation (Alpers and Blowes 1994; Evangelou 1995), mine waters (Morin and Hutt 1997; Younger et al. 2002), acid mine drainage (Skousen and Ziemkiewicz 1996), mine water treatment (Brown et al. 2002), and cyanide-bearing wastes (Mudder et al. 2001). Some of these books and reports, written for researchers or industry practitioners, contain a lot of useful theoretical or practical information. However, a single introductory text explaining the scientific principles of problematic mine wastes is still missing. This book aims to fill this gap and will thereby complement the existing literature. It has been written with undergraduate science, environmental science and engineering students in mind who have already gained a basic knowledge in chemistry and the earth sciences. Details of mineralogical and geochemical aspects have been deliberately omitted from this work as these are already covered by the existing literature. This book will be particularly of use to those students with a preliminary understanding of inorganic chemistry, hydrology, mineral-

7 VI Preface ogy, and geochemistry. Postgraduate students working on mine wastes are advised to consult the specialized literature. I like to express my appreciation to the many colleagues and students who fuelled my interest in wastes. Of all my colleagues I am most grateful to Associate Professor Paul Ashley (University of New England, Armidale, Australia) whose cooperation over the years has been so enjoyable and most stimulating. The funding and technical support for my research programs and those of my students came over the years from the Australian Research Council, Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Bicentennial Gold '88 Endowment Fund, Environment Australia, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, University of New England, James Cook University, State Government agencies of New South Wales, South Australia and Queensland, and various private companies. An Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship made this book possible. Special thanks to my wife Johanna for her encouragement and understanding. To my family, especially Natalia - thank you for being there! Finally, this book would not have happened at all without the initial suggestion by my father - dieses Buch ist fur Dich.

8 Contents 1 Introduction to Mine Wastes Scope of the Book Definitions Mining Activities Metals, Ores and Industrial Minerals Mine Wastes Mine Waste Production Mine Wastes: Unwanted By-Products or Valuable Resources? Mining and Environmental Impacts Contamination and Pollution Historic Mining Present-Day Unregulated Mining Regulation of Modern Mining Rehabilitation of Mine Wastes and Mine Sites Sources of Information Summary Sulfidic Mine Wastes Introduction Weathering of Sulfidic Mine Wastes Acid Producing Reactions Pyrite Other Sulfides Other Minerals Acid Buffering Reactions Silicates Carbonates Exchangeable Cations Reaction Rates Spontaneous Combustion of Pyritic Wastes Formation and Dissolution of Secondary Minerals Pre-Mining and Post-Mining Secondary Minerals Solubility of Secondary Minerals Acid Consumption and Production Coatings and Hardpans... 56

9 VIII Contents 2.7 Acid Generation Prediction Geological Modeling Geological, Petrographic, Geochemical and Mineralogical Descriptions Sampling Geochemical Tests Modeling the Oxidation of Sulfidic Waste Dumps Monitoring Sulfidic Wastes Environmental Impacts Control of Sulfide Oxidation Wet Covers Dry Covers Encapsulation, In-Pit Disposal and Mixing Co-Disposal and Blending Addition of Organic Wastes Bactericides Summary Mine Water Introduction Sources of AMD Characterization Sampling and Analysis Classification Acid Waters Extremely Acid Waters Neutral to Alkaline Waters Saline Waters Processes Microbiological Activity Precipitation and Dissolution of Secondary Minerals Coprecipitation Adsorption and Desorption Eh-pH Conditions Heavy Metals The Iron System The Aluminium System The Arsenic System The Mercury System The Sulfate System The Carbonate System ph Buffering Turbidity Prediction of Mine Water Composition Geological Modeling Mathematical and Computational Modeling Field Indicators of AMD

10 Contents IX 3.8 Monitoring AMD AMD from Sulfidic Waste Rock Dumps Hydrology of Waste Rock Dumps Weathering of Waste Rock Dumps Temporal Changes to Dump Seepages Environmental Impacts of AMD AMD Management Strategies Treatment of AMD Neutralization Other Chemical Treatments Anoxic Limestone Drains Wetlands Adit Plugging Ground Water Treatment Summary Tailings Introduction Tailings Characteristics Process Chemicals Tailings Liquids Tailings Solids Tailings Dams Tailings Hydrogeology AMD Generation Tailings Dam Failures Monitoring Wet and Dry Covers Thickened Discharge and Paste Technologies Backfilling Riverine and Lacustrine Disposal Marine Disposal Recycling Summary S Cyanidation Wastes of Gold-Silver Ores Introduction Occurrences and Uses of Cyanide Cyanide Chemistry Free Cyanide Simple Cyanide Compounds Complexed Cyanide Gold Extraction Heap Leach Process Vat/Tank Leach Process Hydrometallurgical Wastes Cyanide Analysis and Monitoring

11 x Contents 5.7 Environmental Impacts Cyanide Destruction Natural Attenuation Enhanced Natural Attenuation Engineered Attentuation Summary Radioactive Wastes of Uranium Ores Introduction Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Uranium Uranium Ores Placer and Beach Sands Aqueous Chemistry of Uranium Oxidative Dissolution of Uranium Minerals Uranium Solubility Uranium Precipitation Radioactivity Principles of Radioactivity Radioactive Decay of Uranium and Thorium Units and Measurements of Radioactivity and Radiation Dose Radioactive Equilibrium and Disequilibrium Uranium Mining and Extraction Conventional Mining and Extraction In Situ Leach (lsl) Operations Mining, Processing and Hydrometallurgical Wastes Tailings Tailings Radioactivity Tailings Solids Tailings Liquids Tailings Disposal Long-term Stability of Tailings Dams Mine Water Constituents Treatment Monitoring Radiation Hazards Radiation Dose and Human Health Occupational Radiation Exposure Environmental Impacts Summary Wastes of Phosphate and Potash Ores Introduction Potash Mine Wastes Potash Ores Mining and Processing Wastes

12 Contents XI 7.3 Phosphate Mine Wastes Phosphate Rock Mining, Processing and Hydrometallurgical Wastes Phosphogypsum Disposal of Phospho gypsum Potential Hazards and Environmental Impacts Summary References Subject Index

Glossary Table G.l. Standard International (SI) system of units Physical quantity Length Mass Time Electric current Temperature Amount of substance Meter Kilogram Second Ampere Kelvin Mole m kg A K mol Table G.

work, heat Eledric potential Condudance Specific conductance Area liquid volume Solid volume Flow Weight Celsius temperature Radioactivity Unit Newton Joule Volt Siemens Microsiemens per centimeter

13 Glossary Table G.l. Standard International (SI) system of units Physical quantity Length Mass Time Electric current Temperature Amount of substance Meter Kilogram Second Ampere Kelvin Mole m kg A K mol Table G.2. Derived and SI-related units Physical quantity Force Energy. work, heat Eledric potential Condudance Specific conductance Area liquid volume Solid volume Flow Weight Celsius temperature Radioactivity Unit Newton Joule Volt Siemens Microsiemens per centimeter Hectare Liter Cubic meters liters per second Tonne (metric) Degree Celsius Curie Symbol I Conversion N == kg ms-2 J ==Nm V == j A IS-I S = AIf"I I1Scm- 1 ha = 10 4 m 2 = la-3 m3 t m = 101kg ' C = K-273.1S Ci = 3.7 x disintegrations S-I Table G.3. Weight-based concentrations Unit ~ ~ Parts per billion Parts per million Weight percent Symbol ppb = I1g kg-i ppm = mgkg-i wt.% == (kg kg-i) x 100

liter mgl- I Volume percent vol.% = (II-I) x 100 Table G.S.

Micro- Nano- Pico- k c m 1-1 n p 10 3 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 Table G.6. Abbreviations (aq) S.

cf. d e.g. etc. EC Eh (g) h i.e. (I) min n.a.

14 XIV Glossary Table G.4. Volume-based concentrations Unit Symbol Micrograms per liter I-Ig I-I Milligrams per liter mgl- I Volume percent vol.% = (II-I) x 100 Table G.S. Prefixes to SI and derived SI units Prefix Symbol Value Mega- M 10 6 Kilo- Centi- Milli- Micro- Nano- Pico- k c m 1-1 n p Table G.6. Abbreviations (aq) S.c. ca. cf. d e.g. etc. EC Eh (g) h i.e. (I) min n.a. REE (s) TDS UV yr Aqueous Before Christ Circa Compare with Days For example Et cetera Electrical conductivity Oxidation potential relative to the standard hydrogen electrode Gas Hours That is Liquid Minutes Not analysed Rare earth elements: La to Lu Solid Total dissolved solids Ultraviolet radiation Years

This resource contains three different versions of the periodic table, including a blank one for colouring!

Teaching notes This resource contains three different versions of the periodic table, including a blank one for colouring! It also contains tables of the Group 0, 1 and 7 elements with a few columns for