Biology 621 Final Exam Review

Transcription

1 Biology 621 Final Exam Review

2 Chapter 12 -The Nervous System Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System motor pathways sensory pathways autonomic pathways somatic pathways sympathetic nervous system parasympathetic nervous system prepares the body for emergency increase pulse, blood pressue dilate pupils, liberate glucose decrease digestive and urinary systems

3 Neuron Structure Dendrites (receive impulse) Cell Body (metabolic functions and decisions ) Axon (carries impulse Away from cell body toward target) Schwann Cell (Insulates, protects, nourishes) Node of Ranvier (between Schwann cells; place for signal to jump) Synaptic Terminal (signal converted to chemical)

4 The nerve impulse-know the details!

5 The axon ends with a synaptic terminal The Synapse Impulses must jump across these gaps (synaptic gaps) Explain the process Neuromuscular junction

6 Brain structures and functions

7 Chapter 13 Endocrine System Types of hormones Hormone regulation Human endocrine glands and hormones (pancreas, adrenal gland, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, gonads, pineal, thymus)

8 Hormone Regulation A 2 nd messenger model (protein) B 1 messenger (steroid)

9 Chapter 14 Asexual reproduction (Binary fission, Spore formation, Budding, Regeneration) Mitosis

10 Know the differences in cytokinesis between animal and plant cells

11 Meiosis- know the 4 stages of meiosis 1 1st Meiotic division produces: 2 haploid cells with double stranded chromosomes 2nd Meiotic division produces: 4 haploid cells with single stranded chromosomes

12 Chapter 15-Reproduction FSH & LH Levels FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE LH FSH Ovarian cycle Estrogen & Progesterone Levels Ovarian hormone cycle Follicle growth Estrogens menstruation Ovulation Corpus luteum degeneration Progestins Menstrual (uterine) cycle Uterine Lining Growth Menstral flow Proliferative phase phase Secretory phase Days:

13 Cleavage The series of divisions the zygote begins after fertilization divides by mitosis (number of cells doubles at each division) no growth of cells occurs, instead each division decreases cell size until cells of the embryo are reduced to size of adult organism s cells Morula - solid ball of cells early in the division which goes on to form the Blastula - a hollow sphere filled with fluid. Cavity is called the blastocoel

14 Gastrulation Occurs when the blastula reaches several hundred cells cells on one side of the blastula move inward to form a 2-layered embryo called the gastrula the opening created is called the blastopore (in humans & vertebrates this becomes the anus) Three sections of the gastrula: Ectoderm - outer layer of cells Endoderm - inner layer of cells Mesoderm - third layer of cells formed between the ectoderm & endoderm

15 outermost membrane Chorion lines the inside of the shell and surrounds the embryo (becomes the placenta in humans) aids in exchange of gases with environment Placenta formation animation

16 Allantois O 2 and CO 2 are exchanged through the blood vessels of the allantois (becomes the umbilical cord in humans in the 5th week of development) metabolic wastes are also collected in the allantois.

17 Amnion Amnion: fluid-filled sac that surrounds the embryo amniotic fluid in the sac provides a watery environment for the embryo and acts as a cushion to protect it from shock.

18 Yolk Sac Yolk sac: membrane that surrounds the yolk blood vessels carry food from the sac to the developing embryo (this disappears in humans after the development of the placenta)

19 Genetics Genetic vocabulary Genetics Problems: Monohybrid crosses, dihybrid crosses, multiple alleles, sex linked traits, incomplete dominance and codominance Mendel s Laws: Law of Segregation Law of Independent Assortment Principle of Dominance Other scientists: Sutton & Boveri, Thomas Morgan

20 DNA Structure Basic structure of DNA is a sugar-phosphate backbone with 1 of the 4 nitrogenous bases. This structure is called a nucleotide. Backbone Base RNA vs DNA Scientists

21 Replication Before replication, the parent DNA molecule has 2 complementary strands First the 2 strands separate (held together by weak H 2 bonds) Each old strand serves as a template to determine the order of the nucleotides in the new strand (must be complementary) Nucleotides are connected to form the backbone; now have 2 identical DNA molecules.

22 TRANSCRIPTION

23 Translation of mrna into proteins a. The mrna attaches to the ribosome b. The initiator site is read (AUG) c. The t-rna molecules transport amino acids to the ribosome according to the sequence of bases on the mrna d. The protein molecule is built with one amino acid after another being added to the polypeptide chain. This process is called elongation. e. At the end of the m-rna strand is a stop/terminator codon which ends the process f. The protein molecule is now released from the ribosome and is transported wherever it is needed. Factors affecting transcription and translation

24 GENE MUTATIONS POINT MUTATIONS; 2 Groups: 1. Substitution (ex. GGTAT to GGAAT) can be silent, mis-sense, or nonsense mutations. 2. FRAMESHIFT Missense mutation

25 3 KINDS of Chromosomal mutations: 1) STRUCTURAL CHANGES: (TRANSLOCATION, INVERSION, ADDITION, DELETION) 2) NONDISJUNCTION 3) POLYPLOIDY Mutagens Causes of mutations

26 Chapter 18 Detecting and treating genetic disorders Common occurring genetic disorders Difficulties in studying human heredity

27 DNA Amplification: 1. Cloning with bacterial vectors 2. Polymerase Chain Reaction GENE SPLICING Genetic Engineering Tools: Restriction enzymes, gel electrophoresis, PCR

28 Gene Therapy

29 Cloning 101

30 GMO s & GMF s Pros and cons

31 History of Evolutionary Thought Hebert Spencer Proposed concept of the survival of the fittest Erasmus Darwin Charles Darwin's grandfather and probably an important influence in developing his thoughts on evolution. John Baptiste de Lamarck First to publish a reasoned theory of evolution. Proposed idea of use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics. Rev. Thomas Malthus Wrote: An Essay on the Principles of Population, attempting to justify the squalid conditions of the poor. Charles Lyell Major influence on Darwin. Lyell s work Principles of Geology proposed that the earth is very old. Alfred Russel Wallace Theory of Natural Selection August Weismann Proposed chromosomes as the basis of heredity, demolishing the theory that acquired characteristics could be inherited. R.A. Fisher J.B.S. Haldane Sewall Wright Founding of population genetics and mathematical aspects of evolution and genetics. Charles Darwin Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection The New Synthesis Neo-Darwinism: The version of Darwin s theory refined and developed in the light of modern biological knowledge (especially genetics) in the mid-20th century Gregor Mendel Developed the fundamentals of the genetic basis of inheritance. Julian Huxley Ernst Mayr T. Dobzhansky Collaborated to formulate the modern theory of evolution, incorporating developments in genetics, paleontology and other branches of biology.

32 Summary of Darwin s Theory 1. Organisms differ; variation is inherited 2. Organisms produce more offspring that survive 3. Organisms compete for resources 4. Organisms with advantages survive to pass those advantages to their children 5. Species alive today are descended with modifications from common ancestors

33 Section 19.3 Evidence for Evolution 1. Fossil Record fossils reveal kind of organisms that were alive in past & similarities/differences to species living today. Chronological Not all species are found in fossil records (i.e. new species have evolved)

34 2. Geographic Distribution of Living Species Animals on islands have evolved from mainland migrants Populations adapt over time to adjust to the environmental conditions of their new home. Example: lemurs only found on island of Madagascar (once part of African continent), but were originally from Africa. Monkeys took over the lemur niche in Africa but could not reach the island.

35 3. Homologous Body structures Body parts in different species that have the same evolutionary origin, but have different structures and functions (ex. Wing & arm bones) Allow biologists to trace the evolutionary path of different species, linking them up in the larger evolutionary tree that links all life back to a common ancestor

36 4. Similarities in Embryology Similarities between embryos in related groups (ex. Vertebrates all go through gill pouch stage) point to a common ancestral origin.

37 5. Heredity Variations in populations can arise by : Mutations Genetic shift

38 Molecular biology Evolutionary relationships among species are reflected in their DNA & proteins 2 species with similar patterns of DNA indicates these sequences must have been inherited from a common ancestor. All eukaryotic cells have RNA, DNA, ribosomes, same 20 amino acids