POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF FOOD CROPS IN THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA (NENA) REGION

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1 POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF FOOD CROPS IN THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA (NENA) REGION 643 ELHADI M. YAHIA Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Queretaro, 76010, Mexico Introduction 1.1. Geographical location of the region The NENA region (Fig.1) is divided into 5 sub-regions including the Maghreb (Algeria, Libya, Malta, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia), the Nile Valley and Red Sea (Djibouti, Egypt, Sudan, Yemen), the Mashreq (Cyprus, Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon, the Palestinian Territories, Syria), West and Central Asia (Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan), and the Arabian Peninsula (Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates). Figure 1. NENA region Common features among countries of the region There are several common features among the countries of the region, but there are also major differences. For example there are major differences in the economical level. GNP per capita varies from $330 in Sudan, $350 in Yemen, $470 in Pakistan, $970 in Syria, $1,200 in Morocco, $1,400 in Egypt, $1,500 in Jordan, $1.550 in Algeria, $1,760 in Iran, $2,100 in Tunisia, $3,700 in Lebanon, $4,940 in Oman, $5,540 in Libya, $9,210 in Malta, $11,960 in Cyprus, $17,870 in UAE, $19,020 in Kuwait 34. In general, food production in the region is low, but varies from one country to another. Approximately 35 million metric tons of cereals are produced in the region, but about 55 million tons are consumed. Similarly, approximately 53 million metric tons of fruits and vegetables are produced, while almost 80 million metric tons are consumed. Therefore, the region is food deficit and is the largest net food importer among developing countries. The low agricultural production is due to several reasons (natural, political, social), which not only negatively affects food security but also hampers poverty alleviation efforts. The per capita food production in the region has declined, making the region a net importer of food, and food security has become a very serious problem in some areas. The demand for agricultural products has increased significantly over the last 2 decades. It is estimated that the Maghreb countries will import at least 40% of their food needs by the year Agricultural trade balance in the Maghreb sub-region is negative. This negative balance has increased significantly in the last years. For example, in 1976 it was $826 millions (Algeria), $473 million (Libya), $195 millions (Morocco), $77 millions (Tunisia), and increased in 1988 to $2,302 millions (Algeria), $1,155 millions (Libya), $149 millions (Morocco), and $481 millions (Tunisia). Between the periods of and , food imports increased by 368.8% in Algeria, 345.3% in Libya, 170.6% in Morocco and 292.7% in Tunisia 32. About 60% of the population in the region live in rural areas and depend on agriculture for their livelihood, and thus the decreasing production has a negative impact on food security, as well as on efforts toward poverty alleviation. In general, the region is a vast arid area with poor water resources. Water is a scarce resource of great strategic importance for most countries of the region. The Near East is the poorest region in the world in terms of water resources, globally and per inhabitant. The Near East covers 14% of the total area of the world and contains 10% of its population, Ramdane Dris PhD. (ed.), Crops: Growth, Quality and Biotechnology, pp All rights reserved WFL Publisher, Meri-Rastilan tie 3 C, Helsinki, Finland.

2 644 Elhadi M. Yahia but its water resources are only about 2% of the total renewable water resources of the world. The Maghreb, North Eastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula have very limited water scarcity, with values per inhabitant varying between 200 and 700 m 3 /year. However, part of the Middle East and Central Asia show higher values mostly due the abundant flows generated in the mountains areas of Turkey and in the Himalayas. The internal renewable water resources per inhabitant in the region are among the lowest in the world; with an average of 1,577 m 3 /inhabitant/year, compared to 7,000 m 3 / inhabitant/year for the whole world. It ranges from 0 for Kuwait to 10,000 m 3 /inhabitant/year Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Food consumption in general, including the consumption of fruits and vegetables, is increasing especially due to increased population growth and urbanization, but it is still generally low compared to that in other regions. Postharvest food losses in the region are very high and estimated to exceed 30%. The postharvest sector is deficient in infrastructure and facilities, trained personnel, appropriate technologies, investment, etc. There is an excellent potential for export, especially to the European and the Gulf markets. However, improvement of the export sector will necessitate major improvements in the production and the postharvest sectors Demographics The region is characterized by high population growth rate amounting to 2.5% per annum, which is higher than the world rate (1.7%) and the industrialized countries rate (0.7%). However, the population growth varies greatly from 4.2% in Libya, 3.5% in Yemen, 3.1% in Syria and 1.9% in Egypt. The population in 23 countries in the region was estimated as 385 millions in 1995 and expected to reach 582 in This increase in population growth generates greater need for food. Population density is lowest in the Maghreb region with 12 inhabitants per km 2, and highest in the Middle East with 71 inhabitants per km 2. The population density in Lebanon and Pakistan is 288 and 177 inhabitants per km 2, respectively. All the remaining countries have less than 100 inhabitants per km 2. Urbanization is increased in all countries of the region. For example 85% of the population in Libya lived in urban areas in 1995 and is expected to increase to 90% in In Morocco, the increase in urban population is expected to be from 52% in 1995 to 64% in Most of the population in the Arab Gulf states will live in urban areas in The increase in urbanization also increases the demand for food, especially of animal protein. The agricultural population in the region is high; 35.9% in Iran, 47.1% in Pakistan and 50.5% in Turkey. Women historically contributed an important role in the production and availability of food in the region. Recently, the role of women has increased in the postharvest sector, through their employment in processing plants and in packinghouses of horticultural crops, especially in Cyprus, Turkey, Morocco, Egypt, and Jordan. Women usually do tedious jobs with lower pay, because of illiteracy. Nutrition and nutritional education are still very deficient for women. Effective education programs for women on nutrition (especially the consumption of fruits and vegetables), handling of food, hygiene and processing should be intensified Overview of crops grown in the region The region, especially Turkey and Iran, is the genetic origin of many crops. However, aridity dominates most of the countries. The percentage of arable to total land varies, but generally very low in most of the countries; 1.7% in Saudi Arabia, 2.8% in Egypt, 3.2% in Algeria, 3.6% in Jordan, 18.3% in Tunisia, 27.3% in Syria and 31.9% in Turkey 19. Scarcity of water constitutes one of the most important problems facing the agricultural production in the region. The number of water-scarce countries in the region has risen from 3 in 1955 (Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait) to 11 in 1990 (adding Algeria, the Palestinian Territories, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Tunisia, Yemen). Another 7 countries are expected to join this list in 2025 (Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Syria) 12. Agriculture in the region is mostly for local consumption, although the production of horticultural crops for export is increasing. The Maghreb sub-region produces annually 3,191,856 MT of wheat, 1,180,468 MT of barley, 25,500 MT of rice, 385,750 MT of maize, 2,574,000 MT of potatoes, 5,390,389 MT of fruits and 8,942,674 MT of vegetables (Table 1). The low agricultural production is due to several factors, such as climatic conditions, the fragmentation of land holdings, the lack of effective rural institutional structures, the serious degradation of natural resources (soil erosion, desertification, water logging and salinity), etc. Arable land compared to the total land in the region is generally low, but varies among the different countries; 3.2% in Algeria and 18.3% in Tunisia. Vegetables and fruits production in the Maghreb sub-region increased 22% and 32%, respectively in the last 10 years. This is significant, but still very low to meet the requirement of the sub-region.

3 Postharvest Technology of Food Crops in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region 645 Table 1. Production of cereals, fruits and vegetables (MT) in some countries in the NENA region in Country Cereals Fruits Vegetables Algeria 2,630,000 1,440,180 2,565,200 Cyprus 140, , ,130 Egypt 19,652,317 7,235,742 13,683,269 Gaza Strip , ,100 Iran 15,123,000 11,768,628 11,670,000 Iraq 1,460,850 1,908,000 Jordan 152, , ,650 Kuwait 4,412 11, ,373 Lebanon 98,360 1,364,200 1,340,600 Libya 217, , ,800 Malta 11,800 6,510 64,137 Mauritania 162,537 24,500 13,500 Morocco 5,190,450 2,163,600 3,438,260 Oman 5, , ,817 Pakistan 26,445,400 5,347,889 4,966,841 Qatar 5,810 17,990 55,475 Saudi Arabia 2,111,000 1,189,000 1,546,000 Sudan 3,993, ,860 1,145,000 Syria 5,914,232 1,766,635 1,433,279 Tunisia 541, ,660 2,172,130 Turkey 30,540,180 10,995,580 24,835,510 United Arab Emirates ,206 1,959,527 Yemen 700, , , Cereals Domestic production of cereals in the region has doubled in the last 30 years, however, the consumption in several countries in the region increased by more than three folds in the last five years 22. The cereal imports increased by more than eight folds (from 5.7 to 43.5 MMT), while exports stagnated around 1.3 MMT. In 1999, about 35 MMT tons of cereals were produced in the region, but more than 45 MMT were consumed and less than 2 MMT were exported 22. The Maghreb sub-region produces annually about 3,191,856 MT of wheat, 1,180,468 MT of barley, 385,750 MT of maize and 25,500 MT of rice. The per capita availability of these crops is low. These quantities account for only 114 g/person/day of wheat, 42 g/person/day of barley, 13.8 g/person/day of maize, and less than one gram of rice/person/day. In both Algeria and Morocco, cereal grain production in 2000 was less than half of the 5-year average, and 37% below the previous year s level. Wheat production in Morocco was 4.4 million MT (MMT) in 1998, 2.2 MMT in 1999, and only 1.4 MMT in Total cereal production in Morocco was 6.6 MMT in 1998, 3.9 MMT in 1999 and only 2.0 MMT in This tendency indicates the serious problem of the production of basic food in the region. Diseases, insects and weeds are the major limiting factors of cereal production in the region, causing at least 30% loss in yield. Yellow rust caused by Puccinia graminis fsp. tritici is a very important disease of wheat in the region, causing yield reduction of up to 50%. Leaf and stem rust diseases also represent a serious problem for wheat in the region, reducing yield to up to 30% in some cases. Chemical control has not been very economical, in addition of being harmful to the environment and the eco-system. Breeding programs are required to control these diseases and to increase the production and availability of wheat. Molecular biology and tissue culture techniques are required to develop resistant cultivars. Available storage techniques should also be used to reduce postharvest losses Root and bulb crops In 2000 the region produced about 9 MMT of root and bulb crops, which is only about 1% of the world production. The production of these crops has increased only slightly over the last 10 years. Potatoes and onions constitute about 70% of the total produced quantity. The most important producers of potatoes in the region include Egypt (2 MMT), Algeria (1.1 MMT), Morocco (1.08 MMT), Iraq (0.42 MMT) and Tunisia (0.33 MMT). Some of the most important producers of onions include Egypt (0.763 MMT), Algeria (0.416 MMT), Morocco (0.362 MMT), Tunisia (0.255 MMT) and Libya (0.23 MMT).

4 646 Elhadi M. Yahia Olives The region (especially the Maghreb and Mashreq sub-regions) is very important for olive production (about 1,940,000 MT annually in the Maghreb sub-region). Most of the olives are produced in rain-fed areas. Several varieties are produced in the region. In Morocco, the 2 most important cultivars are Picholine Marocaine (80%) and Picholine de Languedoc (20%). Olives in the region suffer several problems including low yield and low quality. Some estimates indicate that up to 80% of the olive trees do not receive special care. One of the major problems of olive trees in the region is alternate bearing. It is estimated that the control of the problem of alternate bearing can increase the production of oil in the region by up to 60%, reducing the needs for import. Therefore, the control of this problem is essential, and should be considered as strategic for the region. The collaboration in the region is essential, especially in coordinating the research activities. Postharvest handling of olive in the region varies depending on the destination of the fruit, but it is mostly deficient Dates Dates are very important in the region. For example, date palm is the main activity in south Algeria with approximately 8,500,000 palm trees and an average production of about 1.5 MMT 11. Dates and their syrup, locally known in Arab countries as Rub Ettamr, are consumed by a large number of people, especially in some low-income families as they are a very important source of carbohydrates. Many varieties are produced in the region: Bikrari, Khadhrai, Taasfirt, Deglet Nour, Taker-Bouchr, etc. The yield of dates is very low in the region. For example, in Morocco there are 4.5 million trees, with an annual production of about 100,000 MT. Most of the dates in the region is produced in the desert, suffers from drought and several diseases including Bayoud caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. Sp. Albedenis. During the last 50 years this disease has destroyed about two thirds of the palm trees in Morocco. In addition, several poor quality cultivars are still been cultivated. The regional network for date palm in the Near East and North Africa was established as a postharvest and marketing regional network that complements ACSAD network. This network was established to increase communication and exchange experience among date producing countries. Postharvest handling of dates is still very traditional and deficient. For example, postharvest operations carried out by farmers in Oman range from conveying the dates in date palm fronds and plastic containers through to open-air, sun drying to room temperature and refrigerated storage 5. It has been reported 11 that most of the dates produced in Algeria are stored in refrigeration for national market and for export, but insect infestation especially by Ectomyelois ceratomiae is high causing losses of 10-20%. Some research in the region has been initiated on agricultural aspects such as breeding and disease control. However, no postharvest research is yet to be conducted. There is abundant solar energy available in the region, and therefore there are good prospects in applying innovative solar technologies in postharvest operations such as ripening, heat treatments for disease and insect control and drying fumigation Citrus The region, especially the Maghreb sub-region, is an important producer of citrus crops. The major producing countries include Turkey, Iran, Morocco, Egypt and Pakistan. For example, Morocco produces annually about 0.9 to 1.4 MMT, in about 74,000 ha. The variability in production in Morocco, as it is the case in the region, is due to several factors including climate variations (especially drought), sanitary conditions (gummosis and virus diseases), aging (for example over 55% of the citrus trees in Morocco are more than 20 year old, and 8-10% are more than 40 years of age), cultural practices. Insects and diseases are the major causes of quantitative and qualitative losses in citrus. Some of the most important insects that affect citrus in the region include the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata), California red scale, mites and citrus leaf miner. Some of the most important postharvest decay problems in citrus include blue mold caused by Penicillium italicum, green mold caused by Penicillium digitatum, Phytophthora rot caused by Phytophthora sp., sour rot caused by Geotrichum candidum, Alternaria rot caused by Alternaria citri, and stem end rot caused by Diplodia nataliensis Grapes Grapes are one of the most important crops of the region. Production in the Maghreb sub-region is estimated at

5 Postharvest Technology of Food Crops in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region ,800 MT annually. In Morocco, grapes are cultivated in more than 50,000 ha, of which more than 75% is for table grapes. Yield of grapes in the region is low due to drought and inefficient cultural practices. Postharvest handling is still inefficient in several countries of the region. There is no use of pre-cooling, and the use refrigeration is very limited. Decay control methods are not commonly used. Therefore, postharvest storage life of grapes in the region is commonly short Tropical fruits Some countries of the region are important producers of some tropical fruits. For example Pakistan is one of the leading countries in the production of mangoes (937,000 MT). Other mango producing countries include Egypt (289,000 MT) and Sudan (192,000 MT). Yemen produces 68,000 MT of papaya. Some of the important banana producing countries in the region include Egypt (736,000 MT), Pakistan (138,000 MT), Morocco (119,200 MT), Lebanon (110,000 MT) and Sudan (72,000 MT). Postharvest handling of tropical crops in the region is very poor, including poor selection of adequate cultivars, poor harvesting techniques and inadequate postharvest treatments and techniques Nuts The region has traditionally been one of the most important in the production of a large variety of nuts such as almond, hazelnuts, walnuts and pistachio. The major producers of almonds in the region include Iran (95,000 MT), Morocco (65,000 MT), Syria (65,000 MT), Tunisia (60,000 MT) and Pakistan (50,000 MT). In 1999, Iran exported 2,776 MT with a value of $2.7 millions. The major producers of pistachio include Iran (200,000 MT), Turkey (60,000 MT) and Syria (33,000 MT). In 1999, Iran exported 101,215 MT at a value of $315 millions. The major producers of hazelnuts are Turkey (550,000 MT) and Iran (11,386 MT) Dried fruits The region is very important in the production of a variety of dried fruits such apricots, figs and raisins. The major producers of dried apricots include Turkey (538,000 MT), Iran (243,000 MT) and Morocco (106,000 MT). The major producers of fig in the region include Turkey (260,000 MT), Egypt (220,000 MT), Iran (70,100 MT) and Morocco (68,000MT) Vegetables Great number of vegetables are produced in the region in open field as well as under cover, such as beans, carrots, cauliflower, cabbage, eggplants, lettuce, onions, garlic, peppers, cucumbers, peas, broad beans, potatoes, tomatoes, okra, etc. The Maghreb sub-region produces more than 9 MMT of vegetables annually. The most important exported vegetables from the region are tomatoes and potatoes. Yield of most of the vegetables is low, due to the lack of adequate plant materials and poor production practices. Seed production is not developed in the region and constitutes a major part of the production cost. In the last few years, production techniques have improved slightly especially for crops intended for export. Potato has the highest production and consumption of all vegetables in Algeria and is cultivated for early, normal and late markets with an annual production of about 1.5 MMT 11. Most of this crop is stored for 2-3 months. Storage is usually traditional using closed, unventilated sheds, and therefore losses range from 15 to 20%, and in hot weather up to 40% 11. Only about 20,000 MT of potatoes are stored in refrigeration. Onion production in Algeria is second to potatoes, with an annual production of about 50,000 tons of green onions and 250,000 MT of dry onions with postharvest losses ranging between 20 to 50% 11. Several crops are cultivated under cover. For example, in Morocco there are more than 5,000 ha of tomato cultivated under greenhouse plastic. Other crops cultivated under cover include cucumbers, eggplants and peppers. Only very little postharvest research is carried out in the region, mostly on tomatoes Flowers Production of flowers in the region is not very developed, especially for the national markets. However, there is a growing

6 648 Elhadi M. Yahia industry such as in Morocco and Egypt, for export. In 1992, flowers in Morocco were grown on 400 ha, including 250 ha under cover, compared to only 15 ha in More than 90% of the produced cut flowers in Morocco are for export. These exports had jumped from a value of 23 million dirhams in 1986 to 110 million dirhams in This marked increase was due to improvement in the quality of product, as well as to the wider range of exported flowers (roses, mini-carnations, gladioli, and srelitzias) and to the expansion of air transport. Postharvest handling of flowers in the region is very poor. No pre-cooling is used, and refrigeration is very limited. The development of adequate postharvest techniques can increase flower availability and quality and can also increase export and its return Alternative crops Alternative crops, with high value, resistant to drought and other types of stress (such as high temperatures), need to be introduced and promoted. Several crops from the region can be promoted for their productivity characteristics and tolerance to the different types of stress conditions. For example, the argan tree (Argania spinosa) is an endemic wild tree growing mostly in the South-Western part of Morocco over an area of 828,000 ha in semi-arid and arid zones. The tree is very well adapted to very dry and low-fertile soils and in regions where the annual rainfall is less than 200 mm. This tree is very popular where it is growing, and it protects the environment from erosion and desertification. The argan tree is used for different purposes, but its oil which belongs to the oleic-linoleic group of edible oils, contains about 80% of unsaturated fatty acids. This oil is more unsaturated and contains less oleic acid than olive oil, and thus it is considered of high nutritive value and as hypocholesterolaemic. In addition, the non-saponifiable fraction of the argan oil, which represents about 1% of the oil, contains carotenes, tocopherols, and sterols. α-tocopherol (440 mg/kg) makes argan oil a good source of vitamin E. However, this oil is only about 1.6% of the total annual edible oil consumption in Morocco. This is mainly due to the rudimentary extraction methods used. With the extraction methods used, about 100 kg and 8-10 hrs of work are needed to produce liters of oil. More appropriate technology can significantly increase oil extracted. The argan tree is regarded primarily as a fruit tree and also as a fodder and a forest tree. However, unfortunately, the argan acreage in Morocco has been decreasing since the 1970 s due to the intensive agriculture and increasing irrigated areas, where for example, 10,000 ha were lost between 1969 and 1986 (580 ha/year) due to the development of vegetable cultivation. It is estimated that according to current deforestation rate, the argan tree would almost entirely disappear from Morocco by the year The argan tree has only very few natural pests, and it is very adapted to the harsh environmental conditions of North Africa. It has been successfully introduced to several countries in Europe, Asia and North America. So far, Tunisia has introduced the tree, and it is recommended that it be introduced to other countries of the region. 2. Postharvest Preservation of Food Crops 2.1. Scale of production of food crops Most of the farms in the region are small. For example, according to agriculture census in 1990, there were 5.1 million farms in Pakistan and 93% of these were small (up to 10 ha) accounting for 60% of the cultivated area. Large farms were only 7% of the total farms, but account for 40% of the total cultivated area. More than 90% of the farms in Kuwait, Oman and the UAE are of less than 4 ha 4. Self sufficiency rates in production of main crops in Iran in 1998 were 77.2% for wheat, 81.4% for rice, 116% for pulses, 101.7% for potatoes and % for onions Main uses of food crops Consumption The consumption of food has increased in all countries of the region. During the last 3 decades the consumption of cereals and fruits and vegetables in many countries of the region has increased by more than 3 folds. The average per capita daily consumption (kcal) during was 2,280 in Iraq, 2,290 in Sudan, 2,990 in Algeria, 3,120 in Morocco, 3,190 in Tunisia, 3,230 in Saudi Arabia, 3,280 in Egypt, 3,300 in Syria and 3,560 in Turkey. The per capita daily consumption of calories in Iran in 1998 was 4,700 kcal, of these 3,500 kcal were from products produced in the country 15. Per capita food consumption in Iran in 1998 was 10.2% protein, 21.9% lipids and 67.9% carbohydrates. In general, nutritional status in the region has improved in the last 2-3 decades. For example, the per capita daily caloric intake in the periods of and

7 Postharvest Technology of Food Crops in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region 649 increased from 2,640 to 2990 in Algeria, 2,740 to 3,120 in Morocco and 2,790 to 3,190 in Tunisia. However significant efforts are needed to overcome more poverty, nutritional and health difficulties. The consumption of fruits and vegetables in the region increased in the last 3 decades, but it is still low compared to other countries. The average per capita consumption of vegetables in the last 30 year in Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia was 63 g, 200 g, 71 g and 147 g, respectively 18. The average per capita consumption of fruits in the same countries was 43 g, 71 g, 43 g and 56 g, respectively 18. For example, the per capita potato consumption increased more than 100% in the last 30 years in Libya (reaching almost 40 kg), but it is still less than half of that in Europe. The per capita consumption of onions in Morocco has almost doubled in the last 30 years (reaching about 15 kg). The tomato per capita consumption is low and remained constant in Morocco but has increased very significantly in Libya, reaching high levels of about 120 kg. The per capita consumption of dates has not changed in Morocco but decreased in Libya. Olive consumption has slightly increased in Morocco (reaching about 3 kg), but has triplicated in Libya (reaching about 6 kg). Apple consumption has only slightly increased in the region and remained very low (lower than 10 kg). Effective, well-planned and permanent promotional/ educational campaign should be established to educate the population regarding the nutritional/health benefits of fruits and vegetables consumption. These programs should also educate the population about the potential hazards of consumption of unsafe products (such as crops contaminated with agricultural chemicals, mycotoxins, bacteria, etc) Imports and exports The production of cereals in the region was doubled over the last 3 decades, however, cereal imports increased by more than eight folds (from 5.7 to 43.5 million tons), while exports were stagnated at around 1.3 million tons 22. The production of fruits and vegetables in the region increased to about 3 folds in the last 20 years, however, imports of fruits and vegetables, although in much lower quantities than the produced in the region, increased by more than 4 folds in the last 20 years 22. The food gap in the region is increasing due to limited supply and increased demand. For example, the net food imports in the Arab countries in 1997 was 31,548,000 MT of cereals, 5,775,000 MT of milk and milk products, 892,000 MT of meat and 1,868,000 MT of vegetable oils and fats 8. The demand for food in the region is expected to increase at a rate of 3.2% per annum. The European market is very important for exports from the region. Turkey, Morocco, Egypt and Cyprus are the most important exporters of fruits and vegetables from the region to the European market. In 1999, 20 countries from the region exported fruits and vegetables to the EU market with a value of $2, millions (while the import value was $ millions). For example, in this year the fruit and vegetables exported to the EU market from different countries in the region had a value of $1, millions from Turkey, $ millions from Morocco, $ millions from Egypt, $ millions from Cyprus, and $ from Iran. The Maghreb sub-region is a net importer of foods (Tables 2 and 3). For example, in 1999 it imported more than 14 million MT of cereals with a value of over $1.6 billions, but exported only 179,538 MT with a value of less than $27 millions (FAO, 2000). Total cereal grains imports in 2000 were 6.9 million MT (MMT) in Algeria, 5.3 MMT in Morocco and 1.8 MMT in Tunisia. Wheat imports in Morocco increased from 2.7 MMT in 1998 to 3.2 MMT in Wheat imports in Algeria were 4.3 MMT in 1998 and increased to 5.2 MMT in Tunisian wheat imports in 2000 were one MMT. In 1999 the Maghreb sub-region imported 381,074 MT of fruits and vegetables with a value of $375.9 millions and exported 1.36 million MT with a value of $839.9 millions. The annual value of imports of other products is very high including $10.4 millions for olive oils, $1.4 millions for concentrated orange juice, $1.1 millions for canned pineapples, $1.456 millions for dried plums, $3 millions for raisins, $61.6 millions for tomato paste, $1.07 millions for dehydrated vegetables, $3.18 millions for frozen vegetables. In 1998, Morocco imported more than 350 MT of processed potatoes. Most of the trade of the Maghreb sub-region is with the European Community. For example, in 1999, Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia exported vegetable crops to the EU with a value of $326,000, $30,000, $245,033,000, $391,000, respectively with a total value of $245,780,000. However, vegetables imports value to the same countries in the same period from the EU were $66,412,000, $5,221,000, $14,312,000 and $12,391,000, respectively with a total value of $84,024, Fruit exports from the same countries to the EU in 1999 were $15,215,000, $10,000, $248,833,000, and $57,651,000, respectively with a total value of $321,699,000. Fruits imports value to the same countries from the EU were $1,851,000, $3,400,000, $3,625,000 and $2,821,000, respectively with a total value of $11,697, Morocco is the major exporter of horticultural crops to Europe, Algeria and Tunisia export significant quantities of fruits, while Libya is a major importer of horticultural crops. The total intra-arab vegetables exports (export within the Arab countries) exceeded $200 millions in 1994 (Arab

8 650 Elhadi M. Yahia Organization of Agricultural Development). Syria, Jordan and Egypt are the major exporters and Lebanon, UAE and Saudi Arabia are the major importers. About 99% of the exported Jordanian horticultural crops are delivered to the Arab countries, while the remaining 1% is delivered to West and East Europe 22. The total value of fruits and vegetables exported from Jordan, Tunisia, Syria, Kuwait, Egypt and Morocco to other Arab countries amounted to about $157 millions, and Syria and Jordan were the dominant exporters with about 83% of the total intra-exports. There is an excellent potential for export of horticultural crops from the region due to several reasons such as weather, availability of labor force and closeness to important export market (Europe). Although Europe is an important export market for the region, due to closeness and demand for horticultural crops, strategies should be established to explore other markets such as North America and Asia. However, in order to increase the export of horticultural crops, production systems and postharvest handling practices must be improved. Table 2. Imports (MT) of some agricultural crops to the Maghreb sub-region in Country Cereals Fruit juice Fruits and Vegetables Olive oil Vegetable oil Conc. Orange Juice Orange juice, single strength Tomato paste Dehydrated vegetables Algeria 5,765, , ,700 2,128 Libya 1,689, ,357 5,800 1, , Malta 187, , Morocco 4,379,395 1, , Tunisia 2,015, , , Source: FAO, 2000 Table 3. Value of imports (dollars) of some agricultural crops to the Maghreb sub-region in Product Total merchandize Cereals Fruits and vegetables Tomato paste Olive oils Frozen vegetables Raisins Dried plums Concentrated orange juice Canned pineapples Dehydrated vegetables Source: FAO, 2000 Value $35.8 billions $1.6 billions $375.9 millions $61.6 millions $10.4 millions $3.18 millions $3.0 millions $1.5 millions $1.4 millions $1.1 millions $1.07 millions Marketing Horticultural crops in the region are marketed mainly through the private sector oriented marketing system, although few government marketing companies exist in some countries such as in Syria and in Libya. The marketing of fresh products involves the movement of produce from farmers to commission agents in one of the wholesale markets in the major cities. Wholesale markets in most of the countries in the region distribute the majority of the locally produced and imported products. For example, the wholesale market in Amman (Jordan) handles about 62% of the locally produced fruits and vegetables, while 7% are used in food processing and the rest is marketed directly to exporters, distributors, catering suppliers and consumers 22. A chain of Assembly Markets serves the rural areas, and some of these markets provide different services such as grading, packaging and cold storage. Horticultural products in the region are sold in local markets, as well as in wholesale markets. Wholesale markets are found in major cities and are commonly controlled by town governments or by the county council. At least the principal wholesale markets are free markets, where prices are generally controlled by supply and demand and bargaining between buyers and sellers. Sellers are commonly either producers or brokers. Wholesale markets need improvement in infrastructure, communication, and quality control. In Libya and Syria government companies distribute agricultural products

9 Postharvest Technology of Food Crops in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region 651 and have some refrigerated storage and transport facilities. Food, including horticulture crops, retailing in the region is commonly done as follows: A. Wet markets. These open-air markets are very common throughout the urban and rural areas. In the cities, wet markets are typically for fresh fruits and vegetables. In most cities, wet markets retailers buy directly from wholesale markets, while retailers in rural areas wet markets often buy directly from producers. Hygienic standards and sanitary conditions in these markets are not usually controlled, and need to be improved. B. Central markets. These are common in major cities, with small shops. C. Grocery stores outlets. These outlets are where food products are typically sold. They are very numerous and scattered. These small shops can be specialized in some group of products such as dried fruits and nuts, fruits and vegetables, meat, etc, or sell a wide range of consumer oriented commodities (food and non-food). Some of these shops may contain refrigerators. D. Supermarkets. Supermarkets are growing in popularity in the region, particularly in major cities. Supermarkets usually contain refrigerators and freezers, and quality control is better than other marketing outlets. Markets, especially for wholesale are over-crowded, suffer from lack of organization, lack of major infrastructure such as adequate loading/unloading spaces, cold temporary stores, ripening facilities, adequate transportation facilities, communication, and therefore large quantities of food are lost in this process. Most are in desperate need for improvement. Effective marketing strategies for exported crops are also needed. Dependable, fast, and equitable means of getting commodities to the consumer and thus preventing quantitative and qualitative losses need better marketing infrastructures and systems. Marketing cooperatives among producers should be encouraged. 3. Postharvest Handling Postharvest handling of food in the region is generally poor, and postharvest losses are high. Studies indicate that at least 30% of horticultural crops are lost after harvest. Postharvest infrastructure (cold storage facilities, refrigerated transport, packinghouses, etc) is either scarce or not functioning adequately in most countries of the region. Postharvest research, education and extension are very poor. Professionals in the area of postharvest technology are still lacking. Adoption of already developed technological procedures is needed, provided that they fit local conditions and needs. The collaboration among the different countries in the region is very variable, but generally limited and does not seem to be very effective. Collaboration in the area of postharvest is practically non-existent at all. A responsible and more serious mechanism for improving such collaboration needs to be established. The poor postharvest handling and packaging practices of horticultural crops in the region are due to different reasons: 1. No maturity standards are developed for all of the crops produced. It is common to notice crops harvested either very early or very late. Harvesting should be regulated to reduce qualitative and quantitative losses and to protect the consumer. 2. Some of the harvesting techniques used are ineffective for some crops, causing excessive drop, damage and losses. For example, olives are still been harvested by hitting the tree in some countries, and thus causing major damage to fruit and tree. 3. Some packinghouses have been established, especially for citrus and tomatoes for export, but some of the processes inside these packinghouses are deficient. 4. Very little or no grading is practiced, especially for domestically marketed crops. 5. Currently, used packages are mostly sacks (especially for many vegetables and citrus), wooden containers, and reusable plastic containers. There is not enough use of corrugated carton packages, which are mostly used for exported products such as citrus and tomatoes. Packaging systems are not very adequate and thus causing excessive losses. Consumer packaging is not commonly used. 6. Inadequate marketing infrastructure. Markets, especially wholesale and open markets, still suffer from lack of adequate infrastructure and management. 7. Produce is commonly exposed to direct sun, with elevated temperatures. Display is sometimes done on the same truck that transports the product from the field. 8. The use of refrigeration is not enough in the region. Major quantities of horticultural crops are lost due to the lack of cooling. The use of pre-cooling is not common in the region, especially for domestically marketed crops. Several refrigeration facilities in the region are lacking adequate maintenance and/or not functioning properly. 9. Most of the local transport units are non-refrigerated. Several crops, even those that are very perishable, are still transported in bulk in non-refrigerated trucks. Some refrigerated units are used for exported products. Roads around

10 652 Elhadi M. Yahia big cities are generally in satisfactory conditions in several countries of the region, but improvements are needed for roads in the rural areas. The railroad system is either non-existent in some countries or not effectively used for perishable food transport in other countries. Sea transport is commonly used for exported products to Europe. Improvements are needed in the transport sector, including improvement of roads in the rural areas, the increase in the use of refrigerated transport units and a better use of these units. 10. Significant losses are occurring in fruits and vegetables due to decay, which is also a very important safety problem. 11. Safety problems caused by the consumption of infested crops (such as mycotoxins in some crops such as grains, peanuts, dates, etc.) are not adequately confronted. 12. Insects, especially the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) are causing major losses in horticultural crops. No effective preharvest nor postharvest control measures are commonly used. 13. No quality standards are used for products intended for the domestic market in the region, and some standards are applied for some products (such as citrus) intended for the export market from some members of the region. 14. Food safety measures need to be adequately implemented in most countries. 15. There is very little use of modified or controlled atmospheres for storage and packaging but not for transport. 16. In general, research on postharvest in the region is very weak and has no specific objectives. The number of specialists in postharvest biology and technology, as well as the infrastructure for research are very scarce. Libraries with specialized literature on postharvest are very limited. 17. All the limited technology applied in the region is imported and none is developed locally Level of organisation of postharvest handling Producer s co-operative marketing association, such as the Potato Marketing Board (Cyprus), the Co-Operative Marketing Union (Cyprus), Farmers Union (Jordan), Jordan Export and Producers Association for Fruit and Vegetables (Jordan), etc., were formed in the region. Some of these associations are very active in some countries, but the activities of some other associations in other countries are limited. In addition, numerous formal and informal agribusiness organizations and firms exist in different countries in the region. Several formal organizations have proved to be active and effective. In 1999, a total of 2949 rural cooperatives with 4,420,770 members belonging to 56,055 villages have been reported to be active in Iran 29. There are two types of rural cooperatives, traditional and non-traditional. Some of the important activities of the cooperatives are to link the producer to specific market, procure inputs, credits, information, utilize available resources and manpower for distribution of farmers livelihood, and to promote a sense of partnership with the aim of active participation of farmers in their affairs. In some production centers, cooperative activities are directed towards the production and processing of a certain crops. Examples of such cooperatives include Cooperative Confederation of Flowers, Plant and Seedlings Producers of Iran, Confederation of Saffron Producers, Pistachio Producing Cooperative of Rafsanjan, Sirjan Pistachio Production Company and Iranian Syndicate of Canning Industries. Examples of cooperatives involved in export include Confederation of Dried Fruit Exporters of Iran, Confederation of Fruit, Flower, Vegetables and Plant Exporter of Iran, Confederation of Saffron Exporter of Iran, Confederation of Plant-Based Gums and Root Crops and Seed Exporter of Iran. Some of the governmental organizations in Egypt that deal with handling and export of horticultural crops include the General Organization for Export and Import Control (GOEIC), the Egyptian Export Promotion Center (EEPC) and the Principal Bank for Development and Agricultural Credit (PBDAC). The functions of the GOEIC vary widely and include quality control and inspection, packages, and chemical use, quarantine barriers, etc. The main function of the EEPC is to disseminate trade information and analysis of export potential to assist exporters, organization of trade missions, participation in trade fairs and exhibitions, etc. The PBDAC provides short-term loans to farmers for different marketing activities, medium-term loans for transportations means and long-term medium loans for establishment of new orchards and agricultural processing units. Some of the non-government organizations include the Egyptian Exporters Association (ExpoLink) and the Horticultural Export Improvement Association (HEIA). ExpoLink provides a set of marketing and technical assistance services to exporters and generates awareness for Egyptian products in international markets Level and scale of postharvest infrastructure available The existing road infrastructure is generally deficient and does not fulfil the produce shipment requirements, especially in rural areas in most countries of the region. The cost of transportation, especially that of refrigerated transport, is quite high

11 Postharvest Technology of Food Crops in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region 653 because of poor road infrastructure and high price of fuel. The railway system is not used for the transport of perishables. The use of sea transport is very limited in many countries in the region. Air transport is still used for export, but at high cost. Sea transport is not sufficiently nor adequately used in the region. For example, until recently air transport was the primary mode of transporting exported goods from Egypt (except potatoes and citrus), however only in the last few years that sea transport became increasingly important although major quantities are still transported by air. Packing stations are increasing in some countries of the region, but almost exclusively for export products. However, the number of these packing stations is still very low and their management still needs more attention. For example, in Egypt there are 58 fruit packing stations that treat about 11.2% of the production. Almost all of these packing stations (56) are concentrated in one single region (Nile Delta Region), while there is a complete shortage of packing stations in other regions 2. In addition, the existing packing stations are only exploited to 40% of their capacity, and several of these only function seasonally (potato and oranges). According to Ministry of Trade and Supply Report (1996), these packing stations need to be modernized to satisfy handling of more horticultural crops. Cold storage facilities are increasing in most countries of the region, but are still below the required capacity. In addition, the management of most of the refrigeration capacity in the region needs major improvement. Refrigerated capacity in Morocco is estimated as 1,172,944 m 3 (227,266 tons, of which only 27,000 tons are for crops and the rest are for fish and meat), which is insufficient compared to the total production of food in the country. In Libya there is a refrigeration capacity of more than one million m 3, but this capacity is not used adequately (Anon, 1989). In 1985, only about 21% (203,945 m 3 ) was found to be functioning, while 16.1% (156,536 m 3 ) was non-functional and 6.2% was still under development (Table 4). The maintenance of the refrigeration capacity would increase the available capacity by about 10 times that of the currently available, which would store half to one MMT of food. In Jordan, there are 26 refrigerated stores with a total capacity of 64,000 tons. About 50% of the storage capacity is owned by the public sector and the remaining by the private sector. There are 440 cold store units in Egypt with a capacity of 375,000 tons, which satisfies only 2% of the storage needs of horticultural crops 2. Severe shortage of cold storage facilities is obvious in various regions in Egypt such as Nubaria, Eltahrir, Elsalhia and North Sinai, where significant quantities of horticultural crops are produced and major losses are observed. Despite the limited number of these cold stores, these were reported to function at less than 60% of their capacity 2. In Sudan, there is a cold storage capacity of only 40,000 tons, used mainly for potato storage 8, 9. The best of these is located in Om-Dorman and consists of grading, packing and cold storage with a capacity of 1500 tons, however, there is a severe shortage of cold stores in the rest of the country. In all countries of the region there is a strong need to improve the design of cold storage facilities and their management. Market infrastructure in the region, especially in the wholesale markets, is very poor. Roadside markets are very common in almost all the region, commonly at the suburb of cities and in rural districts. In almost all types of markets, the produce is exposed to very adverse conditions. Wholesale markets are found in big urban centres and usually lack appropriate infrastructure (adequate receiving areas, cold storage, adequate transport, communication facilities, etc). Partial capacity which does not include those assigned for the military, the oil industry and some other industries. Table 4. Overview of the refrigeration capacity (m 3 ) in Libya in Total capacity* Functioning Not functioning Under construction Construction not finished 970, ,945 (21%) 156,536 (16.1%) 60,183 (6.2%) 527,451 (54.4%) 3.3. Level of technologies applied Most farmers in the region have very limited transport facilities available for them. The most commonly used transport modes used include bicycles, three wheeled and small non-refrigerated trucks. Some traders use bigger trucks, mostly non-refrigerated. The use of refrigerated trucks in the region, especially for the domestic market, is very scarce. Therefore, losses during transport are very significant. The use of central packhouses is increasing, especially for exported products in several countries in the region such as Jordan, Iran, Turkey, Egypt, Cyprus and Morocco. However, most crops intended for the local markets are either packed in the field in open spaces or may not be packed and transported in bulk to the market. The use of refrigerated storage techniques are increasing in the region, but their capacity is still very low, and most fresh horticultural crops intended for the local markets are still kept without refrigeration. Natural cooling (using cold air during winter) is used in Iran and Pakistan. Less perishable crops such as potatoes and onions are sometimes stored in the farm