NATIONAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Transcription

1 Food and Agriculture Organization Republic of Yemen Royal Embassy of The Netherlands WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AND WASTEWATER RE-USE IN THE PERI-URBAN AREAS OF YEMEN (GCP/YEM/026/NET) NATIONAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME Sana a -Yemen May - July 2000

2 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme OUTLINE i EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Pages I & II I. INTRODUCTION Page 1 II. GENERAL BACKGROUND Page Environmental characteristics: Page Climate: Page Physiography: Page Geology: Page Soils Page Biological resources (flora and fauna): Page Land resources: Page Agricultural resources: Page Natural woodland resources: Page Natural rangeland resources: Page Water resources: Page Population and demography: Page Population parameters: Page Spatial and temporal mobility of population: Page The gender issue: Page Employment: Page Food consumption patterns and trends: Page Animal resources: Page Resource management trends in Yemen - Misuse of natural resources: Page Economic features: Page Place of agricultural sector in national economy: Page Place of forestry in the agricultural economy: Page General setting: Page Administrative set-up and organisation: Page Political and legislative framework: Page National development plans & policies: Page Linkages with current key priorities and strategies: Page Priorities identified by the Government: Page Priorities identified by the Aden Agenda: Page Yemen-Netherlands Sector-Wide Approach cooperation: Page Issues & key priorities identified by UNDP: Page FAO strategic & cooperation priorities: Page World Food Program strategy for Yemen: Page Issues & recommendations formulated by the World Bank: Page Priority areas of CCA/UNDAF: Page Chapter 13, Agenda 21 Rationale: Page 18

3 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme Conclusions : Page 18 ii III. WATERSHED RESOURCES CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT Page Surface water systems and drainage: Page Hydrographic network: Page Main types of watersheds: Page Agricultural production systems & economics of crop production: Page Irrigated agriculture: Page Rain-fed agriculture: Page Institutional set-up & capacity build up measures in WM&SMD: Page Institutional set-up: Page Capacity building measures: Page WM&SMD activities: Type and magnitude: Page Prior studies and activities related to WM&SMD: Page Recent and ongoing watershed management activities: Page GCP/YEM/026/NET project: Page Existing traditional watershed management practices: Page Watershed management policy and action plans: Page National Watershed Management Policy: Page Watershed Management National Action Plans: Page Observations and lessons learned: Page 25 IV. JUSTIFICATION Page 26 V. WM&SND ISSUES & PROBLEMS TO BE ADDRESSED Page Watershed problems: Page Common watershed problems: Page Specific watershed problems: Page Checking the steady degradation of the scarce land and environmental resources: Page degradation of the scarce land & environmental resources: Page Soil degradation and erosion: Page Sustaining water production, quality and use: Page Combating poverty and food insecurity: Page Reducing food insecurity Page Poverty alleviation: Page Gender equity: Page Other related issues and problems to be addressed Page 33

4 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme VI. PROGRAMME S AIMS & IMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES Page 34 iii 6.1 WM&SMD s development objective: Page WM&SMD s Immediate objectives: Page 34 VII. PROGRAMME APPROACH AND STRATEGY Page Approach adopted in the preparatory phase of the WM&SMD Programme Page Desk preparatory phase Page Preparatory field studies Page Programme approach: Page Programme strategy: Page 40 VIII. ORGANIZATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS Page Programme set up and linkages: Page Programme set-up: Page Programme linkage: Page Modality for planning, management and implementation: Page Finance and budget control mechanisms: Page Community Land Resources Management Master Plans preparation & implementation: Page 52 IX. TARGET AREAS AND BENEFICIARIES Page Target areas: Page Beneficiaries: Page Direct beneficiaries Page Indirect beneficiaries Page 54 X. PROGRAMME OUTPUTS AND DURATION Page Potential Programme interventions: Page Expected outputs: Page Programme duration: Page 60 XI. INPUTS Page Government inputs: Page Donor inputs: Page Communities inputs: Page 63

5 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme iv XII. RISKS AND ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION Page 63 ANNEXES Annex 1: Proposals for a Programme training curriculum Page 1 Annex 2: Annex 3: Developing statistical databases on land resources, actual land uses and functions and on socio-economic conditions Page 3 Proposal for the formulation of Usla Master Plans as part of the Programme s implementation Page 4 Annex 4: Setting-up a WM&SMD Programme Coordination Committee Page 6 Annex 5: Attributions of Governorates Technical Committees Page 7 Annex 6: Main problematic areas Page 7 Annex 7: Yemen s catchments and their main characteristics Page 10 Annex 8: Government inputs Page 11 Annex 9: Donor inputs Page 12 Annex 10: Detailed information on target area governorates Page 14 Annex 11: Watershed Management Policy Statements and Action Plans Page 19 TABLES Table 1: Current abstraction/recharge rates and groundwater storage for the main aquifer complexes in Yemen Page 6 Table 2: Livestock evolution (No heads) & variation in %, between Page 8 Table 3: Animal popul. distribution in the 8 governorates targeted by WM&SMD Programme Page 9 Table 4: Assessment of Directorate Watershed Management Personnel Page 22 Table 5: Types and areas of soil erosion (in 000 hectares) Page 31 Table 6: Primary socio-economic indicators in the WM&SMD Programme s selected areas Page 53 Table 7: Ongoing rural development projects in the selected governorates Page 53 Table 8: Government inputs Page 61 Table 9: Donor contribution Page 62 REFERENCES

6 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS v AA ABDP ACU AIO AREA Aden Agenda Area Based Development Programme Agriculture and Irrigation Office (Governorate) Agricultural Research and Extension Authority CCA Common Country Assessment CHUP CIT Core Implementation Team CLRMMP Community Land Resources Management Master Plan COCA Central Organization for Control and Audit CPMDG Central Planning and Monitoring Directorate General DAB Director of the Agriculture Branch DG Director General DGD District General Director DWM Directorate of Watershed Management (GDFDC) EPA Environmental Protection Authority FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FDP Forestry Development Project GCP/YEM/026 Acronym for Watershed Management and Wastewater Re-Use in the Peri-Urban Areas of Yemen Project GDFDC General Directorate of Forestry and Desertification Control GDP Gross Domestic Product GOY Government of Yemen GTC Governorate Technical Committee GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit IPRS Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy IPRS Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone LC Local Council LWASA LWCP Land and Water Conservation Project M & E Monitoring and Evaluation MAI Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation MPD Ministry of Planning and Development NAPCD National Action Plan for Desertification Control NGO Non-Governmental Organization NWFP Non-Wood Forest Products NWMP National Watershed Management Policy NWRA National Water Resources Authority PCC Programme Coordination Committee PDRY Popular Democratic Republic of Yemen PET Potential Evapotranspiration PMDG Planning and Monitoring Directorate General PRA Participatory Rapid Appraisal PRFP Policy Framework for Poverty PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper RNE Royal Netherlands Embassy ROY Republic of Yemen RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal

7 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme RSCZ Red Sea Convergence Zone SFGA Small Farmers Group Associations SFYP Second Five-Year Plan SHD Sustainable Human Development SWA Sector-Wide Approach TA Technical Assistance TCP Technical Cooperation Project (FAO) TPR Tripartite Review UN United Nations UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Network UNDP United Nations Development Programme USD United States Dollar WB World Bank WFP World Food Programme of the United Nations WM&SMD Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development WWPU Acronym for Watershed Management and Wastewater Re-Use in the Peri-Urban Areas of Yemen Project YAR Yemen Arab Republic YR Yemeni Rial YSEP Yemen Society for Environmental Protection vi

8 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme EXECUTIVE SUMMARY I Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development (WM&SMD) represents one of the six main areas of Yemen s Sector-Wide Approach that is meant to address major Country development issues, making the best of the ongoing adjustments to the macro-economic and political environment approaches. The National WM&SMD Programme has come to be, as a result of a strong recommendation of the TPR of the WWPU 1 project. Excessive population density and growth within the Yemeni highlands have considerably intensified demands on land resources and, lead to their mal, and over-use, resulting in ever-increasing poverty and environmental disruption. The mountain regions fragile environment faces complex problems and constraints brought about by accelerated degradation processes that affect their forests, rangelands and terraces network. Hence, the already scarce water resources are steadily wasted in devastating torrential flows and recurrent floods that wash away valuable productive lands. Faced as it is with the overall task of achieving economic and social progress, the ROY is promoting appropriate policies and strategies, that approach natural resources conservation and development in an integrated and comprehensive way. In this context, the WM&SMD Programme is regarded as a multidisciplinary endeavour striving after durable resource development. It aims at assisting Yemeni people and government alike in their efforts to establish a grassroots, economically reliable and environmentally sound watershed management and sustainable mountain development scheme, to improve the livelihood and well being of highland communities in a gender and responsive manner. The development objective of the Programme should be attained in a period ranging from years. The Programme encompasses sets of interventions and contributions in cycles of 5 years meant to coincide with Yemen s Five-Year Plans. The Programme s immediate objectives, which are to be attained in 10 years, aim at: i) Strengthening/enhancing local institutions capacity in the area of WM&SMD; ii) Preparing long-term provincial, district and community participatory development programmes; iii) Building an efficient multi-stakeholder mechanism to act as platform for negotiation, dialogue, conflict resolution, and decentralized consultation within district and provincial structures; iv) Improving the efficiency & sustainability of the watershed/mountain resource use, to reduce the vulnerability of the poor; v) Upgrading the capacity for policy analysis, monitoring and evaluation; vi) Enhancing research development and; vii) Mobilizing human, material and financial resources. The Programme is designed within the context of a decentralized, well coordinated, participatory, integrated and bottom-up planning, implementation, management and assessment strategic framework. National, regional and local staff together with resident populations and representatives have been, fully involved at all stages of its innovative formulation. The persistent involvement of all stakeholders is to be encouraged and sustained, as it generates a sense of common ownership, while capacity building of both national institutions and civil society is to be an integral part of the whole process. Additionally, environmental considerations, gender orientation, poverty alleviation and partnership constitute other key elements of the Programme s strategy. To the avail of supporting and exercising decentralization, the Programme s detailed interventions, from planning to execution and assessment, will be conceived, organized and implemented at community level, with optimal participation of individuals, households and local communities/villages. Given the experience gained from the WWPU project in planning at community level, it is realistic to aim at a higher echelon of participatory intervention planning. Following the ongoing de-centralization process in Yemen, it appears reasonable at this early stage of the Programme, to perform planning at usla 2 level. Bearing in mind the need to target representative 1 WWPU Watershed Management and Wastewater Re-Use in Pri-Urban Areas of Yemen Project. 2 A usla is composed of a number of distinct villages and/or communities; it corresponds to the lowest administrative unit existing in the country.

9 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme as well as diversified zones, planning in each selected governorate takes place in two uslas belonging to separate districts. Community Land Resources Management Master Plans (CLRMMP) shall be prepared for each usla, early on by the Programme. Individual district programmes will be designed, making use of the uslas CLRMMPs. Following the same procedure, a WM&SMD Programme will subsequently be formulated for each selected governorate. Ensuing adequate local capacity building and improved field experience, planning would then be achieved at district level and in due course at governorate level, until all of the country s governorates are covered. The long-term national WM&SMD Programme shall ultimately result from merging the various long-term regional plans. As a learning process, the Programme is to generate continuing progress in decentralized participatory rural development. It requires therefore flexibility, that allows for probable changes and adjustments in inputs and expected outputs. It must thus make room for a built-in planning mechanism that permits regular reviews of the overall Programme and its individual components. Such review and planning exercises could be performed every two years during the first five-year phase of the Programme. Sixteen uslas singled out following an original selection process constitute the direct target areas. They belong to 16 districts distributed within 8 governorates 3. Mountain communities, local authorities and councils, line agencies, NGOs etc. constitute the target groups for all activities to be carried out within the selected uslas, in the context of the Programme. The overall Programme implementation is expected to yield a number of major outputs among, which: i) Comprehensive, integrated, gender sensitive and participatory National WM&SMD longterm Programme developed; ii) Comprehensive mountain development and watershed related policies, strategies and legislation formulated; iii) Decentralized development and planning translated into facts and civil society promoted; iv) Innovative mountain specific development and conservation approaches developed and promoted; v) Solid management and human and institutional capacities built up; vi) Upland food security and income needs substantially met; vii) social infrastructures and services improved; viii) Mountain-specific investment programmes promoted; ix) Mountains special status 4 acknowledged and translated into national policies and strategies; x) Mountain eco-tourism developed; and xi) An efficient monitoring and evaluation network set up. The government s total inputs for the first five-year period of the Programme are estimated at YR 372 million. They include contributions to be made by each of the governorates, local councils and AIOs. Personnel expenses constitute the major input (YR 182 million), followed by the labour force and casual contracts budget (YR 160 million). The total donor financial effort for the first five-year period of the Programme is estimated at US $ 7,552,000. Expendable equipment and materials amount to US $ 3 million, technical assistance comes to US $ 2 million, operation expenses and administrative support add up to US $ 1,2 million, while training- production of extension material and non-expandable equipment equal respectively US $ 700,000 and US $ 450,000. The budget for duty travel and mission is estimated at US $ 200,000. The Programme may face a number of challenging risks among, which the following: i) The move towards decentralized national execution with limited experience and knowledge; ii) Possible unacceptable outside interferences in planning and implementation; iii) the timely availability of local contributions in all governorates may constitute a major issue; iv) The stability and motivation of the personnel acquiring qualifications through the Programme may prove to be problematic; v) Specific, local socio-cultural realities may hinder the Programme in its gender responsiveness. II 3 These are: Sana a, Aden, Taiz, Hodeidah, Lahej, Dhamar, Shabwah and Mahweet. 4 Special status, as commanded by the mountain ecosystems fragility.

10 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme I. INTRODUCTION The Sector-Wide Approach initiative in Yemen is meant to address the fragmentation of development efforts resulting from project-based planning and development approaches that have prevailed so far. It is also to address such major issues as i) the biased development viewpoint of donors, planners and decision-makers; ii) the absence of ownership feelings at all levels, that comes with projects; and the targeting of short-term effects that reduce the chances for sustainability. Furthermore, the Sector-Wide Approach is to make the most of the present evolution of the macroeconomic and political environments in Yemen, to provide accrued stability in development, through better stakeholder commitment and accountable, bottom-up planning. The National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development (WM&SMD) Programme constitutes one of the six main areas of Yemen s Sector-Wide Programme. It has come to be as a result of a strong recommendation of the mid-term Tripartite Review (TPR) of the Watershed Management and Wastewater Re-Use in Peri-Urban Areas of Yemen (GCP/YEM/026/NET), to which the governments of Yemen and the Netherlands have agreed. Watershed management has been put into practice for the most part since ancient times, to secure and sustain water supply and use. It was then, already understood that He who controls the mountains, controls the rivers 5. Till recently, the definition of a watershed was confined to its hydrological functions i.e. that of an Area of land that captures rainfall and conveys the runoff to a main channel. Since then, the conclusion was reached that the watershed concept is in fact more complex. It is now characterised as consisting of a system combining very complex, interrelated and spatially and temporally variable natural, social, economic, political and institutional factors (FAO Conservation Guide 24). From an economic point of view a watershed is considered to be a productive process i.e. a process that takes in various natural and human inputs (rainfall, land, structures, institutions...), processes them, and produces various outputs (runoff, agro-forestry produce, livestock, income ). Historical evidence indicates that the Yemeni People in the past, have been successful in managing and utilizing on a sustainable basis, their natural resources and that the country enjoyed for the most, self-sufficiency in basic food items (NAPCD 6 ). In the mountain regions, which cover most of the country s surface area, watershed management has been practiced for many centuries as evidenced by the widespread, painstaking terracing and water conservation works seen everywhere (A. Maged Al-Hamiary, 1999). Elaborated to expand cultivable areas and reduce soil erosion, they relied on intricate water harvesting systems, which conserved the generally scarce, and fluctuating water resource base. Throughout the area, functional systems for collective forest and pasture use were successfully developed. In recent decades however, rapid population growth and modernization of the country have led to social and economic changes, which made the task of managing the natural resource base increasingly complex and unsustainable. Indeed, since the 1950s modern Yemen has gradually witnessed a disruption of its traditional norms of living, particularly with regard to the utilization, management and conservation of natural resources. This commotion has been aggravated by the country s exceptionally high population growth, to the effect that the pressure exerted on scarce resources has become unsustainable, particularly in mountainous regions. As a result, nearly all watershed basin areas have reached critical conditions. Several studies report that most of Yemen s agricultural lands are subject to various degrees of deterioration and that soil productivity is generally on the decline. This is particularly true in the mountain regions, where watershed degradation trends represent a major constraint in achieving integrated rural development. 5 Chinese proverb. 6 Republic of Yemen, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation National Action Plan to Combat Desertification: November 2000.

11 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme 2 Environmental problems and challenges have had a negative impact on the country s development trends 7 and the ROY has difficulties in promoting sustainable production systems. Development has so far only concerned regions with generous endowments. Mountain people and communities live below the minimum acceptable level for subsistence. They have adopted survival strategies under, which they further mine woodlands, rangelands, and other resources at rates that exceed sustainable limits for recovery or renewal. However, faced as it is with the overall task of achieving national development, the government is promoting appropriate policies and strategies to develop a national Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development (WM&SMD) programme that is environmentally sound, economically reliable and socially acceptable. II. GENERAL BACKGROUND The Republic of Yemen (ROY), which covers a total area of 555,000 km 2 (excluding the Rub a Al- Khali and Islands) is, located at, the south western edge of the Arabian Peninsula between 12º and 20º north of the Equator and between 41º and 54º east of Greenwich. The ROY includes more than 120 islands, the largest of which are Socotra in the Arabian Sea and Kamaran in the Red Sea. The country is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, Oman to the east, the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the south, and the Red Sea to the west. Apart from the broad and flat coastal plains which border the Red Sea (Tihama) and the Gulf of Aden, the rest of the country reveals a very dissected and pronounced topography to the west and south and a more gentle, less pronounced topographic expression to the east of the country. 2.1 Environmental characteristics: Climate 8 : Yemen has a predominantly semi-arid to arid climate, with rainy seasons distributed in spring and summer. Three large water bodies affect the climate of Yemen, they are: i) The Indian Ocean, including the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea; ii) The Red Sea and iii) the Mediterranean Sea. The climate of Yemen is also forcefully affected by the extensive Highlands rising up to 3,600 m, that run parallel to the Red Sea coast. Rainfall in Yemen varies considerably both in time and in space. It is contingent on the Red Sea Convergence Zone (RSCZ), which is active from March to May with its most noticeable impact being at the higher altitudes of western Yemen. Rainfall is also conditioned by the monsoon Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which reaches Yemen in July through September, moving from south to north and back to south. Rainstorms occurring in winter are attributed to the influence of the Mediterranean Sea. Precipitation, which is more important along the seaward exposed escarpments, comes mainly in the form of rain. Hail is not uncommon above 1800 m and snow occurs occasionally. Mist in the highlands and dew in the desert, though not recorded, do contribute to the moisture balance. There is a clear correlation between mean annual rainfall and topography as the former rises from 50 mm along the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden coast, to mm in the Western Highlands, decreasing steadily then to below 50 mm inland. Average temperatures are mostly controlled by altitude, decreasing by about 0,65 C 0 /100 m elevation. At lower altitudes, this relationship is disturbed by the proximity of the sea, which has a moderating effect on temperature. 7 Yemen s national report to the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Source: Agro-climatic resources of Yemen Part 1: Agro-climatic inventory, by: HY Bruggeman FAO Database Management Expert. Dhamar 1997.

12 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme 3 The mean annual relative humidity in the coastal plains is very high (70%), reaching often 90% at night. In the Highlands, it ranges from 30-60%, except in high rainfall areas, where relative humidity values range between 50-70%. In the arid interior, the relative humidity values drop below 40%, being highest during the cool season. The potential evapotranspiration (PET), which ranges from mm to mm, greatly exceeds the average rainfall, but because soil moisture is usually severely lacking during most of the year, actual evapotranspiration amounts only to a fraction of PET Physiography: The territory of the ROY may be divided into the following four main physiographic regions: 1. The coastal plains running km wide along the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, which receive low to very low rainfall, are hot and humid. They contain numerous intermittent wadis with substantial spate irrigated agricultural land. They are subdivided into three major plains, namely: i) Tihama, ii) Tuban-Abyan, and iii) Ahwar-Meifa'ah; 2. The Yemen Mountains with very irregular and dissected topography and elevations ranging from a few hundred meters, to 3,760 m. It is a volcanic region running parallel to the Red Sea coast, which comprises the Western, Southern and Eastern Slopes as well as the Highland Plains. The steep Western and Southern Slopes with rainfall ranging from mm support high population densities practicing rain-fed agriculture on terraces, while the Eastern Slopes with smoother topography and low average rainfall decreasing eastward, are sparsely populated; 3. The Eastern Plateaus and Desert Region: The hot and dry Eastern Plateaus receive little rainfall (<100 mm) and are deeply dissected by Wadi Hadramawt and its tributaries, whose floods may be devastating. The population density is low, mostly concentrated in pump irrigated agricultural lands of the Wadi Hadramawt gorges. This region is subdivided into i) the Northern and ii) the Southern Plateau zones, iii) Wadi Hadramawt and, iv) Al Ghaydah basin. The Deserts located between the Highlands and the Eastern Plateaus, are the Ramlat As Sabatayn to the south, where rainfall and vegetation are nearly absent, and the Rub Al Khali to the north, which is among the most desolate deserts in the world; 4. The Islands (more than 120 islands), including Socotra with its unique biodiversity of exuberant fauna and flora in the Arabian Sea Geology: Yemen geology is composed of quarterly deposits, volcanic rocks and basalt, as well as tertiary Jurassic and Cretaceous formations. Quarterly deposits are distributed over most of the country, especially in the coastal plains, the eastern plateaus, the Rub Al-Khali and Ramlat Sabatayn deserts and in Hadramawt. This class covers over 30% of the republic. Volcanic rocks are found in most of the central and southern highlands, whereas basalt, which is found in central and southern parts, of the country does not cover more than 10% of the country's surface area. The cretaceous formation, which is composed of white calcic rocks, limestone and sandstone is principally, found in At-Tawila unit. The Jurassic formation is found mainly in Amran and Kuhlan units Soils: The principal soil types encountered in the various physiographic regions are as follows: 1. The coastal plains soils are either alluvial fans or coarse inter-wadi soils. In wadis and floodplains the soils are loamy to silt and clay and form good agricultural land. The inter-wadi areas are dominated by dune formations and coarse skeletal sandy soils subject to wind erosion. The coastal fringes of the plains consist of extremely saline tidal flats or sabkhas with a high water table; 2. The soils of the Western Slopes range from bare rock and very shallow soils near the mountain peaks, stony and very stony calcareous soils with PH around eight and low organic matter in the middle

13 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme 4 slopes. The lower slopes have generally deep silty and loamy soils. This region has relatively extensive alluvial loams and silt loams which make good agricultural lands. Around Ibb, thick loess deposits occur which have developed deep silty soils. The Southern parts of the Midlands are occupied by, rock outcrops with pockets of shallow soil; 3. The Highlands have large stretches of plains between the mountains, which constitute extensive loamy, silty and fine silty soils on level surfaces, one third of, which bear organic matter within the surface layer. Associated with these soils are a minor component of clayey soils, which also have a dark layer rich in humus. These constitute very productive agricultural lands. On the lower slopes of the Highlands, silt loams and silt clay loams prevail, while the flat basins include silt and loamy soils; 4. The Eastern Slopes region comprises mainly rock outcrops, with some shallow soils confined to pockets. Deep loamy soils are only encountered within local depressions and wadis; and 5. In the Eastern Plains, the wadis adjoining flood plains have deep alluvial soils, which are medium textured, while the restricted areas where flooding takes place regularly, have stratified sandy loams and silt loams Biological resources (flora and fauna): The vegetation of Yemen is a mixture of the tropical African, Sudanian plant geographical region and the extra-tropical Saharo-Arabian plant geographical region 9 Thanks to great changes in landform and climate within relative short distances, Yemen is endowed with a rich variety of habitats, species and genetic diversity. However, human settlement, landscape transformation and over-exploitation of biological resources have resulted in major reductions in plant and animal species following deterioration of their habitat. It is generally admitted that Yemen was gratified with extensive vegetative cover in the past. At present, a great deal of this has been converted to cultivated land, bare lands and open shrub-land. Despite this degradation, Yemen comprises a quite diversified natural flora composed of some 3000 species ranging from common forbs to endemic species and from annuals to shrubs and trees. According to Al-Khuleidi (1995), 20% of the species are endemic. Socotra Island considered as the richest area, contains more than 680 species. Of these, 215 are endemic while 8 are endangered 10. The Yemeni Highlands are characterized by a high coverage of perennial grasses and herbs. They generally establish either on rocky sites, where excess water is available in the cracks between rocks, or on level ground, where they can hardly be seen, as they are severely overgrazed. Most of these species seem well adapted to severe grazing intensities. Yemen is also one of the world s main centres of succulent distribution. Their variety is large and a considerable number of them can only be found in Yemen, where they are considered endemic. The vegetation cover s regression has resulted in sizeable animal wildlife habitat reduction. The fauna has moreover been put under severe competition due to steadily increasing domestic livestock herds. 2.2 Land resources: Agricultural resources: Yemen is one of the oldest agricultural civilizations in the world and despite the arid climate agriculture has always been a major sector of the economy. Some 70% of the Yemeni population live in rural areas and draw a substantial part of their livelihood from farming. Agriculture is the largest sector of the economy in terms of employment (58%) and contribution to GDP (17% without Qat and 30% with qat). The Yemeni agricultural sector has witnessed significant change since the country opened to modernization in From 1970 to 1996, agriculture s share in GDP declined from almost 45% to 17% (excluding qat production) and in the labour force it dropped from 75 to 58%, mainly as a result of the faster growth of other sectors of the 9 Environmental Protection Council The Vegetation of the Republic of Yemen (Western Part) by: Paul Scholte, Abdu Wali Al Khuleidi and Jan Joost Kessler, 1991 (ARA?DHV Consultants BV). 10 Registered in the red book/catalogue of the IUCN.

14 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme 5 economy. However, during that period the absolute number of people employed in agriculture increased from 1.2 to 1.6 million, while the value-added in agriculture increased from USD 240 million to 1.1 billion. The cropped area decreased slightly from 1.27 to 1.10 million ha, and the rainfed area declined by roughly 50% from 1.1 to 0.6 million ha. Meanwhile, the irrigated area increased by nearly 150%, from 0.2 to 0.5 million ha, mostly from the expansion in well irrigation made possible by drilling and pumping technologies. Yemen s limited natural resource and agricultural base is already under stress because of the rapidly declining groundwater tables and watershed and range deterioration. The rangelands and range woodlands, which provide catchment areas for wadis, forage and grazing for livestock as well as firewood, and vegetation cover are consistently and drastically being reduced due to their overexploitation over the last few decades. Subsequently, resource conservation is the key to sustainability of agricultural production and the continued viability of the rural economy Natural woodland resources: The most recent assessment of Yemen s woodland resources has been completed in The total woodland area has been estimated at 2.4 million hectares, i.e. approximately 5% of the country s surface area. Of this, some 400,000 ha are composed of agro-forestry and date palm formations. The national woodland resources are, mainly characterized by a very low crown density. Areas of woodland with crown density greater than 50% are very small and pure woodlands are very rare as well (M. Houmymid, 1996). In the escarpments and western mountain region, which host more than 75% of the totality of the national woodland resource, traditional agricultural practices include significant areas of productive, well-managed multipurpose tree formations. The central highlands host about 17% of the country s woodland resources, while the coastal area and Al-Mahara comprise respectively 7% and 0.7% of the woodland resources Rangeland resources: Rangelands cover 40% of the total land area of Yemen, i.e million hectares 12 This takes however into account, not only the rangelands or pasture lands proper, but includes forests and woodlands as well as agro-forestry tree/shrub formations. Following this definition, rangelands include a wide spectrum of woody species, grasses and forbs and comprise a number of succulent plants belonging to the Euphorbia and cactus-like species. 2.3 Water resources 13 : Surface water flows throughout Yemen are limited to periodic flood overflows 14 associated with occasional intense or extended rainfall, and to residual flows from seepage and/or springs. The regime of streams is extremely flashy; it is not rare to observe the discharge in major wadis increase from less than 1 m 3 /second to as much as 500 m 3 /second or even 1000 m 3 /second within 24 hours time. The flood peaks carry much sediment and may be very destructive. Surface waters are primarily used for spate irrigation and natural recharge of aquifers. Groundwater systems are in a dynamic state, as a result of replenishment and discharge processes. Direct recharge of groundwater is generally very low in Yemen; it occurs mainly by infiltration of surface water from wadis. Groundwater discharge through abstraction has gained enormously in importance over the last three decades. Estimates of groundwater storage and of current rates of abstraction and recharge for the major aquifer complexes are listed in table By the Hunting Technical Company, on behalf of the Land and Water Conservation Project (LWCP). 12 Source: Aden Agenda, Agricultural policies and strategies in Yemen. MAI, August Source National Action Plan to Combat Desertification FAO/ROY/UNDP, November Intercepted for agricultural purposes.

15 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme 6 Table 1: Current abstraction/recharge rates and groundwater storage for the main aquifer complexes in Yemen Aquifer complex Approx. annual abstraction Approx. average annual recharge Fresh groundwater stored in acquifers Tihama quaternary aquifer Southern coastal plains Extended Mukalla complex Highland plains Total 810 Mm Mm Mm Mm 3 2,110 Mm Mm Mm Mm Mm 3 1,525 Mm 3 250,000 Mm 3 70,000 Mm 3 10,000,000 Mm 3 50,000 Mm 3 10,370,000 Mm 3 Source: The Water resources of Yemen Report WRAY-35 (page 88) It is clear that nation-wide, groundwater extraction exceeds by far recharge. However, for individual major aquifers, the situation is much worse. The most endangered aquifer systems in this respect are those of the Highland Plains whose groundwater storage capacity is limited and where extraction amount to five times the recharge rates. The rates of groundwater lessening levels are alarmingly high in many zones, especially in the Highlands where declining trends between two and six m/year are commonly observed (Report WRAY-35,). Agricultural water use in 1990, accounted for 93% of total water use in the Republic of Yemen. The increasing demand for water in agriculture is a major concern. The demands for 1999 were estimated to be 2,565 Mm3 with an annual increase of about 3%. Low irrigation efficiencies and poor water management practices contribute to rising irrigation water demands. Furthermore, the absence of appropriate policies and regulations for water resources management for the last few decades was an important factor behind the water crisis in Yemen. According to the Environmental Impact Assessment for Water Resources Planning Sector 15, in excess of 2,000 Mm 3 are withdrawn from Yemen's northern, eastern and western basin aquifers annually... The estimable depletion rate of 860 Mm 3 /year in excess of annual recharge potential represents some 5% of the usable storage of these aquifers.... This rate is bound to increase greatly in the future. According to Sadek N. Al-Nabhani (March 2000), the average annual rate of depletion of aquifers in Yemen is very important as it varies from 1-8 meters. If the current rates of groundwater abstraction were to be maintained, it is believed that the city of Sana a might run dry in ten years time, while the last drop of groundwater in Yemen would be pumped in 40 years time. It is widely acknowledged that the country faces a grave water crisis, which if left unattended would threaten the survival of cities and rural settlements alike. Imperative and urgent action to pull the country from the brink of disaster is clearly needed. The WM&SMD Programme should prove to be very useful in improving and sustaining the water production potential and functions of upstream watersheds. Providing water demands for a rapidly growing population has resulted in a considerable imbalance between supply and demand. The total water demand for the country during the plan period ( ) was estimated to increase from 2,817 Mm3 in 1996 to 2,932 Mm3 in year 2000, with 90% for agriculture, 8% for domestic water and 1.5% for industry. Future projections for the year 2010 put the total water demand at 3.3 billion cubic meters. 2.4 Population and demography 16 : 15 Volume VIII published in Source: National Action Plan to Combat Desertification FAO, GOY, UNDP: November 2000.

16 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme Population parameters: The ROY has an estimated population of million growing at an annual rate of 3.7% (1998 statistics, NIC). It has more than doubled in the last 20 years. Maintaining the present growth rate, will double the population once more in less than 20 years. The average annual population growth rate for urban areas was equivalent to 7.03% as compared to 3.74% in rural areas, during the period 1986/ indicating the importance of rural-urban migration. Yemen's total fertility rate of 7.4 births/woman is the highest in the Middle East-North Africa Region, while the female primary school enrolment rate (37%) and life expectancy at birth (57 years) are the lowest. The country s population density has increased from 21 persons/km 2 in 1990 to 27 persons/km 2 in Three governorates (Ibb, Taïz, Al-Mahweet) display population densities in excess of 100/km 2. Four governorates, which cover only 12% of the country's surface area, form 50% of the total national population. Their respective percentage of national population is as follows: i) Taïz: 14%; ii) Ibb: 12.4%; iii) Sana'a: 12%; and iv) Hodeidah: 11%. 18 The bulk of Yemeni society consists of tribal members. The tribal configuration of Yemeni society has significant implications for development policies and approaches especially when considering the strong influence of customary regulations on attitudes and behaviours. In the rural areas of Yemen, there is a long-standing cooperative ethic, since Islamic and tribal customary laws emphasize cooperation according to consensus. In this general social context in which tribalism is a dimension of decentralization, a number of developmental and social issues will need to be addressed through decentralized community-based approaches which attempt to set up grass-roots institutions and to define decision-making mechanisms at local level Spatial and temporal mobility of populations: The present population distribution is a reflection of internal rural-urban and urban-urban migration trends. It also results from external migration, mainly to the Gulf countries. There is at present a net annual transfer of some 40,000 persons from rural to urban areas. Emigration patterns are in fact very complex in Yemen and even when away, rural Yemenis never lose contact with their keens and their land. The governorates with the highest rates of out migration have all a strong agricultural vocation and are facing intense pressures due to high propriety fragmentation and fast population growth The gender issue: Generally speaking, women care for small livestock herds and contribute to farm labour. In addition, they are in charge of household activities - cooking, fetching water, collecting fuel-wood, washing, child rearing etc. In general, they are not recognized as farmers 20 and they do not have access to resources, inputs, and services. Even though their share of work in the household and on farm is by far the most important, women are not decision makers and are not involved in development programmes. It is through their role as wife and mother that women gain status and can eventually gain a measure of power Employment: Unemployment and over-employment were already chronic and worsening before unification. Since then, the situation has further aggravated as a direct consequence of: i) the 1990 Gulf War's influx of some returnee expatriate workers from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf countries; ii) the influx of some Somali refugees in the early 1990's in the wake of the civil strife in the Horn of Africa; iii) the series of natural catastrophes which struck Yemen 21 ; iv) the 1994 internal military conflict and consequent damage to the national economy and infrastructures; v) the effects of the programme of major structural adjustment of the economy etc Food consumption patterns and trends: The food self-sufficiency ratio, which was about 75% in 1970, has declined sharply, to less than 30% currently. Moreover, the significant changes 17 Human Development Group. Middle East and North Africa Region. Report No Yem, Source: National Census Source: Environmental Situation in Yemen. EPC, Except when left alone to manage the farm. 21 Earthquakes at Ibb & Saada in 1992 and floods in South Eastern provinces (1992, 1993) and in much of the country in 1996.

17 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme 8 in food consumption patterns have increased Yemen s dependency on imported food products. Food consumption patterns have experienced drastic changes in less than 3 decades (1961/ /90). Rural households have reduced their reliance on subsistence products and adopted new consumption patterns, which include among others, rice, sugar, wheat, vegetable oils etc. Wheat, the most popular cereal is largely imported and was heavily subsidized. Wheat subsidy in 1995 amounted to YR 10 billion and it was expected to raise to YR 34 billion (5% of GDP) in Wheat consumption has increased 8 folds. Rice follows in order of importance as its availability mainly through imports has increased by 5 folds. The per-capita availability of sugar also largely imported, increased by more than 50%. The per-capita vegetable oil supply increased by almost 600%. The per-capita poultry consumption increased from 0.4 kg/head/year to 6.6 kg/head/year To dispose of the necessary cash money for these products, farmers have introduced within their often limited and marginal holdings, unsustainable cash crop cultivation (cotton tobacco etc.) at the expense of the previous sustainable subsistence production systems. 2.5 Animal resources: Throughout the past decades, Yemen s animal population has expanded steadily and abnormally, considering the limited carrying capacity of natural rangelands and woodlands. Previous official figures 22 available for the Yemen Arab Republic 23 (YAR) indicate that the animal population had doubled between 1970 and In comparison, the increase in animal population during the last decade ( ) has been less spectacular, being estimated at 22.5% (Table 2). Table 2: Livestock evolution (number of heads) and variation in %, between 1990 and Year Sheep Goats Cattle Camels Total Variation % ,756,190 3,568,383 3,639,751 3,677,257 3,714,763 3,751,477 3,922,359 4,266,690 4,527,094 4,667,049 3,333,090 3,166,441 3,229,770 3,263,382 3,296,995 3,328,442 3,557,523 3,881,375 4,088,895 4,204,170 1,175,272 1,116,917 1,139,256 1,151,076 1,162,896 1,174,313 1,180,934 1,201,216 1,263,483 1,281, , , , , , , , , , ,170 8,439,342 8,017,794 8,248,151 8,262,817 8,347,484 8,429,448 8,839,836 9,530,413 10,062,408 10,338, % % % % % % + 12,93 % % + 22, 50 % Increase (90-99) 24.3 % 26.1 % 9.1 % 5.9 % 22.5 % Source: 1999 Agricultural Statistics Book, Mai MAI and Yemen Information Centre. The population remained virtually constant from 1990 to 1995, passing from 8, 439,342 to 8, 429,448 heads. The overall increase (22.5 %) took place lately, between 1995 and This is worrisome, considering that the animal population has now reached over 10 million heads, while natural pastures have been further degraded. Moreover, the reduction of fodder production from rangelands has in no way been compensated by an increase in agricultural fodder production. Goats and sheep, which depend most on rangelands and woodlands constitute the major component of Yemen s livestock population. They amounted to 8,871,219 heads in 1999, equivalent to 85.8% of the animal population. 22 National Report ROY Environment Development, EPC. 23 Present northern governorates of the ROY.

18 National Watershed Management and Sustainable Mountain Development Programme 9 The 1999 animal population of the eight governorates targeted by the present WM&SMD Programme is presented in Table 3 below. The sheep population equals 2,503,765 heads, representing 53.6% of the country total. Surprisingly, Sana a alone hosts 39.8% of the country s sheep population. The goat population (1,934,188 heads) of these governorates constitutes 46% of the country s total, while cattle and camels represent respectively 64.3% and 29.2% of the country s whole. The governorates of Sana a, Aden, Taiz, Hodeidah, Lahej, Dhamar, Shabwa and Mahweet host 51.6% of the total livestock population of Yemen. While it is no surprise to note that Aden hosts a modest animal population (160,499 heads), it is astounding to realize that a governorate full of potential such as Mahweet, only hosts 106,172 heads of livestock. Table 3: Distribution of the animal population in the eight governorates targeted by the WM&SMD Programme. Country Animal Population year 1999 (heads) Governorate Sheep Goats Cattle Camels Total (heads) Total country 4,667,049 4,204,170 1,281, ,170 10,338,364 Governorates Sana a Aden Taiz Hodeidah Lahej Dhamar Shabwa Mahweet 996,905 47, , , , , ,803 37, , , , , , , ,631 27, ,480 3, , ,101 68, ,024 1,481 39,993 5,686 2,086 5,467 17,318 9,996 5,253 13, ,704, , , , , , , ,172 Total 2,503,765 1,934, ,403 54,133 5,334,183 Governorates % of country 53.6 % 46 % 64.3 % 29.2 % 51.6 % Source: 1999 Agricultural Statistics Book, Mai MAI and Yemen Information Centre. 2.6 Resource management trends in Yemen: Misuse of natural resources: Environmental degradation impacts are serious and often critical in Yemen where net population growth exceeds 3% per year, agricultural land is limited, holdings per family remain small, rainfall and surface water flows are erratic, and groundwater is overexploited and used inefficiently. This leads to a continued and relentless exertion of pressure on resources and on lands, regardless of their relative fragility and scarcity. A spiralling form of resource degradation takes place as a consequence, which causes reduction of land productivity and primary goods availability resulting in progressive abandonment of traditional community-based resource management systems. Following are some forms of misuse of resources: R Qat consumption: Qat's consumption, which was confined to the elite in the past, has become widespread both in the north and in the south of the republic in recent years. Besides their negative impact on individual household budgets, qat issues are central to food security, water use, and agricultural growth in general. Despite the lack of reliable statistics, it is estimated that qat s cultivation over some 80,000 ha of very productive land accounts for 30 to 40% of the total water use in Yemen. Energy consumption patterns: A World Bank mission estimated in 1983 that the total fuel-wood consumption in YAR was 5 million m 3 (3 million tons) in 1982; it projected that fuel-wood consumption would reach 8.5 million m 3 by the year 2,000, at which time; it was believed that fuel-wood supplies would have disappeared. Numerous other variable estimates have been proposed which indicated the negative impact of fuel-wood collection on the woody biomass and predicted also that by the year 2,000, the total available woody biomass would be exhausted (A.C. Millington for UNDP/WB Energy Sector