Wetlands were once common features on the landscape. We know that many of them have been drained and filled. This presentation will show you how to

Transcription

1 Wetlands were once common features on the landscape. We know that many of them have been drained and filled. This presentation will show you how to identify where they once occurred on open and forested land. 1

2 This area used to be wetland. It s located on John Johnston s historic farm near Geneva, NY where clay drain tiles were first used in The deep ditch was dug to indirectly drain wetlands on the surrounding land by providing an outlet for the buried clay tiles. The stake in the background marks one of a number of outlets for buried clay tiles that were placed to create the field. 2

3 The outline of drained wetlands is easy to see in this aerial photo. Dark colored ditches connect each lightly colored lobe of the emergent wetland. This photo shows a poor and incomplete job of drainage. The drained wetlands cannot be farmed because they are too wet. This drainage work was probably done by an adult who was a also a poor student in school. One would have difficulty seeing the outline of the historic wetlands if the drainage was accomplished by a competent individual. 3

4 Ditches like this one dug near Esserville, Virginia have been used to drain wetlands for hundreds of years. Two ditches were dug to drain this wetland, the second one is visible in the background. Ditches have characteristics that are different than natural streams. A ditch is generally straight, has almost vertical sides, contains few pools or riffles, is generally free of large woody debris, and is often eroding. 4

5 This deep ditch is removing standing water and lowering the elevation of groundwater in what was once a forested wetland containing ephemeral wetlands in Squamish, British Columbia. Note that the channel is straight with steep sides, and that no pools are present. A natural stream on this location should be sinuous with low banks. The wetlands were also filled, leveled, and sloped towards the ditch to create the field whereas historically the area contained pits and mounds. Remnants of forested and ephemeral wetlands are still visible in the wooded area on the left side of the ditch. 5

6 These wetlands in Ohio were drained by placing runoff from hillsides and streams into ditches. Note how the ditches meet at right angles, which is a telltale sign of where wetlands have been drained. Small puddles can be seen in the field following a rain, which is also a sign that much larger wetlands once occurred on the site. 6

7 The red line marks the center of a diversion ditch that was built to dry the land adjacent to the stream for farming. The diversion ditch prevents hillside runoff and water from ephemeral and intermittent streams from saturating the field below. 7

8 This intermittent tributary to Slabcamp Creek was moved to flow along the base of the hill, draining wetland for farming in Rowan County on the Daniel Boone National Forest, in Kentucky. The level land on the right was farmed in the 1800s and early 1900s before acquisition by the Forest Service. Finding a stream along the base of a mountain or hill is clear evidence that wetlands have been eliminated from the valley. 8

9 Here is where Spaas Creek in Menifee County, KY was moved to the base of the hill in the 1800s. This was done to dry wetlands in the riparian area for farming. The moved stream is still being used as a road. Note that the stream is straight, flows along the base of the hill, contains few pools, riffles, or large woody debris. 9

10 Ditches used to drain wetlands can be difficult to see in forested areas. This area was once wetland, drained for farmland, and then planted to trees on the Sumter National Forest in South Carolina. The ditch continues to remove standing water and groundwater hundreds of years after it was dug. 10

11 Lidar is an amazing tool that allows one to identify drainage features that were once only visible by visiting an area on the ground. The Lidar image is basically a photograph taken with a radar. 11

12 Drained wetland basins, ditches, and channeled streams are clearly present on this Lidar image taken on the Sumter National Forest in South Carolina. The area is forested with large diameter trees, and the image was taken during leaf-off conditions. This Lidar image is the equivalent of a topographic map with 6-inch contours. That means that you should be able to detect hand-dug drainage ditches that are only 6-inches deep. 12

13 Here some of the drainage features are labeled on the Lidar image. 13

14 This small wetland is actually a low place in a diversion ditch that was constructed along the base of a hill in New York. The original wetland was much larger, covering most of the old field on the left. The presence of small wetlands on level ground generally indicates that much larger wetlands once occurred in the area. 14

15 This stream was moved and straightened in Fleming County, Kentucky to create fields for farming. The valley was once wetlands with braided stream channels. The presence of head-cuts show that the stream is continuing to cut deeper. The deep stream also serves as an outlet for buried drain lines installed in the fields. 15

16 This deep ditch was dug to drain wetlands in Menifee County, Kentucky. The ditch removed standing water in wetlands and lowered the elevation of the water table. The ditch also carries the water from a tributary to the main stream so it won t flow over the field. The ditch now serves as an outlet for buried drain lines that have been installed in the fields. 16

17 One can see signs of wetland drainage in the strangest places. The clay tiles left over from draining wetlands have been stored beneath this farm building in Fleming County, Kentucky for years. 17

18 This drain pipe sticking out of the ground shows where a wetland was located. The vertical pipe serves as a surface inlet that rapidly moves standing water into a buried drainage system of clay tiles and/or plastic drain lines. 18

19 This surface inlet is called a Hickenbottom. Its was installed by Eddie Kime on John Johnston s historic farm near Geneva, New York. Surface inlets are added to drainage systems where there is a serious problem with standing water, and where the deepest part of a wetland occurred. 19

20 There are two signs this orchard used to be wetland, the surface inlet and the puddle in the road. The surface inlet carries water into a buried drainage system. The puddle indicates soil high in clay, that when compacted forms a wetland. Located near Valparaiso, Indiana 20

21 You are looking at a drained wetland in Illinois. Notice the orange colored surface inlet in the center of the photo. 21

22 Here is another drained wetland in Illinois. The orange pipe, barley visible in the center of the field, is a surface inlet. 22

23 The concrete circle below the electric meter is a sump that collects water from a vast network of buried drain lines in the large field. A pump located in the sump moves water across a road into a ditch. The pole and line provide electricity for the pump. The two large trees are growing near the center of the drained wetland, and the row of trees in the background once grew along the shore. Located in western Minnesota. 23

24 This landscape in Daviess County, Kentucky, was greatly modified to convert wetland to farmland. The large and straight ditch was constructed to consolidate water from shallow streams and to serve as an outlet for a subsurface drainage system that was installed to convert the wetlands to farmland. Note the presence of three drainage outlets shown by red arrows in the foreground. These are the outlets from buried clay tiles and plastic drain lines. The presence of deep ditches like this one and pipe outlets shows that wetlands once occurred nearby. 24

25 This is an outlet to a buried drainage system of clay tiles that was installed by John Johnston in 1838 on what is now Eddie Kime s farm. The drainage system is still working after 175-years. The wetlands that were drained into this pipe will be located uphill from the outlet. 25

26 Here is a outlet to a buried drainage system that was used to drain wetlands near Clays Mill in Fayette County, Kentucky. The drainage system is slotted black plastic pipe. The white solid pipe is used to protect the outlet from flood damage. The wetland was located on a level area of ground uphill from the pipe. 26

27 The green field near Sudith, Kentucky was once wetland. The pipe is the outlet for the buried drainage system. To drain the wetlands the stream was moved and channeled, drain lines were buried, and the wetlands were filled with soil. 27

28 This field next to I-64 in Daviess County, Kentucky was once wetland. Notice the deep and straight ditch, and unprotected outlet for a buried drain line in the ditch. 28

29 These two clay pipes are outlets for a buried drainage system along Claysmill Creek in Lexington, Kentucky. The wetlands were located in the mowed field along the stream. 29

30 A great deal of effort has been taken to control erosion at this drainage outlet. The bricks have been placed around the outlet to prevent head-cuts from forming when water flows over the surface under flood conditions. The white plastic pipe has been placed around the black plastic pipe to provide support and to extend the outlet to further prevent erosion from occurring. The drainage outlet shows that large portions of the fields uphill were once wetland. 30

31 This mowed yard belonging to John Newman in Fleming County, Kentucky was once wetland. We don t often think of peoples yards have being wetlands at one time. 31

32 John Newman installed four buried drain lines to drain the wetland so it could become part of his yard. He built this sump to collect the waters from the drain lines. 32

33 The water that is collected is moved via the larger white plastic drain line to ditch along the highway in front of his home. 33

34 This field near Meyers Fork in Menifee County, Kentucky was once wetland. The wetland was drained by moving the stream to the side of the hill, installing buried clay tiles, and by filling and leveling. Here a new plastic drain line is being installed years later to take care of wet places developing in the field. The landowner will complete the covering of the drain line once the field dries. 34

35 The pink flag marks a blow-out or suck-hole in a field that is created by water and soil from the surface flowing directly into a wide gap between adjacent clay tiles buried deep in the ground. The hole can be expected to become larger over time. The farmer plans to dig out and replace this section of drain line before that happens. Vertical holes in fields are rare, and are generally caused by subsurface drainage systems. A hole dug by woodchuck, badger, or gopher should be dug at an angle and have a pile of soil at the entrance. Blow-outs are reliable signs that the area was once wetland. They can be found even after a field has grown up to trees. 35

36 Here is where a small tile blow-out has become quite large. The large vertical hole was created when water from the surface found a direct path into a buried line of clay tiles. Clay tiles were visible in the bottom of the hole. Blowouts can form when some factor causes the gap between adjacent clay tiles to widen. 36

37 This restored forested wetland along the Licking River in Bath County, Kentucky is still being affected by historic drainage actions. As part of construction a 4-foot deep trench was dug around the site using an excavator to locate buried drain lines, which were then removed. A buried drain line that was missed was found during an inspection two years later by the sound of running water. 37

38 This is where the outlet for the buried drain line is located, along the Licking River. No pipe can be seen, and there is no stream channel, but water is flowing out of the ground at this point. 38

39 The vertical hole with water running in the bottom of it betrays the presence of an outlet for a buried drainage system. The drain line could be constructed from wood, rock, or clay tile. 39

40 This steam of water is emerging from the ground surrounding the outlet from the missed drainage system. An excavator is needed to dig out the buried drain line and pack the trench with soil. 40

41 Drainage outlets containing no visible pipe can often be detected by identifying short ditches along longer ditches or streams. These outlets ditches show where wetlands on adjacent ground have been drained. 41

42 Outlet ditches are clearly visible on this aerial photo taken near Patronville, Indiana. 42

43 The patch of un-mowed vegetation was once the deepest water in a wetland located on a ridge in Menifee County, Kentucky. A ditch and buried drain line were installed to drain the wetland. Had one or two more buried drain lines been installed it would have been possible to farm the entire wetland. 43

44 The light colored basin in the center of the photo is drained wetland. The corn planted in the drained wetland was stressed during a wet year. The buried drainage system needs to be improved for the crops to survive in wet years. 44

45 The wet area is a drained emergent wetland along the Little Fork of the Sandy River in Carter County, KY. Only one buried drain line was installed to drain the oxbow shaped wetland. A complete job of drainage would have involved installing more drain lines and filling with soil so there would no longer be water or aquatic vegetation present. 45

46 Can you spot the drained and filled wetland in this photo? It s in Rowan County, KY along Bullfork Creek. The dry depression in the center of the field was once wetland. 46

47 The ghost of the wetland appears after 3-inches of rain. The buried drainage system that was installed in the field dries the wetland within one day. 47

48 The bank is a levee that was built along a moved and straightened stream. The levee was built to prevent floodwaters from flowing over the field and saturating the soil. The field is located at Todd Flats on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. 48

49 The road passes over the edge of the ephemeral wetland located on the right side of the photo. Vehicle traffic has compacted the soil so that plants cannot grow. The road is inundated following tropical storms and hurricanes on the Ocala National Forest in Florida. 49

50 This large field in Fleming County was once wetland. The parallel lines in the foreground are ditches, the parallel lines in the background are where plastic drain lines were recently buried. Fox Creek was moved over to the left side of the valley. 50

51 The area beneath the blacktop road and to the left of the road was once wetland. The small white building is a spring house. A pipe carrying water from the spring is located beneath the road that carries water to a moved stream. Located near Watkins Glen in New York. 51

52 This rare forested wetland with white oak trees is located on a ridge within the Finger Lakes National Forest near Hector, New York. The wetland was cut in half years ago by the construction of a road. This portion of the wetland is located upstream from the road. The bare ground with dark stained leaves and trees with buttressed stumps show that the area is wetland. 52

53 Close examination of the wetland shows that spotted salamander eggs, which are laid in water, are now stranded on dry ground. The short hydro-period of the wetland is being caused by a ditch that was built along the edge of the road. The ditch directs waters from the deepest part of the wetland into a culvert that flows under the road. 53

54 The forested wetland is not present on the downhill side of the road. This is because a ditch was dug to move water from the culvert away from the road. The ditch begins at the outlet of the culvert and goes for over 300-feet through the middle of what was once a forested wetland. 54

55 Head-cuts are present in the ditch leading from the culvert. These head-cuts are deepening and widening the ditch, eliminating surface water and lowing the elevation of groundwater. 55

56 Notice the drop off at the outlet for the culvert. This is caused by head-cuts moving upstream in the constructed ditch. The head-cuts have deepened and widened the ditch, lowering the elevation of groundwater in the forested wetland. 56

57 Large white oaks can still be seen on the level ground below the road and near the ditch. The white oaks are growing on dry land that was once forested wetland. The road can be seen in the background. The presence of the ditch and scattered white oak trees are signs this area used to be wetland. 57

58 This field on John D. Smith s farm in Menifee County, Kentucky was once wetland. The trees near the barn once grew along the banks of the stream. Springs emerged from along the stream banks. The water from the springs was placed underground in clay tiles and the stream was moved to along the property line, where the trees are growing on the right. Such a good job was draining this site that it no longer looks like a wetland. 58

59 A hand-dug drainage ditch can be seen in the center of the photo. The wetland was drained in Alabama for mosquito control by the TVA. The trees probably began growing after the wetland was drained. 59

60 Here is the same site after the wetland was restored. 60

61 The presence of lands shows that a wetland is being farmed. This tobacco field is in lands. To drain the wetland the farmer moved the stream to the base of the hill and then dug a diversion ditch on the other side of the valley. Horses pulled plows to shape a series of ridges from the wet ground that could be farmed. The ridge is called the land, and the area where soil was removed is called the dead furrow. 61

62 This field is also in lands, showing that it was once wetland. The lands and the deadfurrows are wider, indicating that they may have been made by using heavy equipment such as a dozer. A diversion ditch has been dug along the base of the hill and the stream was moved to the base of the hill on the other side of the valley. The formation of lands has been used to farm wetlands around the world. The practice was low cost yet not nearly as effective as using buried drainage structures to dry the land. 62

63 The lower portion of this old field at Mass Audubon s Long Pasture Preserve on Cape Cod, Massachusetts was once wetland. Lands were formed in the wetland so it could be farmed. These dead furrows contain water and were not designed to drain like ditches. The farmer would have maintained the field by hand-cutting the trees and shrubs growing along the dead furrows. 63

64 Here is another portion of the same field that was placed in lands. The maple trees are growing in the dead furrows where there is more moisture. 64

65 This area was once wetland in the 1800s. Lands were plowed in the wetland so it could be farmed. The dead furrow is the water that appears to be a in a ditch that is not draining. The lands once planted to crops are now growing trees and the non native shrub multi-flora rose. 65

66 The blue lines marks the center of the dead furrow and the brown line is the center of the land that was created in this wetland so it could be farmed in the early 1900s. 66

67 The dark green line is a dead furrow that was filled after clay tiles were buried in the field. Soil settled in the dead furrow and it is now growing rushes. The row of trees in the background are growing along a moved stream. The field was leveled after the drain lines were installed. 67

68 Once a wetland, this site was plowed to form lands. White pine were planted on the lands. The trees are now lowering the elevation of groundwater on the site. Located in Menifee County, KY on the Daniel Boone National Forest. 68

69 Notice the wide lands that were formed from this wetland so it could be farmed near Saylor Road and the Dix River in Lincoln County, Kentucky. The rows of trees and growing along ditches or moved streams. We ll see how this field appears from above. 69

70 The lands and dead furrows appear as parallel stripes in the fields. The rows of trees are growing along the drainage ditches. 70

71 To confirm that the striped pattern is lands and not the current years farming practices it is a good idea to see if the lands are visible on older aerial photographs and to visit the area on the ground. The lands are clearly visible on this older photograph. 71

72 The field in the center of this aerial photograph is also in lands, showing that the area was once wetland. Located near Salt Lick, Kentucky. 72

73 The lands pattern is also visible on older photographs. 73

74 This shrub-scrub wetland is being filled with waste soil from another site. It is easy to tell that this is happening because of the light color of the soil being dumped in the wetland. Unfortunately, identifying wetlands that have been filled can be a very difficult thing to do. 74

75 Here is how one would expect the surface of a natural wetland to appear. It is uneven with pits and mounds of various sizes where large trees have fallen over historically. Shallow ridges are present from past river and stream action. The trees on this forested wetland were removed to create pastureland. The scattered ephemeral wetlands would have been filled and the area leveled if the field had been cultivated and planted to crops. This site is on the Shawnee National Forest in Illinois. 75

76 It can be very difficult to identify a filled wetland, especially if soil of similar texture to the upland that surrounded the wetland was used to fill the wetland. One can generally find the bottom of the original wetland if a deep test hole is dug by using an excavator, as wetlands can be filled with 8-feet or more of soil. The soil in the wetland can be identified as fill if contains items such as trash, asphalt, concrete, strange colored rocks, and broken bottles. The bottom of the filled wetland often contains hydric soil, leaves, and large woody debris. 76

77 Terry Moyer points to a filled wetland at the Richardson Wildlife Foundation in West Brooklyn, Illinois. This large wetland had been filled with many feet of sand and trash, including old farming equipment. Topsoil had been spread over the top of the fill, making it appear that the site had always been that way. Someone did a good job filling and draining this wetland because it no longer looks like a wetland. Filled wetlands appear like any other field, only they are too perfect with no imperfections like pits, mounds, puddles, and ridges. Terry found that the cost of restoring this wetland was too high to be feasible due to the large quantity of soil and trash that would have to be removed. 77

78 Jim Curatolo and Melissa Yearick with the Upper Susquehanna Coalition in New York are standing on a mound of rocky fill that was placed in what was once wetland. The area surrounding the fill is silt-clay-loam texture soil that has drainage ditches and alder growing on it. The portion of the wetland that was filled is high, dry, and rocky, with non-wetland plant species growing on it. The area that was filled is quite large, extending back into the trees and shrubs growing behind them. The tile probe that Melissa is holding was used to map the extent of the rock fill that was placed in the wetland. Whoever filled the wetland did an incomplete job because the surface was left uneven, and topsoil was not spread so it could be farmed. 78

79 This wetland near Whistler, British Columbia was filled with rock for the construction of a road. This is easy to detect because of the unnatural white color of the rock, and the fact that water is on both sides of the road, and is flowing over the road. 79

80 The edge of this wetland was filled for construction of the same road. Signs of modifications include: 1. The road bench along the edge of the wetland that the person is walking on 2. White rock in the wetland and along the shore of the wetland where it rolled off the road 3. No large trees growing along the shore 80

81 You are looking at a filled wetland on the Ocala National Forest in Florida. The home was built on over 8-feet of fill that had been placed in the wetland to serve as a foundation for the home and the yard. 81

82 The steep banks along the edge of the wetland indicate the area was filled. Notice the ditch that was dug along the base of the fill. Examination of old aerial photographs shows that the home and yard were once wetland. 82

83 One way to identify a filled wetland is to measure the depth of topsoil. This wetland was filled with over 3-feet of topsoil years ago. We had to stop the restoration project because our budget would not allow for removing this much soil to reshape the original buried basin. 83

84 This wetland, located on a ridge near the Boxley Quarry in Piney River, Virginia was filled with trash. The presence of a few willow oak indicates the area was once wetland. Filling wetlands has been a standard farming practice for hundreds of years. I have been amazed by the ingenuity and dedication farmers showed towards finding fill to place in their wetlands. 84

85 This wetland, located on the Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia, was filled with logging debris from a timber sale. Scattered rushes and sedges can be seen growing on the site. The pink flag in the background on the left was tied on an alder growing along the historic edge of the wetland. 85

86 You are looking at a wetland that was filled with 5-feet of soil by John D. Smith in Menifee County, Kentucky. He covered the surface of the fill with topsoil, pushing in the edges by using a dozer. What was once low ground is now high ground, and what was once the high perimeter of the wetland is now low ground. One typically underestimates the quantity of fill used to level wetlands. I visited this site with a team of professional soil scientists packing long soil augers who argued with John D. Smith that the area had not been filled and had never been wetland. 86

87 Please examine this aerial photograph taken in Franklin County, Pennsylvania to see how many signs of wetland drainage you can identify. 87

88 1. Lands 2. Lands and the faint image of a drained wetland 3. Moved and straightened stream 4. Moved stream (notice right angle bend) 5. Ghost of drained wetland and moved stream 6. Deep ponds dug from wetlands 88

89 See how many signs of drainage you can identify on this photo taken near Shrimpstown, Pennsylvania. 89

90 1. Lands, notice how part of field has grown up to trees 2. Ditch or straightened stream 3. Image of drained or filled wetland 4. Probable buried drain lines 5. Outlet ditch 90

91 This agricultural area is near Rockport, Indiana. Identify the signs of drainage on this aerial photograph. 91

92 1. Drainage outlet 2. Straightened stream 3. Deepest part of drained wetland 4. Image of filled and drained wetland 5. Surface inlet 92

93 I hope that you can better find drained wetlands on the landscape and that you will be inspired to plan for their restoration. These white water lilies are growing in an emergent wetland we restored near Clearfork Creek in Rowan County, Kentucky. We saved and spread the topsoil in the completed wetland and the white water lilies appeared naturally. The species is one of the rarest plants on the Daniel Boone National Forest. 93

94 This emergent wetland is only one-year old on the Terry Back farm near the community of Salt Lick in Bath County, Kentucky. The wetland was restored by removing and blocking buried clay tiles, filling ditches, and by reshaping a shallow wetland basin. 94

95 Restored wetlands are great places for young people to learn about how they can help the environment. 95

96 This wetland was restored by blocking a drainage ditch and by reshaping a wetland basin in the shape of an oxbow. It would be great to see more restored wetlands along the highway than drained wetlands. 96

97 You are encouraged to visit the website for the Center for Wetlands and Stream Restoration to learn about books describing how to identify drained wetlands, and how they can be restored. You ll also find the dates for Hands-on Wetland Restoration Workshops in your area, and information about online wetland restoration classes offered by the University of Louisville, and by SUNY-ESF. Remember to join us on May 29 and September 18 for the next wetland restoration webinars. 97