Geography GCSE. Paper 2 Challenges in the Human Environment Section A: Urban Issues and Challenges

Transcription

1 Geography GCSE Paper 2 Challenges in the Human Environment Section A: Urban Issues and Challenges Name

2 General Revision Activities Flash Cards which have the key term on one side and its meaning on the other, used for check and test Revision Quiz As simple as a piece of A4 paper folded into a booklet with at least 10 questions on the outside and answers on the inside. Use the revision checklist to ensure your quiz covers all key contents. Mind Map Use a combination of key words, colours, symbols and pictures/sketches to summarise the key knowledge needed for each case study based on the revision check list Revision Guide Answer all the areas on a revision checklist, presenting it however you like Exam practice Urban Issues and Challenges CHECKLIST The global pattern of urban change. Urban trends in different parts of the world including HICs and LICs. Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation migration (push pull theory), natural increase. The emergence of megacities. Tick when confident A case study of a major city in an LIC or NEE (Mumbai) to illustrate: the location and importance of the city, regionally, nationally and internationally causes of growth: natural increase and migration How urban growth has created opportunities: social: access to services health and education; access to resources water supply, energy economic: how urban industrial areas can be a stimulus for economic development How urban growth has created challenges: managing urban growth slums, squatter settlements providing clean water, sanitation systems and energy providing access to services health and education reducing unemployment and crime managing environmental issues waste disposal, air and water pollution, traffic congestion. An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor in Mumbai An overview of the distribution of population and the major cities in the UK. A case study of a major city in the UK (London) to illustrate: the location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city How urban change has created opportunities: social and economic: cultural mix, recreation and entertainment, employment, integrated transport systems environmental: urban greening How urban change has created challenges: social and economic: urban deprivation, inequalities in housing, education, health and employment environmental: dereliction, building on brownfield and greenfield sites, waste disposal the impact of urban sprawl on the rural urban fringe, and the growth of commuter settlements. An example of an urban regeneration project (London 2012) to show: reasons why the area needed regeneration the main features of the project. Features of sustainable urban living: water and energy conservation waste recycling creating green space. How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion. 1

3 KEY WORD GLOSSARY Brownfield site Land that has been used, abandoned and now awaits some new use. Commonly found across urban areas, particularly in the inner city. Dereliction Abandoned buildings and wasteland. Economic opportunities Chances for people to improve their standard of living through employment. Greenfield site A plot of land, often in a rural or on the edge of an urban area that has not yet been subject to any building development. Inequalities Differences between poverty and wealth, as well as in peoples' wellbeing and access to things like jobs, housing and education. Inequalities may occur in housing provision, access to services, access to open land, safety and security. Integrated transport systems When different transport methods connect together, making journeys smoother and therefore public transport more appealing. Better integration should result in more demand for public transport and should see people switching from private car use to public modes of transport, which should be more sustainable. It may also lead to a fall in congestion due to less road users. Mega-cities An urban area with a total population in excess of ten million people. Migration When people move from one area to another. In many LICS people move from rural to urban areas (rural-urban migration). Natural increase The birth rate minus the death rate of a population. Pollution The presence of chemicals, noise, dirt or other substances which have harmful or poisonous effects on an environment. Rural-urban fringe A zone of transition between the built-up area and the countryside, where there is often competition for land use. It is a zone of mixed land uses, from out of town shopping centres and golf courses to farmland and motorways. Sanitation Measures designed to protect public health, including the provision of clean water and the disposal of sewage and waste. Social deprivation The degree to which an individual or an area is deprived of services, decent housing, adequate income and local employment. 2

4 Social opportunities Chances for people to improve their quality of life, for instance access to education and health care. Squatter settlement An area of poor-quality housing, lacking in amenities such as water supply, sewerage and electricity, which often develops spontaneously and illegally in a city in an LIC. Sustainable urban living A sustainable city is one in which there is minimal damage to the environment, the economic base is sound with resources allocated fairly and jobs secure, and there is a strong sense of community, with local people involved in decisions made. Sustainable urban living includes several aims including the use of renewable resources, energy efficiency, use of public transport, accessible resources and services. Traffic congestion Occurs when there is too great a volume of traffic for roads to cope with, so traffic jams form and traffic slows to a crawl. Urban greening The process of increasing and preserving open space such as public parks and gardens in urban areas. Urbanisation The process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in towns and cities. Rapid urbanisation is a feature of many LICs and NEEs. Urban regeneration The revival of old parts of the built up area by either installing modern facilities in old buildings (known as renewal) or opting for redevelopment (ie demolishing existing buildings and starting afresh). Urban sprawl The unplanned growth of urban areas into the surrounding countryside. Waste recycling The process of extracting and reusing useful substances found in waste. 3

5 What does the spec say? Urban issues and challenges Key Idea A growing percentage of the world s population lives in urban areas. Specification Content The global pattern of urban change. Urban trends in different parts of the world including HICs and LICs. Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation migration (push pull theory), natural increase. The emergence of megacities. A growing percentage of the world s population lives in urban areas. The global pattern of urban change: % of the world s population lived in urban areas 2017 the number of cities with a population of more than ½ million is estimated to be over 1000 By 2030 the figure is expected to be over 60% of the world s population living in urban areas Urban trends in different parts of the world including HICs and LICs. The highest rates of urbanisation are in poorer, Low-Income Countries (LICs) in Asia and Africa. The rates of urbanisation in richer, Higher-Income Countries (HICs) are lower. In Newly-Emerging Economies (NEEs), which are not yet rich HICs, the rate of urbanisation is starting to slow down. Urbanisation happened earlier in these countries, e.g. Brazil, than in LICs e.g. in sub-saharan Africa. There are slower rates of urbanisation in Europe, North America and Oceania. Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation migration (push pull theory), natural increase. Push Factor (Negative causing the person to leave a rural area) Farming is hard. Drought and other natural hazards can reduce crop yields Poor access to medical services (few doctors) Poor access to education (few schools/teachers) Rural areas are often isolated due to poor transport Pull Factor (Perceived positive causing the person to move to that region) More well paid jobs so a higher standard of living is possible Some may have family/friends already living there Better chance of getting an education 5.A range of entertainment and leisure facilities available.better/more numerous medical facilities.idea of more secure housing Natural increase: The birth rate minus the death rate of a population. So if the population of a city is younger, the rate of natural increase is also high 4

6 The emergence of megacities. The number of megacities is increasing. The world s largest cities, with populations over ten million, are known as megacities. In 1975 there were 4 megacities in the world: Tokyo, New York, Mexico City and Sao Paolo. By 2007 there were 19; with many of the new megacities in Asia Mumbai, Delhi, Shanghai, Kolkata, Karachi and Beijing. By 2025 there will be an estimated 26 megacities! Key Idea Urban growth creates opportunities and challenges for cities in LICs and NEEs. Specification Content A case study of a major city in an LIC or NEE (Mumbai) to illustrate: the location and importance of the city, regionally, nationally and internationally causes of growth: natural increase and migration How urban growth has created opportunities: social: access to services health and education; access to resources water supply, energy economic: how urban industrial areas can be a stimulus for economic development How urban growth has created challenges: managing urban growth slums, squatter settlements providing clean water, sanitation systems and energy providing access to services health and education reducing unemployment and crime managing environmental issues waste disposal, air and water pollution, traffic congestion. 5

7 An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor in Mumbai A case study of a major city in an NEE (Mumbai) Mumbai is the largest city in India, located in the Maharashtra state on the Western coast of India, facing the Arabian Sea. Mumbai has seen rapid growth over the last 50 years - 23 million people are estimated to live in Mumbai today! The location and importance of the city, regionally, nationally and internationally: Regional Importance National Importance Global Importance 3 million people commute from surrounding areas for work The Hi-tech industry is growing call centres, online banking and software development. City contributes 40% of total income to the whole state of Maharashtra Mumbai has the highest percentage of internet access of any Indian city (12 million people in 2013) Mumbai s tourism industry is booming with thousands flocking to the area from all over the globe. The population of Mumbai is constantly growing, taking the young work force from neighbouring cities. Mumbai is the commercial and financial capital of India. Mumbai handles 60% of India s sea trade. Nationally, Mumbai contributes 33% of all income tax and 60% of all custom duty from trade. Receives the largest amount of foreign investment of any other city in India Mumbai is seen as a hub of India for smaller businesses such as jewellery and fashion. Home to the biggest cultural industry in India Bollywood Mumbai is a transport hub with links to all major industrial cities India. Transport hub=connecting point for transport links In 2014 Mumbai was the most globalised city in S.E Asia Has the largest number of international companies in Asia Bank of America Volkswagen Walt Disney And many more have their headquarters in Mumbai Causes of growth: 1. Migration and 2. Natural Increase Rapidly grown over the last 50 years. Population of 23 million. Growth driven by rural-urban migration. Migration rate of 1 person per minute! 70% of migrants are from the state of Maharashtra. Migrants average age was and 64% are male. Natural increase also contributes to urban growth. In 1947 Mumbai s population was 4 million An increase of more than 8 million people have occurred due to internal migration - more than half of that increase occurring between The population density is estimated to be about 22,000 persons per square kilometre. 6

8 . Push Factors (pushing people away from rural India) Pull Factors (pulling people in to urban Mumbai) Mumbai has some good schools and universities as well as decent hospitals and dentists. Education and health standards are much lower in rural areas. Farm jobs have become harder to find due to natural hazards such as drought, smaller plot sizes, The Green Revolution (a government programme to improve agriculture using chemicals) and over population. Only large farms can afford the chemicals and machinery. Many small farms cannot compete and people have sold up Young people see farming as hard work with long hours and low pay In Mumbai your home is more likely to have services such as water, electricity and sewage. Many migrants will already know people who have left the countryside to go to the city. They hope that these contacts will help them to find work and housing etc. Improved Job prospects in Mumbai. The traditional industries of textiles, shipping & freight and jobs brought by TNCs. Mumbai is the financial capital of India and many Indian companies have their headquarters there. All these jobs promise to offer higher pay than farm work but the reality is often that skills are required to take some positions that the majority do not have. Investment by the Mumbai Metropolitan Authority, the Indian government and international agencies e.g. the UN in public works e.g. improving water supplies offers the potential of employment in public services. How urban growth has created Opportunities in Mumbai: Social: Healthcare and Education Water supply Energy -A major centre of learning and education. Mumbai has a world renowned university and many other important education and research institutions. -The city runs more than 1,000 primary and secondary schools, with free education up to certain ages -Literacy rates are high (89.7%). Even in the slums, the literacy rate is estimated to be more than 69%. -Mumbai has more hospitals than any other Indian city. -Hospitals are affordable meaning that local people can access them. The Mumbai Slum Sanitation Project: The rapid growth of slum areas in Mumbai has put enormous pressure on sewage systems throughout the city. In some areas hundreds of people share a single toilet and it is estimated that 1 in 20 people are forced to use the street as a toilet. The slum sanitation project aims to improve sanitation facilities for up to a million slum dwellers across the city. So far over 300 community toilet blocks have been built, housing more than 5100 individual toilets, with separate facilities for men and women. The Mumbai Slum Electrification Project Many slum areas do not have access to electricity and rely on bottled gas for cooking and heating. This is expensive and very dangerous. Also the fumes created can cause health problems. The Global Partnership on Output Based Aid (GPOBA) have recently completed a project which is providing slum dwellers with new or upgraded electricity connections. Economic: how urban industrial areas can be a stimulus for economic development Mumbai is the commercial and financial capital of India. 60% of India s sea trade is based here. Nationally Mumbai contributes 33% of all income tax and 60% of all custom duty from trade. The largest number of TNC headquarters in Asia including GSK, Walt Disney and Volkswagen. It is home to the Indian stock market, the busiest port and airports in India. It has most of India s specialised technical industries, e.g. aerospace, optical engineering, medical research, computers and electronic equipment, shipbuilding and salvaging and renewable energy. 7

9 Mumbai has many job opportunities because it alone accounts for 6% of India's GDP and 40% of its foreign trade. It is also a manufacturing hub which creates a lot of jobs, 25% of India s industrial production is in Mumbai. The port area also creates a lot of valuable jobs. It also has the headquarters of a number of Indian financial institutions such as the Bombay Stock Exchange and the Reserve Bank of India, and numerous Indian companies such as the Tata Group. Most of these offices are located in downtown South Mumbai which is the nerve centre of the Indian economy. How urban growth has created challenges in Mumbai: Challenge 1- Managing urban growth slums, squatter settlements Dharavi is India s and Mumbai's biggest slum. There are a 1.2 million people crammed into one square mile in Dharavi. People live in very small dwellings (e.g. 12X12ft), often with many members of their extended families. Dharavi is made up of 12 different neighbourhoods and there are no maps or road signs. The further you walk into Dharavi from the edge the more permanent and solid the structures become. There are many different things to do there are informal shopping areas where it is possible to buy anything you might need. There are also mosques, a pottery area, community centre. People live next to the open sewers are water pipes, which can crack and take in sewage. Children play amongst sewage waste. Water is a big problem standpipes come on at 5:30am for 2 hours as water is rationed. The average wage is between $1-2USD per day Dharavi is the most productive slum in the world. It s over a billion dollar industry There is an average of 1 toilet per 1,450 people 60% of the families have lived in Dharavi for 60+ years The average life span is under 60 years old, due to disease and health concerns The slum is divided into communities by religion, with 60% Hindu, 33% Muslim and 6% Christian and 1% other Many businesses generate million dollar incomes (USD) Only men are allowed to work in the factories Challenge 2: Providing clean water, sanitation systems and energy There is a lack of basic sanitation in Mumbai with only 1 toilet per 1,000 people on average in the unplanned squatter settlements. Only better-off suburbs have private water supplies. 60% of Mumbai s population uses communal taps. In some slums, water only runs for 30 minutes day. Rapid urbanisation has also caused uncontrolled water pollution. Factories use the Mithi River to dump untreated waste. 800 Million litres of untreated sewage go into the river every day. 80% of Mumbai s waste is recycled. The recycling industry is worth US$1.5 a year and employed 10,000 people. Children collect plastic, glass, cardboard, batteries, computer parts and soap. In workshops, small smelters recycle cans, and vats of waste soap from hotels are melted and remoulded into bars. Challenge 3: Providing access to services health and education School Drop-out rates are high. Many youngsters, particularly in slum areas, are unable to pursue their education as they must find a job to bring in some money to support their family. There are inadequate resources and declining standards in public institutions such as schools and hospitals. Challenge 4: Reducing unemployment and crime Urbanisation is the main cause of unemployment. Economic growth has not been fast enough to create enough jobs for the available workforce. Underemployment is common (people paid less than they should be for the task that they do, with poor working standards). Mumbai has a large, unskilled and informal self-employed workforce. These are often unregulated workers, e.g. street hawkers, street sellers, taxi drivers and mechanics. These workers do not pay any tax to the government. Crime rates are high. Nearly one third of the population have been victims of crime. Corruption is rife and 22.9% of citizens have been exposed to bribery. 8

10 Challenge 5: Managing environmental issues waste disposal, air and water pollution, traffic congestion. Water pipes often run close to sewer lines. Leakages lead to contamination of water and the spread of waterborne diseases. In Dharavi, children play amongst sewerage waste. Doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of typhoid and diphtheria.-traffic congestion is legendary in India with not enough money being spent on roads. Mumbai has severe water shortages. Water is rationed. Standpipes often come on for two hours at 5.30 am and are shared between many people. Many people often live far from their place of work and are dependent on public transport. Buses and trains are always crammed. Roads are overcrowded with vehicles. The movement of traffic is very slow. Peak traffic times can last several hours. Air pollution is high as old cars emit dirty and harmful fumes and there is little regulation of emissions from factories. Sewerage waste is not always treated properly and drains into the sea. Levels of PM10 (particulate matter which can cause asthma, bronchitis and cancer) are dangerously high (132 mg/m3; WHO s recommendation is 20 mg/m3). There are too few suburban train and bus networks to meet demand people die on Mumbai s railway each year. Most deaths are caused by passengers crossing tracks, sitting on train roofs and being electrocuted by overhead cables, or hanging from doors and windows. Rubbish is frequently left in the streets. This attracts vermin, e.g. rats and flies. Poisonous liquids may leak and contaminate ground water supplies. An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor. Self Help Scheme Dharavi: Within the shanty towns, the government has assisted people in improving their homes. Breeze blocks and other materials (pipes for plumbing etc.) were given by the government as long as people updated their own homes. This is an approach known as self-help housing. In other words, Councils provide materials for slum dwellers to improve their houses, e.g. concrete for walls, roof tiles,standpipes, toilets blocks, waste collection points health centres and schools and the local people provide the labour. Slum dwellers are also given legal ownership of land. This improves social and environmental conditions It is cheaper and quicker than building every resident a proper house or rehousing them and keeps communities together so they don't need to find new sites of land. In some cases, the residents work with an architect to design their home or even plan a new house. This way the local community is involved in the design and layout of the area and individual residents make decisions about their homes, including the colour of outside walls. As one planner said, this is a way of giving people what they want and keeping communities together rather than knocking their houses down and splitting up the community by moving people to different parts of the city. The work of NGO s Mumbai The Indian NGO CORP (Community Outreach Programme) was set up in 1977 CORP began with only one community centre and three staff members in Asia s largest slum, Dharavi They now have 20 community centres in Mumbai and more than 70 staff members Their work focuses on education, health and nutrition, helping street children, vocational training and shelter. In 2012, they helped 29,000 people in Mumbai 9

11 Key Idea Urban change in cities in the UK leads to a variety of social, economic and environmental opportunities Specification Content Overview of the distribution of population and the major cities in the UK. A case study of a major city in the UK (London) to illustrate: the location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city How urban change has created opportunities: social and economic: cultural mix, recreation and entertainment, employment, integrated transport systems environmental: urban greening How urban change has created challenges: social and economic: urban deprivation, inequalities in housing, education, health and employment environmental: dereliction, building on brownfield and greenfield sites, waste disposal the impact of urban sprawl on the rural urban fringe, and the growth of commuter settlements. An example of an urban regeneration project (London 2012) to show: reasons why the area needed regeneration the main features of the project. 10

12 Overview of the distribution of population and the major cities in the UK. The UK is one of the most urbanised countries in the world, with 82% of the population living in our cities. This is typical of most HIC s that went through the process of urbanisation during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. When you look at a map of the UK s population distribution you can see that it is unevenly distributed. Some areas in the South East of England around London are densely populated as are areas to the North West of England close to Liverpool and Manchester. Other areas such as in the centre of Wales, the North of England near the border with Scotland and in the North of Scotland are more sparsely populated. Overall, the UK s population density is 260 people per sq km, ranging from about 5000 sq km in London to less than 10 sq km in northern Scotland. This makes us one of the most densely populated countries in Europe- more crowded than France, for example, but less crowded than the Netherlands. The UKs cities are found in the most densely populated areas. They tend to be located in flat low lying parts of the country, particularly on the coast or near major rivers. Historically, this is where many cities grew, supported by farming trades and industry. The fastest growing areas are in the South East and in particular the biggest growth has been in London with over a million new people. On the other hand, there has been a drop in population in North East England in places such as Sunderland. This has been due to decline of industry and therefore loss of jobs forcing people to move to find work. A case study of a major city in the UK London The location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world: Location: Importance: London is located in South East England on the River Thames. It is the site chosen by the Romans when they conquered the South of England in 43AD. They built a walled settlement on the north bank of the Thames to defend themselves against the defeated Britons. They called the settlement Londinium and it became the capital of the Roman Colony in Britain. National: Generates 22% of UK s GDP The headquarters of many large international companies are located there: generates a huge amount of money for the UK and a large number of job opportunities. London contains some of the top renowned universities and research centres such as the London School of Economics and Imperial College London. Earnings and house prices in London have risen faster in London than anywhere else widening the gap between London and the rest of the UK. 392,400 people are employed in the City of London. 841,000 private sector businesses were based in London at the start of 2013, more than in any other region or country in the UK. 18 per cent are in the professional, scientific and technical activities sector while 15 per cent are in the construction sector. International: International transport links: this makes trade with other major economies much easier. It also make it accessible for workers and tourists e.g. Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted airports. London is one of the two most important financial centre in the world, with many large international companies basing their headquarters there. Is known as a World City. London is a centre for tourism. In 2015 the city welcomed 17.4 million international visitors. 11

13 Once the largest port in the world, the Port of London is today the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 48 million tonnes of cargo each year. 529 foreign companies listed in London, representing 20% of the global foreign equity listings. The Impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city The population is higher than it has ever been. In 2015, London s population reached 8.6 million London s population has been climbing again since 1991, it is likely to continue to grown and is predicted to reach 10 million by 2030 which will make London one of the world s megacities. National Migration For most of the past 200 years, the population has been growing. In 1801, with just over a million people, it was already the largest city in the world. During the industrial revolution, it grew as it attracted more migrants from other parts of the UK. London has a much younger population than the UK as a whole which helps to explain why it is growing so rapidly.younger people are likely to have children, which leads to a higher rate of natural increase. Young people in their 20s and 30s, especially university graduates, move to London, they are attracted by more job opportunities, higher pay and the expectation of an exciting social life in London. International Migration Migrants from all around the world add to London s population. The balance between people leaving and people arriving is called net migration. London is the most diverse city in the UK. Less than half of London s population are white British origin, while 37% were born outside the UK. Most immigrants into London are young, whilst most people leaving are older. Today, London s population comes from every part of the world. The largest numbers are from countries like India, Nigeria and Jamaica. Since 2007, more migrants have come from Eastern Europe, with the free movement of people in the European Union. Social and Economic Opportunities: How urban change has created opportunities 12 Shoreditch: Cultural mix Recreation and entertainment, Shoreditch: Shoreditch 30 years ago, Shoreditch was a rundown inner city area with many old factories and warehouses. Most industries had closed down and people were moving out of the area. Shoreditch today is almost unrecognisable from 30 years ago. Old industrial buildings have been converted into flats and offices. Pubs and bars have been brought back to life as restaurants and art galleries. Jobs have Employment London Docklands: In an attempt to tackle the problems that have arisen in East London (dereliction, poor housing, high unemployment, poverty), national government has for over two decades directed considerable investment into the area and published planning policy guidance to help coordinate development activities. The most significant public investment has been directed through the LDDC, which has resulted in the major developments in and around Canary Wharf. The number of jobs increased: In 1981= 27,000 Integrated transport systems Integrated Transport Systems: basically means making it easier and more convenient for people to use different types of public transport. Congestion Charging: Since 2003, drivers have had to pay 8 a day to drive in the Central London Congestion Zone. The money goes towards improving public transport.

14 Shoreditch today is almost unrecognisable from 30 years ago. Old industrial buildings have been converted into flats and offices. Pubs and bars have been brought back into life as restaurants and art galleries. Jobs have been created in new creative industries, such as wed design, film making and art. Notting hill Carnival: The Notting Hill Carnival is an annual event that has taken place in London since 1966 on the streets of Notting Hill, in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, each August over two days (the August bank holiday Monday and the preceding Sunday).It is led by members of the British West Indian community, and attracts around one million people annually, making it one of the world's largest street festivals, and a significant event in Black British culture been created in new creative industries like web design, film making and art. One focus of employment is around the old street roundabout. So many hitech companies have appeared that it is dubbed Silicon Roundabout Many older residents and Bangladeshi families are moving away as rent prices go up. In their place, young professional workers, many in the finance and creative industries, are moving in. The process of rising property prices and changing population is known as gentrification. With new, younger people there are now new forms of recreation and entertainment. In 2000= 90,000. Unemployment fell from 14% to 7.4 with a doubling in employment and numbers of businesses; -many new firms and financial institutions e.g. Stock Exchange, ITV Studios, newspaper offices. -many high-rise office blocks, esp. at Canary Wharf. Boris Bikes: Bike Hire the largest hire in a day is 75,000. Crossrail London is currently undertaking one of the biggest engineering projects in Europe by building a railway from east to west London under the city. This railway, called Crossrail, will decrease travel times and cut congestion as more people use public transport. 13

15 Environmental Opportunities: Urban greening London is one of the world s greenest cities! 47% of the city is green space, including parks, woodlands, cemeteries and gardens. Central London Parks: London has more big parks than many cities e.g. Hyde Park. Local Parks: these are run by the council. Many new homes are built on farmland, providing millions of new homes with gardens (suburban growth) Trees produce oxygen. There are 8.1 million trees in London almost 1 per person and green space reduces the risk of flooding. They are a great habitat for wildlife. There are 13,000 wildlife species in London. People enjoy open spaces and they keep us healthy as they are used for walked, running, cycling and for sport. Growing food: there are 30,000 allotments in London. How urban change has created Social and economic challenges Urban deprivation Inequalities in housing Education Employment Despite years of economic success, inequalities still exist. Differences in life expectancy still exist. Low life expectancy in the most deprived parts of the city is closely linked to poor diet, housing and education as well as a lack of employment. Despite the large wealth found in parts of London many areas suffer from both Urban Decline and the people suffer from deprivation. It is London s population is growing by about 100,000 homes per year, yet only 20,000 new homes are being built. The result is that house prices are rising faster in London than anywhere else in the UK. One possible solution is to build on greenfield sites usually farmland on the rural-urban fringe. However, building on these sites Children across London do not get equal exam grades, but some of the school s in London s poorest boroughs are amongst the fastest improving schools in the country. Generally, the schools in the poorest areas score the lowest number of GCSE points per pupil. particularly hard for the can lead to urban sprawl poorest people to have a and is not very popular Health decent standard of living with people. Similar inequalities exist because the prices of many The alternative is to in terms of health. Life things are more expensive, build on brownfield expectancy rates are especially rents which sites. There are many much higher in the account for a huge areas like this that were wealthy London proportion of peoples previously used for boroughs e.g. Chelsea incomes. It is clear that industry that has now compare to Newham unemployment levels are declined. and Tower Hamlets. not evenly distributed or spread out. Areas like Newham, Barking and Dagenham and Tower Hamlets have the highest unemployment rates in the capital. 16% of Londoners are in the poorest tenth nationally, whilst 17% are in the richest tenth of people in the country The richest 10% of people in London have 60% of all assets whilst the poorest 80% of the population share just 20% of all asset wealth in London The top tenth of employees in London earn around four and a half times as much as the bottom tenth. These huge differences in wealth result in big differences in people s access to and success with in housing, education, health and employment Despite the huge wealth found in London unemployment remains a major issue. London s employment rate was just 67.5 per cent in the period October to December 2011, below the average of 70.3 per cent for the UK. The unemployment rate was 10.0 per cent compared with 8.4 per cent for the UK 14

16 Environmental Challenges in London: Dereliction There is a sizeable supply of brownfield land in London, which to date remains untapped. Figures published by the Government recently highlighted that there were some 250 hectares of brownfield sites, equivalent to an area just short of the size of Hyde Park that are not in line for development of any sort. The Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics is a good example of how derelict land can be brought back into use. Building on brownfield and greenfield sites* London s population is growing by about 100,000 people very year, yet only about 20,000 new homes a year are being built. This has led to a severe housing shortages in London. The result is that house prices are rising faster in London than anywhere else in the UK. Up to 50,000 new London homes are to be built on 20 brownfield sites, in a 400m scheme announced in 2014 by the Government. This includes an 85 hectare former industrial site in Enfield Meridian Water in Enfield, north London, where 5,000 homes, a new school and community facilities are to be built. Waste disposal London suffers from air pollution, mainly due to the sheer size of the city, a dense road network and high buildings. This means that central London tends to be one of the most polluted places in the UK. Almost a quarter of London s waste still goes to landfill sites outside London. In the past this was acceptable because the waste was out of sight, out of mind. Now, we realise that landfill waste contributes to wider environmental problems, such as production of methane that adds to greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. More of London s waste is now recycled or incinerated. *The impact of urban sprawl on the rural urban fringe The edges of cities are known as the rural urban fringe. There has been increasing building in these areas because of housing pressure, despite Greenbelt legislation (laws) that are supposed to prevent building there. The growth outwards of our cities into these regions is known as URBAN SPRAWL and can have many impacts on these areas; Extra cost to the tax payer the public help to pay for infrastructure such as roads and water works to allow building developments to go ahead. Increased Traffic extra people in these areas means that cars are used more often, which means that there is more traffic on the roads, and there is also more air pollution and more accidents Health Issues people in these areas often have to commute to work which means that they often travel by car. This can have negative impacts on people s health such as high blood pressure. Environmental Issues -sprawling cities consume land, and this displaces animals from their habitat Impact on Social Lives people in sprawling communities can often live further from their neighbours, this can cause isolation. The Growth of commuter settlements - St Ives Cambridgeshire, 100km north of London The town St. Ives is around 100km north of London,it lies on the A1123, 8 km east of Huntingdon and just 25km northwest of Cambridgeshire. The town is close to both the A1 trunk road and the main east coast railway line, making regular access to London easy. It has affordable housing and with the good transport links makes it the perfect location for commuters to London, these people generally move into the town centre for easy access to services and transport links to their works. Commuting to London increased during the 1990's and now 25% of St.Ives population commute to work in London daily. The railway line was electrified and journey times were reduced. The station at Huntington, just outside St.Ives is a 50 minute journey away from Kings Cross in London which makes travelling to work easy. 15

17 An annual rail ticket costs 3,920 but because housing in London is so expensive the costs for this are saved with the housing in St.Ives. An example of an urban regeneration London 2012 Olympic Legacy project to show: Reasons why the area needed regeneration Part of the aims of the Olympics was to completely transform an area of East London that is lagging behind the rest, East London. Many of the Docks had closed down so unemployment was high. The idea was to leave a lasting legacy or impact not just for sport but for the urban area in the East of London. The areas hosting the Olympics like Stratford and nearby Tower Hamlets were in dire need of regeneration as they had; a lot of abandoned old industrial sites, low achievement at school in terms of GCSE points score industrial wastelands, higher than average unemployment than the rest of London and higher deprivation and poverty for the people that lived there The main features of the project. Social The athletes village has been relaunched as a housing estate called the East Village, the rooms have had kitchens added and walls knocked through. Almost half of these 2,818 new homes (40%) will be affordable. Eventually the whole Olympic Parkland will become five new neighbourhoods housing 8,000 people. Economic The Olympics brought more than 9bn of investment to east London, much of which went into transport. Lloyds TSB estimated that the Olympics will generate 10 billion in extra income for the UK economy ALL of the Olympic venues have been sold. The final building to be sold off was the 300m media centre, which will now primarily house Infinity a data company who want to store information for large corporations. Environmental Many of the grounds in the Olympic Park have been kept as parkland and are open to the public for use as a picnicking and play area. New green spaces and wildlife habitats were created, including ponds, woodlands, and artificial otter holes. The stadiums were made of at least 25% recycled materials The River Lea that runs through the Olympic Park was improved as has the quality of its water. Green areas were placed along the banks of the river. Obstacles to be overcome for London 2012: - The land had to be brought together under one new owner, the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA), set up by the government. - Existing landowners and users had to leave the site by Some of them protested. - Land that was previously polluted by industry had to be decontaminated first. - pylons has to be removed and overhead cables buried below ground to improve the appearance. - Waterways and railways crisscrossed the site, so bridges were built to link the area together. Key Idea Urban sustainability requires the management of resources and transport. Specification Content Features of sustainable living: Water and energy conservation Waste recycling Creating green space 16

18 How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion. Features of sustainable urban living: Many people are working towards trying to make cities more sustainable. A sustainable city offers a good quality of life to current residents but doesn't reduce the opportunities for future residents to enjoy. It is environmentally friendly. Key features of a sustainable city Resources and services in the city are accessible to all. Public transport is seen as a viable alternative to cars. Public transport is safe and reliable. Walking and cycling is safe. Areas of open space are safe, accessible and enjoyable. Wherever possible, renewable resources are used instead of non-renewable resources. Waste is seen as a resource and is recycled wherever possible. New homes are energy efficient. There is access to affordable housing. Community links are strong and communities work together to deal with issues such as crime and security. Cultural and social amenities are accessible to all. Inward investment is made to the CBD. Eco Communities BedZED The Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED) near Croyden, Greater London, is the largest eco-community in the UK.They are aiming to be a carbon zero community. Ways in which the houses are sustainable: Water and energy conservation Waste recycling Creating green space. Energy efficient The houses face south to take advantage of solar gain, are triple glazed, and have high thermal insulation. Waste recycling Refuse-collection facilities are designed to support recycling by separating out the rubbish. Compost is used in the allotments. Water efficient Most rain water falling on the site is collected and reused. Appliances are chosen to be water-efficient and use recycled water when possible. Low-impact materials Building materials were selected from renewable or recycled sources within 35 miles of the site, to minimize the energy required for transportation. Renewable energy is used with solar panels on the roof. 17 Even though BedZED is, by suburban standards, a high density development, most homes have private outdoor space and many have small gardens. The whole development shares a square and a large playing field.

19 How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion. London Congestion Charge Drivers are charged for driving in the congestion charge zone in central London. The aim is to discourage drivers from using the zone during peak hours and use public transport instead, thereby reducing congestion, the time spent in queues, the pollution generated and the cost to the economy. The money generated is used to improve public transport, eg older London buses which generate more pollution have been removed from service. The results: Traffic congestion, accidents, and pollution levels have all been reduced. There has been increased investment in public transport. Bus services are more reliable. Retail sales inside the congestion charging zone have increased. London Crossrail Crossrail is delivering a new railway that will maintain London s place as a world-class city. It will bring an additional 1.5 million people within 45 minutes commuting distance of London's key business districts. Twenty-six miles of new tunnels now weave through London s complex underground network. Ten new stations along with all the infrastructure and systems will be ready for passengers in The Impacts of Cross Rail (Evaluation): Reduced journey times journey time from Heathrow to Liverpool St will fall from over an hour to 35 minutes. Increase the number of rail passenger journeys in London by 10% (or an extra 200 million journeys a year). Bring an extra 1.5 million people within a 45 minute journey of central London, increasing the number of people who can commute to work in London. Improve the integrated transport system in London by providing more interchanges within the underground network. Raise property values by about 25%. It is estimated cost between 27 and 34 million! 18