Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, Threats and Conservational Measures

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1 Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, Threats and Conservationa Measures Amita Kanaujia*, Adesh Kumar, Sonika Kushwaha, Akhiesh Kumar and Shivangi Mishra Biodiversity & Widife Conservation Lab, Department of Zooogy, University of Lucknow, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh, India. *Emai: Introduction Bioogica diversity, or biodiversity as it is commony known, "incudes a pants, animas, microorganisms, the ecosystems of which they are a part, and the diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems (Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, SVP, 2010). Bioogica variety can be observed at three eves - (i) Genetic diversity: The genetic variabiity within a species (ii) Species diversity: The species variabiity within a community (iii) The ecosystem diversity: The organization of species in an area into distinctive pant and anima communities Mega Biodiversity Countries of the Word Countries that contain as much as 7-8% of the word's species are termed as Mega biodiversity Countries. The tweve Mega Biodiversity Countries that have been identified are: India, Brazi, Coombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, Madagascar, Zaire, Austraia, China, Indonesia and Maaysia. India is one of the tweve-mega Biodiversity Countries of the word and one of the four in Asia (Fig 1). Biodiversity of india India is the seventh argest country in the word and Asia's second argest nation with an area of 3,287,263 square km. The Indian mainand stretches from 8 4' to 37 6' N atitude and from 68 7' 173 Fig 1: Map of Biodiversity Hotspots of Earth (Source: mapsofindia.com)

2 174 to 97 25' E ongitude. It has a and frontier of some 15,200 km and a coastine of 7,516 km (Government of India, 1985).India is a known centre of crop diversity and harbors many wid reatives and breeds of domesticated crop. With over 46,000 species of pants and 81,000 species of animas, India accounts for 7-8% of the recorded species of the word with ony 2.4 % of the word's and area. Apart from this, India represents about 17.31% of the word popuation ( ernet.in). The hotspots are the areas with higher concentration of endemic species and which usuay experience rapid rate of habitat modifications and oss. India figured with two hotspots: The Western Ghats and the Eastern Himaayas in an identification of 25 of the word's bioogicay richest and most threatened ecosystems. A tota of 23 Heritage Sites have been isted in India, incuding the foowing five Protected Areas of great conservation significance to be a part of Word Cuture and Heritage: 1. Kaziranga Nationa Park, Assam, 2. Manas Widife Sanctuary, Assam, 3. Keoadaeo Nationa Park, Rajasthan, 4. Sunderbans Nationa Park, West Benga and 5. Nanda Devi Nationa Park, Uttarancha. Physicay, the massive country is divided into four reativey we defined regions - the Himaayan Mountains, the Gangetic river pains, the southern (Deccan) pateau, and the isands of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar. Wetand diversity India has a rich variety of wetand habitats. The tota area of wetands (excuding rivers) in India is 58,286,000 ha,. or 18.4% of the country, 70% of which comprises areas under paddy cutivation. A tota of 1,193 wetands, covering an area of about 3,904,543 ha, were recorded in a preiminary inventory co-ordinated by the Department of Science and Technoogy, of which 572 were natura (Scott, 1989). Two sites - Chika Lake (Orissa) and Keoadeo Nationa Park (Bharatpur) - have been designated under the Convention of Wetands of Internationa Importance (Ramsar Convention) as being especiay significant waterfow habitats. The country's wetands are generay differentiated by region into eight categories (Scott, 1989): 1) The reservoirs of the Deccan Pateau in the south, together with the agoons and the other wetands of the southern west coast; the vast saine expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the guf of Kachchh. 2) Freshwater akes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Kaeoadeo Ghana Nationa park) and Madhya Pradesh. 3) The deta wetands and agoons of India's east coast (Chika Lake). 4) The freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Pain. 5) The foodpain of the Brahmaputra. 6) The marshes and swamps in the his of northeast India and the Himaayan foothis. 7) The akes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh. 8) The mangroves and other wetands of the isand arcs of the Andamans and Nicobars. Forests diversity The panorama of Indian forests ranges from evergreen tropica rain forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Isands, the Western Ghats, and the northeastern states, to dry apine scrub high in the Himaaya to the north. Between the two extremes, the country has semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forests, thorn forests, subtropica pine forests in the ower montane zone and temperate montane forests (La, 1989).The Western Ghats Monsoon forests occur both on the western (coasta) margins of the ghats and on the eastern side where there is ess rainfa. The forests contain severa tree species of great commercia

3 significance (e.g. Indian rosewood Dabergia atifoia, Maabar Kino Pterocarpus marsupium, teak and Terminaia crenuata). The tropica vegetation of north-east India embraces evergreen and semi-evergreen rain forests, moist deciduous monsoon forests, riparian forests, swamps and grassands. Evergreen rain forests are found in the Assam Vaey, the foothis of the eastern Himaayas and the ower parts of the Naga His, Meghaaya, Mizoram, and Manipur where the rain fa exceeds 2300 mm per annum. In the Assam Vaey the giant Dipterocarpus macrocarpus and Shorea assamica occur singy, occasionay attaining a girth of up to 7 m and a height of up to 50 m. The monsoon forests are mainy moist sa Shorea robusta forests, which occur widey in this region (IUCN, 1991).The Andamans and Nicobar isands have tropica evergreen rain forests and tropica semi-evergreen rainforests as we as tropica monsoon moist monsoon forests (IUCN, 1986).The tropica evergreen rain forest is ony sighty ess grand in stature and rich in species than on the mainand. The dominant species is Dipterocarpus grandiforus in hiy areas, whie Dipterocarpus kerrii is dominant on some isands in the southern parts of the archipeago. The monsoon forests of the Andamans are dominated by Pterocarpus dabergioides and Terminaia spp. Marine Environment The nearshore coasta waters of India are extremey rich fishing grounds. The tota commercia marine catch for India has stabiised over the ast ten years at between 1.4 and 1.6 miion tonnes, with fishes from the cupeoid group (e.g. sardines Sardinea sp., Indian shad Hisa sp. and whitebait Stoephorus sp.) accounting for approximatey 30% of a andings. In 1981 it was estimated that there were approximatey 180,000 non-mechanised boats (about 90% of India s fishing feet) carrying out sma-scae, subsistence fishing activities in these waters. At the same time there were about 20,000 mechanised boats and 75 deep-sea fishing vesses operating mainy out of ports in the states of Maharashtra, Keraa, Gujarat, Tami Nadu and Karnataka. Cora reefs occur aong ony a few sections of the mainand, principay the Guf of Kutch, off the southern mainand coast, and around a number of isands opposite to Sri Lanka. Indian cora reefs have a wide range of resources which are of commercia vaue. Other notabe marine areas are seagrass beds, which athough not directy expoited are vauabe as habitats for commerciay harvested species, particuary prawns, and mangrove stands. In the Guf of Mannar the green tiger prawn is extensivey harvested for the export market. Sea grass beds are aso important feeding areas for the dugong Dugong, pus severa species of marine turte. Five species of marine turte occur in Indian waters: Green turte, Loggerhead, Oive Ridey, Hawksbi and Leatherback. Most of the marine turte popuations found in the Indian region are in decine. The Biodiversity richness is shown in absoute numbers of species and the proportion they represent of the word tota (Tabe 1). Tabe 1: Comparison between the Number of Species in India and the Word Group Number of Number of SI/ Species in Word (SW) SW (%) India (SI) Species in Mammas 350 4, Birds , Repties 408 6, Amphibians 197 4, Fishes , Fowering Pants 15, , (Source: http//:ces.iisc.ernet.in) Endemic Species India has many endemic pant and vertebrate species. Among pants, species endemism is estimated at 33% with 140 endemic genera but no endemic famiies (Botanica Survey of India, 1983). Areas rich in endemism are north-east India, the 175

4 176 Western Ghats and the north-western and eastern Himaayas. A sma pocket of oca endemism aso occurs in the Eastern Ghats (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). The Gangetic pains are generay poor in endemics, whie the Andaman and Nicobar Isands contribute at east 220 species to the endemic fora of India (Botanica Survey of India, 1983). The 396 known endemic higher vertebrate, 44 species of Indian mamma have a range that is confined entirey to within Indian territoria imits. Ony 55 bird species are endemic to India, with distributions concentrated in areas of high rainfa. There are around 187 endemic repties, and 110 endemic amphibian species. Ecosystem services Ecosystem services are the benefits that peope obtain from ecosystems. They support, directy or indirecty, our surviva and quaity of ife. Some ecosystem services are we known, such as those which are essentia for ife (e.g. food and cean air and water) or those which improve our quaity of ife (e.g. recreation and beautifu andscapes). Other services are often taken for granted, such as natura processes (e.g. poination and food reguation) (Fig 2). According to the Miennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) that 60% of ecosystem services are being degraded or used unsustainaby, often resuting in significant harm to human we-being. The MA categorised ecosystem services into four casses: 1. Provisioning services, which are the products obtained from ecosystems, such as food, water, fue and materias for buiding. Agro-ecosystems provide food for human consumption and, together with the associated ecosystems supporting marine and freshwater fisheries, underpin goba food security. Ecosystems pay important roes in the goba hydroogica cyce, contributing to water provision, reguation and purification (Dudey and Stoton 2003; Bruijnzee 2004; Brauman et a. 2007). The provision of fues and fibres, medicina and other biochemica resources such as metaboites, pharma-ceuticas, nutrients, crop protection chemicas, cosmetics and other natura products for industria use and as a basis for biomimetics that may become increasingy important in nanotechnoogy appications (Ninan 2009). Biodiversity has aso payed an iconic, ornamenta roe throughout the deveopment of human society. Uses of pant and anima parts, especiay pumage of birds, have been important in conferring individua status, position and infuence. Ornamenta pants are typicay grown for the dispay of their fowers but other common ornamenta features incude eaves, scent, fruit, stem and bark. 2. Reguating services, Ecosystems contribute to severa of natura processes, ike air quaity reguation, cimate reguation, water/food reguation, disease and pest contro, poination and water purification, environmenta reguation services of importance for human webeing, particuary in urban areas where vegetation reduce air and noise poution, mitigate the urban heat isand effect (Santomouris, 2001), and reduce impacts reated to cimate change (Bound and Hunhammar, 1999). Numerous factors interact in the reguation of cimate, incuding the refection of soar radiation by couds, dust and aerosos in the atmosphere. Vegetation cover aso pay a key factor in preventing soi erosion and vegetation cover combined with drought resuted in unprecedented wind erosion, destroying farmand and iveihoods. 3. Cutura services, which are the non-materia benefits peope, obtain from ecosystems and andscapes through spiritua enrichment, recreation and aesthetic enjoyment. 4. Supporting services, such as soi formation, photosynthesis and nutrient and water cycing which are necessary for the production of a other ecosystem services. In some estimates, over 75% of the word's crop pants, as we as many pants that are source species for pharmaceuticas, rey on

5 Fig 2: Services provided by Ecosystem (Source: Jan Sasse/ TEEB) Tabe 3: Bioogica and physica processes and interactions that comprise ecosystems functions important for ecosystem services Ecosystem Primary production: Decomposition: Nitrogen cycing: Hydroogic cyce: Soi formation: Bioogica contro: Function Processes Photosynthesis,Pant nutrient uptake Microbia respiration,soi and sediment food web dynamics Nitrification,Denitrification,Nitrogen fixation Pant transpiration,root activity Minera weathering,soi bioturbation,vegetation succession Predator-prey interactions poination by anima vectors (Nabhan and Buchman, 1997). Kein et a. (2007) found that, for 87 out of 115 eading goba crops (representing up to 35% of the goba food suppy), fruit or seed numbers or quaity were increased through anima poination. In many agricutura systems, poination is activey managed through the estabishment of popuations of domesticated poinators, particuary the honeybee. Threats to Biodiversity The bioogica weath of our panet has been decining rapidy and the accusing finger is ceary 177

6 178 pointing to anthropoogica activities. The coonisation of tropica Pacific Isands by humans is said to have ed to the extinction of more than 2,000 species of native birds. The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species (incuding 338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 pants) in the ast 500 years. Adding to the grim scenario of extinctions is the fact that more than 15,500 species word-wide are facing the threat of extinction. Presenty, 12 per cent of a bird species, 23 per cent of a mamma species, 32 per cent of a amphibian species and 31per cent of a gymnosperm species in the word face the threat of extinction. It is now generay accepted that goba biodiversity wi be significanty affected by cimate change, athough its precise impacts are sti nebuous (Fig 3): Water poution: Water poution can be caused by excessive amounts of nutrients and phosphorus in surface water, eading to eutrophication. Other poutants, such as hazardous substances, can ead to biodiversity decine. Air poution: Air poution affects biodiversity in different ways. Exampes incude acid rain caused by suphur dioxide (SO 2) emissions, eutrophication of vegetation caused by excessive nitrogen emissions (NO X, NH X, etc.), and cimate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions (CO 2, CH 4, etc.) Land use change: Land use pattern is a major source of biodiversity decine. Semi-natura agricutura areas and grassands are decining and becoming increasingy fragmented. This makes them vunerabe to externa pressures. Soi poution: Soi poution can affect the microbia popuation in the soi and ater a whoe range of ecosystem services - from nutrient cycing to the reguation of air, water quantity and quaity. Over expoitation: Over-expoitation of water resources, in particuar groundwater can cause desiccation effects in habitats which are groundwater-dependent. This is a typica oca effect. Fig 3: Factors responsibe for Biodiversity oss (Source: Googe) Invasive aien species: Invasive aien species are non-native species posing a threat to biodiversity as they out compete and dispace native species. Cimate change: Cimate change is expected to exacerbate the pressures on biodiversity caused by the drivers above. Habitat oss and fragmentation: This is the most important cause driving animas and pants to extinction. The most dramatic exampes of habitat oss come from tropica rain forests. In genera, oss of biodiversity in a region may ead to (a) decine in pant production, (b) owered resistance to environmenta perturbations such as drought and (c) increased variabiity in certain ecosystem processes such as pant productivity, water use, and pest and disease cyces. Conservationa Measures It has taken miions of years of evoution, to accumuate this rich diversity in nature, but we coud ose a that weath in ess than two centuries if the present rates of species osses continue. Biodiversity and its conservation are now vita environmenta issues of internationa concern as more and more peope around the word begin to reaise the critica importance of biodiversity for

7 our surviva and we- being on this panet. Biodiversity is a weath to which no vaue can be put. In the fina anaysis, the very surviva of the human race is dependent on conservation of biodiversity. It is evident that this invauabe heritage is being destroyed at an aarming rate due to severa reasons. There are severa strategies which are adapted for conservation of biodiversity. Some of these are: 1. Legisation Forma poicies and programmes for conservation and sustainabe utiisation of biodiversity resources date back to severa decades. The concept of environmenta protection is enshrined in the Indian constitution in Artices 48a and 51a (g). Major centra acts reevant to biodiversity incude: Environment Protection Act, 1986; Fisheries Act, 1897; Forest Act, 1927; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; Widife (Protection) Act 1972 and Widife (Protection) Amendment Act Bioogica Diversity Act, In -situ Conservation Conserving the animas and pants in their natura habitats is known as in situ conservation. The estabished natura habitats are: Nationa parks and sanctuaries; Biosphere reserves; Nature reserves; Reserved and protected forests; Preservation pots ; Reserved forests. Biosphere Reserves are another category of protected areas. Under this, a arge area is decared as a Biosphere Reserve where widife is protected, but oca communities are aowed to continue to ive and pursue traditiona activities within the Reserve. A programme Eco-deveopment for insitu conservation of bioogica diversity invoving oca communities was initiated. It integrates the ecoogica and economic parameters for sustained conservation of ecosystems by invoving oca communities with maintenance of earmarked regions surrounding protected areas. 3. Ex-situ Conservation Ex-situ conservation of pants and animas preserve/ or protect them away from their natura habitat. This coud be in zooogica parks and botanica gardens or through the forestry institutions and agricutura research centres. A ot of effort is under way to coect and preserve the genetic materia of crops, anima, bird and fish species. 4. Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation It is being recognized that no ega provisions can be effective uness oca communities are invoved in panning, management and monitoring conservation programmes. Successfu conservation strategies wi have to have the confidence and participation of the oca communities. 5. Recording Indigenous Knowedge The ives of oca communities are cosey interwoven with their environment, and are dependent upon their immediate resources for meeting their needs. These communities have a vast knowedge about oca fora and fauna which is very important for biodiversity conservation. Much of this knowedge is oray passed on from generation to generation. 6. Internationa Conservation Strategies Conserving biodiversity is not an issue confined to any one country or community. It is a crucia goba concern. Severa internationa treaties and agreements are in pace in the attempt to strengthen internationa participation and commitment towards conserving biodiversity. Some of these are: The Convention on Bioogica Diversity: This was signed during the Earth Summit in It focuses not ony on conserving biodiversity but aso on sustainabe use of bioogica resources and equitabe sharing of benefits arising from its use. The Convention on Internationa Trade in Endangered Species of Wid Fora and Fauna (CITES): This is an internationa treaty which is designed to protect wid pants and animas affected by internationa trade. The treaty, in 179

8 180 force since 1975, contros the export, import and re-export of endangered and threatened widife. The Convention on Wetands of Internationa Importance: This Convention, aso known as the Ramsar Convention, was signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971 and came into force in December It provides a framework for internationa cooperation for the conservation of wetand habitats which have been designated to the List of Wetands of Internationa Importance (Diip Sarkar, Conserving Biodiversity in India). Roe of Communities in Biodiversity Conservation There is an increased awareness among the peope towards the conservation of ecoogicay sensitive areas. There are many conservation movements and initiative in India, which have saved the precious natura resources. Despite a threats, diversity of the species and diversity within the species sti continue to survive. Their continued existence is due to farmers and other communities iving within the forest. Their cutura practices and knowedge systems have heped nurture biodiversity. Green India Mission The Nationa Mission for a Green India, recenty announced by the Prime Minister, is one of the eight Nationa Missions under India's Nationa Action Pan on Cimate Change. Its major focus is to increase cover and density of India's medium density forests and degraded forests. This mission wi have repercussions for iveihoods of peope and biodiversity. Saving Biodiversity - Saving Life Foowing conservation actions that we can take up: Pant trees. Grow native species of pants (trees, shrubs and cimber) where ever possibe, this woud attract oca widife such as birds, butterfies and insects. Grow oca vegetabes in schoo garden that are not usuay avaiabe in the markets. This woud aow hep conserve them for generations to come. Initiate, organize and participate in responsibe citizen action against existing or proposed activities that harm or are ikey to harm oca biodiversity. Make a ist of different kinds of trees in your campus or ocaity. For each one find out the names, uses, fowering season, animas and birds that depends on it. Present this information in an interesting way, and put it up by the tree. Many peope wi stop by to read this information and know more about the tree. Curb our greed for products made out of anima parts ike skin, fur, ivory, bones, nais, etc., to discourage widife traders and poachers, and spare the ives of the remaining animas. Adopt vegetarianism which woud require fewer animas to be fattened for saughtering and more pants to be grown for food. Avoid using insecticides, pesticides and inorganic fertiizers and try to use natura pant- based substitutes wherever possibe. Paper and coth shoud repace nonbiodegradabe pastic and poyester which damage the ecosystem. Make chidren aware of their surroundings and the need for biodiversity. Promote bio-farming which is ess intensive and environmenta-friendy. Make use of sustainabe technoogies ike smokeess chuhas, ground water recharging unit, wind energy, soar power, etc. Set up Community Sanctuaries for free ranging animas, migratory birds and endemic species. Estabish vountary 'Viage Reserves' for pants and animas.

9 Assist Nationa eve Bodies in recording and preserving rare and endemic species Create 'Biodiversity Registers' in communities, schoos, viages. Biodiversity Register Students can made inventory and maintain records of a iving beings in their ocaity. A biodiversity register is a compiation of day-to-day observations of the immediate environment. It is a documentation of knowedge of diversity of ife known to oca peope. It is a means of recording the weath of biodiversity of a region. The register may incude minute detais about pants and animas, both wid and domesticated. The record may incude traditiona knowedge regarding use of the various species References Botanica Survey of India (1983). Fora and Vegetation of India - An Outine. Botanica Survey of India, Howrah. pp24. Bound, P. and Hunhammar, S. (1999). Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecoogica Economics, 29: Bruijnzee, L.A. (2004). Hydroogica functions of tropica forests: not seeing the soi for the trees? Agricuture, Ecosystems & Environment, 104: Brauman, K.A., Daiy, G.C., Duarte, T.K. and Mooney, H.A. (2007). The Nature and Vaue of Ecosystem Services: An Overview Highighting Hydroogic Services. The Annua Review of Environment and Resources, 32: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (SVP) (2010). Ministry of Environment Cimate Change Secretariat. Dudey, N., and Stoton, S. (2003). Running pure: the importance of forest protected areas to drinking water. Word Bank/WWF Aiance for Forest Conservation and Sustainabe Use. Harrison, P. A. and Consortium, R. ( ). Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Europe: Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Europe: From Threat to Action. IUCN, (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in the Indo-Maayan Ream. IUCN, Gand, Switzerand and Cambridge, U.K. pp461. IUCN/UNEP/WWF, (1991).Caring for Earth: A strategy for sustainabe iving. Gand, Switzerand. Jan Sasse/ TEEB, (2013). Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Chaanges and opportunities. Springer, New York, London. Kein, A.M., Vaissière, B.E., Cane, J.H., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S.A., Kremen, C. and Tscharntke, T. (2007). Importance of poinators in changing andscapes for word crops. Proceedings of the Roya Society B - Bioogica Sciences 274: La, J.B. (1989). India's Forests: Myth and Reaity. Natraj Pubishers, New Dehi, India. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the Protected Areas System in the Indo-Maayan Ream. Internationa Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natura Resources, Gand, Switzerand and Cambridge, U.K. pp284. Miennium Ecosystem Assessment, (2005). Ecosystems and Human We-being: Synthesis. Isand Press, Washington, DC. Nabhan, G.P. and Buchmann, S.L. (1997). Services provided by poinators. In: Daiy G.C. (ed.) Nature's Services: Societa Dependence on Natura Ecosystems. Isand Press, Washington, D.C. pp Ninan, K.N. (ed), (2009). Conserving and Vauing Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity. London, Earthscan. Scott, D.A. (1989). A Directory of Asian Wetands. IUCN, Gand, Switzerand, and Cambridge, UK. Santamouris, M. (ed.), (2001). Energy and cimate in the urban buit environment. James and James, London. 181