Study Session 1 Introduction to Sanitation and Waste Management

Transcription

1 Study Session 1 Introduction to Sanitation and Waste Management Copyright 2016 The Open University

2 Contents Introduction 3 Learning Outcomes for Study Session What are sanitation and waste management? Types of iquid and soid waste Types of iquid waste Types of soid waste The sanitation adder and waste hierarchy The sanitation adder The waste hierarchy Sanitation and waste management in urban areas The trend of urbanisation Environmenta chaenges Chaenges to society Chaenges to administration The present state of sanitation in Ethiopia Poicies, strategies and programmes 16 Summary of Study Session 1 17 Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

3 Introduction Introduction A humans produce wastes of various types; for exampe, urine and faeces, wastes from washing and cooking, and soid wastes produced at home and in workpaces, schoos, hospitas and other pubic buidings. A these wastes need to be controed and managed for the benefit of peope and the environment that they ive in. In urban areas where peope ive cose together and space can be imited, managing these wastes is a difficut probem. In this study session we wi introduce you to the main topics and issues reated to sanitation and waste management, which wi be discussed in detai in the rest of this Modue. Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 When you have studied this session, you shoud be abe to: 1.1 Define and use correcty a of the key words printed in bod. (SAQs 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3) 1.2 Describe the simiarities and differences between sanitation and waste management. (SAQ 1.2) 1.3 Describe the sanitation adder and the waste hierarchy. (SAQ 1.3) 1.4 Describe the particuar features of urban areas that infuence sanitation and waste management. (SAQ 1.4) 1.5 Understand the current status of sanitation and waste management in Ethiopia and the poicies that exist to improve the situation. (SAQ 1.5) 1.1 What are sanitation and waste management? We can think of sanitation as the prevention of human contact with wastes, or as the provision of faciities and services for the safe disposa of human faeces and urine. More formay, the Word Heath Organization (WHO, n.d.) defines sanitation as: the provision of faciities and services for the safe disposa of human urine and faeces, the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage coection and wastewater disposa. By faciities, we mean the structures that are used to provide sanitation. This ranges from atrines and toiets, the system for coecting the excreta from atrines, through to sewage treatment systems. By services we mean the whoe scheme for providing sanitation; providing faciities, maintaining them, treating the wastes from them and organising finance and payments. The WHO (n.d.) goes on to state that: 3 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

4 1.1 What are sanitation and waste management? inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease word-wide and improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficia impact on heath both in househods and across communities. Waste management is defined in the European Union s Waste Framework Directive (European Commission, 2008) as: the coection, transport, recovery and disposa of waste, incuding the supervision of such operations and the after-care of disposa sites, and incuding actions taken as a deaer or broker. The two terms sanitation and waste management both refer to waste, but sanitation is primariy concerned with iquid waste and waste management is primariy concerned with soid waste. Liquid wastes are any wastes in a iquid form such as wastewater and sewage. Faeces and the contents of pit atrines and septic tanks are aso cassed as iquid wastes. Soid wastes are anything in soid form that is discarded as unwanted. You wi find that, in practice, sanitation and waste management are used in ways that overap and some organisations incude soid waste management as part of sanitation. Throughout this Modue, we wi be using the foowing definitions: Sanitation means preventing peope from coming into contact with wastes by providing faciities and services for the treatment and disposa of human excreta and other iquid wastes produced in homes, workpaces and pubic buidings. Waste management is the coection, treatment and disposa of soid wastes produced in the home, workpace and pubic buidings. Some of the consequences of a ack of waste management and sanitation can be seen in Figures 1.1 and of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

5 1.1 What are sanitation and waste management? Figure 1.1 The effect of no waste management: paper, pastics and other soid waste itter the environment. 5 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

6 1.2 Types of iquid and soid waste Figure 1.2 The effect of poor sanitation: iquid wastes are discharged into rivers and streams that may be used as a water source. Athough sanitation and waste management address different issues using different techniques, they have a number of features in common. For exampe, they both: dea with wastes are concerned with safeguarding human heath and preventing disease cause major probems if not done correcty hep to reduce environmenta poution (introduction into the environment of substances iabe to cause harm) need to be paid for by the users, the city authorities or the government. 1.2 Types of iquid and soid waste The aim of this section is to introduce the different types of soid and iquid wastes and to carify what we mean by the term waste. The Base Convention (an internationa agreement on the exporting of hazardous waste) states that (UNEP, 2011): wastes are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of nationa aw. 6 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

7 1.2 Types of iquid and soid waste You shoud note that this definition incudes both soids and iquids. Soid and iquid wastes are usuay transported and treated in different ways, so in this Modue we wi consider the two wastes separatey. Note that a human excreta (urine and faeces) are considered to be iquid wastes Types of iquid waste The types and characteristics of iquid wastes are discussed in Study Session 4, but a usefu genera cassification of domestic iquid waste is as foows: Backwater is wastewater that contains or consists of urine and faeces. It contains pathogens (disease-causing agents). Greywater, or suage, is wastewater from human washing and bathing, kitchen sinks, cothes washing, etc. It does not contain excreta. Stormwater (or surface run-off or rainwater run-off) is wastewater that fows on the surface of the and to join streams. Note that this is considered as wastewater because it contains many different contaminants. Sewage is a combination of wastewater coming from any of the above sources and fows in underground sewers or open ditches. Excreta is a combination of urine and faeces Types of soid waste There are different ways of cassifying soid wastes according to the source of generation or the nature of the waste. Soid waste can be categorised as foows: Residentia waste: from househods and residentia areas. This is sometimes caed househod waste. Garbage, rubbish, trash and refuse are other terms for residentia waste. Commercia waste: from businesses such as food and drink estabishments, shops, etc. Industria waste: from various types of industria processes, e.g. food processing, paper manufacture, manufacture of chemicas and meta processing. Institutiona waste: from pubic and government institutions, e.g. offices, reigious institutions, schoos, universities, etc. This is simiar to residentia and commercia waste in composition. Municipa waste (or municipa soid waste) covers a the above wastes produced in an urban area. It is simiar in composition to residentia waste but excudes some industria wastes. Heathcare waste: any soid waste produced in hospitas, cinics, heath posts and other heath faciities. Agricutura waste: waste that comes from farming. Waste from open areas: street sweepings, contents of roadside dustbins, ditches and other pubic paces. Construction and demoitionwaste: from various types of buiding and demoition activities in urban areas. 7 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

8 1.3 The sanitation adder and waste hierarchy Eectronic and eectrica waste (e-waste): wastes generated from used eectronic devices and househod appiances. There are other ways of cassifying wastes and we wi ook at these in Study Session The sanitation adder and waste hierarchy Generay speaking, a countries are aiming to improve their standards of sanitation and waste management, and have many poicies and reguations to try and achieve these improvements. We wi ook at some of these reguations in ater study sessions, but the sanitation adder and the waste hierarchy provide an exceent summary of these aims The sanitation adder The sanitation adder provides a measure of progress towards the provision of adequate sanitation faciities for every househod. The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) version of the adder is shown in Figure 1.3. The owest rung of the adder is open defecation, where peope without access to atrines or toiets deposit their faeces in open spaces. Unimproved faciities are one step above open defecation and incude atrines that do not ensure the separation of faeces from humans. The next stage is shared faciities, which are faciities that woud be cassed as improved, but are shared by two or more househods. At the top of the adder are the improved faciities, where human contact with faeces is avoided. Different types of atrine faciities are discussed in Study Session 6. 8 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

9 1.3 The sanitation adder and waste hierarchy Figure 1.3 The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) sanitation adder The waste hierarchy The waste hierarchy is shown in Figure 1.4 and is discussed in Study Session 9. The hierarchy ranks the different ways of deaing with waste in order of desirabiity. At the top is waste reduction, which means not generating waste in the first pace or minimising the 9 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

10 1.4 Sanitation and waste management in urban areas amount of waste produced. Beow that is waste reuse (for exampe, refiing a drinks botte), foowed by recycing (processing of wastes into new raw materias). A fourth option is the recovery of energy by burning or bioogica treatment. Disposa, ideay in a andfi site, is the fina option for any wastes that cannot be deat with in any other way. A andfi site is an area of and set aside for the fina disposa of soid waste. Figure 1.4 The waste hierarchy. The top three stages of the hierarchy (reduction, reuse and recycing) are often referred to as the 3 Rs, a term we wi use throughout this Modue. What are some of the ways that you coud reuse wastes at home. Some suggestions are to: use empty food containers to store food that was bought oose refi pastic drinks bottes with water use cothes from your odest chid to dress younger chidren use worn-out cothes as ceaning coths give books to friends when you have finished with them. 1.4 Sanitation and waste management in urban areas Sanitation and waste management can cause probems in any community, regardess of its size. In urban areas, where peope ive cose together these probems can have a much greater effect on peope s heath and on their surroundings. The foowing sections expore some of these issues. 10 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

11 1.4 Sanitation and waste management in urban areas The trend of urbanisation Most of the popuation in the word ives in urban areas. The United Nations Department of Economic and Socia Affairs (2014) predicts that between 2014 and 2050 the goba urban popuation wi rise from 3.9 biion to 6.4 biion peope, and that about 90% of this increase wi be in Asia and Africa. In Ethiopia, the proportion of peope iving in urban areas is sti ow, but the growth in urbanisation (the increase in the numbers of peope iving in urban areas) is greater than in many other countries, as shown in Figure 1.5. Figure 1.5 Popuation growth rate per year in Ethiopia and other regions of the word (Haddis et a, 2013). Expain in a few sentences what Figure 1.5 shows. Figure 1.5 shows that the urban popuation of Ethiopia is growing at sighty more than 5% per year, which is more than twice the growth rate for the country as a whoe. In Africa and other deveoping countries, the urban growth rate is much greater than the overa growth rate, but the difference is not as great as in Ethiopia. In contrast, the overa growth rate in industriaised countries is much ower than that of the deveoping word, and their urban growth rate is sighty ower than the overa growth rate. Many cities in Ethiopia have deveoped in a rapid and unpanned way as peope migrate to the cities seeking empoyment and a better ife. This growth affects the provision of sanitation and waste management faciities and other infrastructure such as water suppy, roads and eectricity suppies. As an exampe, the city of Addis Ababa receives setters from every corner of the country, many of whom ive in iega settements without sanitary faciities and other infrastructure. As shown in Figure 1.5, statistica reports indicate that Ethiopia has a tota popuation growth rate of 2.5% a year, with urban centres growing at a rate of 5.1% (Haddis et a., 2013). It is expected that by 2020, one in five Ethiopians wi be 11 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

12 1.4 Sanitation and waste management in urban areas iving in urban areas, and by 2030, haf of the country s popuation wi be iving in urban centres (Teer et a., 2007). As a resut of rapid and unpanned urban growth, the sanitation probem of Addis Ababa is one of the worst in the country. For instance, 26% of the houses and the majority of sumdweers have no atrine faciity, so they use rivers, ditches and open spaces (UN- Habitat, 2008). Rapid urbanisation creates a number of heath and environmenta risks to the popuation (Bai et a., 2012) in addition to those caused by inadequate sanitation and waste management. These incude: infectious diseases among crowded communities with substandard iving conditions acute and chronic respiratory and other inesses as a resut of air poution chronic and non-communicabe diseases that are on the rise with unheathy urban ifestyes (physica inactivity, unheathy diets, tobacco smoking, and the harmfu use of acoho) injuries resuting from motor vehice coisions, vioence and crime heath risks reated to cimate change, such as heat stress and changed patterns of infectious disease, which are considered to be one of the biggest heath risks in the twenty-first century. In the next section we wi ook at some of these chaenges in more detai Environmenta chaenges Urbanisation can have a major effect on the environment in the foowing areas. Chaenges emerging from rura-urban interaction Urban centres are usuay surrounded by rura communities and the two areas depend on each other to suppy many of their needs. Urban areas depend on the rura areas to provide food, fue and construction materias. In return, the rura community depends on urban areas to suppy empoyment, commercia products, advanced heathcare provision, education and equipment, machinery, and other industria outputs. Having said this, probems may arise when there is a arge temporary infux of peope from the rura to the urban areas. Exampes incude: the increased demand for sanitation faciities in the area around a city market the manure generated by animas that are brought for sae or used for transport (Figure 1.6) the congestion caused by the number of peope and animas using the roads. 12 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

13 1.4 Sanitation and waste management in urban areas Figure 1.6 An anima market in Addis Ababa. Chaenges emerging from the urban situation Even without the infuxes from rura areas, urban centres are congested and crowded. They have often grown without any panning, so the probems arising from the ack of sanitation, waste management and the other infrastructure mentioned above are present. Urban growth aso means that there is an increase in the area of and covered with concrete and other hard surfaces. Why woud an increase in the area of and covered with concrete or other hard surface be a probem? When rainwater fas on soi it wi usuay soak in. When it fas on concrete it runs off the surface and can cause fooding if the rainfa is heavy. Urban deveopment reduces the abiity of the ground to absorb rainwater. In urban areas a high proportion of the ground is paved, which prevents the absorption of rainwater. Aso, unpanned deveopments usuay ack the drainage ditches or channes necessary to carry away surface waters. These two factors combine to create an increased risk of fooding and the outbreak of waterborne disease that can foow foods. Chaenges from industria discharges Most industries in deveoping countries discharge untreated or partiay treated iquid wastes to sewers, where these are avaiabe, or to rivers, streams or ditches. Industries aso reease waste gases that may contain harmfu substances and produce soid wastes that may contain hazardous materias (such as poisons, strong acids, infectious materia, etc. that can cause harm to humans because of their properties). As a resut, unreguated industries can harm human heath and the environment in many ways. Chaenges from transport 13 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

14 1.4 Sanitation and waste management in urban areas We have aready mentioned probems from traffic congestion, but the use of a arge number of often bady maintained petro- and diese-fueed cars, orries and buses cause additiona heath probems. The exhaust gases from these vehices contain fine partices, party burned fue and acidic substances that make breathing difficut and cause irritation of the ungs. Whie this is a probem for a peope, it is much worse for the od, the very young and the i, especiay those with heart probems or who suffers from asthma Chaenges to society Increasing urbanisation puts pressures on society as a whoe as we as on the environment. Peope who migrate to cities may become unempoyed and then need to be provided for. This puts pressure on wefare provision and on the charities that provide assistance to the hungry and the homeess. Even peope who have jobs find it difficut to find somewhere to ive and may deveop iega unpanned settements that affect the panning and service provision of the government sectors. These settements aso add to the city s sanitation and waste probems. The urban popuation requires daiy suppies of food, fue and other goods which can put pressure on the infrastructure needed to deiver and se these goods. Once goods reach the end of their ives they become waste, increasing the pressure on the waste coection and treatment systems Chaenges to administration A growth in popuation creates more work for the city s administration. If funds are not avaiabe to increase staff numbers to dea with this demand, probems wi occur. In the case of sanitation and waste management, as we as services not being provided to the whoe of the city, the additiona workoad can reduce the effectiveness of the governance of these programmes, which can resut in ower standards and a poorer service for the entire city. To dea with the probems of popuation growth, various organisations need to work together; for exampe, water, sanitation and heath service providers, and nongovernmenta organisations (NGOs). When growth is rapid, these organisations can be overwhemed and so coordination can break down. This may mean that in some cases, efforts are dupicated, and sometimes there wi be gaps in addressing some aspects of the programme. If pubic administration and reguation is aready weak, the entire system can fai. In the absence of good reguation, standards of sanitation and waste provision can fa, increasing pressures in other areas such as heath services. 14 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

15 1.5 The present state of sanitation in Ethiopia 1.5 The present state of sanitation in Ethiopia The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) coects and pubishes data for water suppy and sanitation for a the countries of the word. The JMP data for sanitation coverage in Ethiopia in 2012 is shown in Figure 1.7. Figure 1.7 Sanitation faciities used in Ethiopia by peope iving in urban areas, rura areas and by the tota popuation. (JMP, 2014) There has been a marked reduction in the practice of open defecation throughout Ethiopia in recent years, particuary in rura areas. This has been accompanied by a rise in the use of atrine faciities, but there is sti a ong way to go to eiminate open defecation and provide a peope with access to improved faciities. There is far ess information avaiabe on soid waste management in Ethiopia than there is on sanitation. Outside Addis Ababa and other arge cities, househod waste is not coected and peope tend to dispose of their waste in informa open dumpsites where no records are kept. Organic materias (e.g. food, paper) eventuay decompose, but other materias such as pastics accumuate or are bown around by the wind. Not surprisingy, there are no reiabe figures for the amount of waste produced outside the main cities. In Addis Ababa, Basha (2007) estimated that around 2000 tons of waste were generated each day, around 75% of which was residentia waste. Of this tota: around 50 60% was coected by the city authority and taken to a oca disposa site (Figure 1.8) 15 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

16 1.6 Poicies, strategies and programmes 5 10% was recyced the remainder was either burned in open fires or dumped in open spaces, in watercourses or by the roadside. Ceary, there is much progress to be made in coecting city waste and in finding a safe way of disposing of it. Figure 1.8 Repi waste disposa site in Addis Ababa. 1.6 Poicies, strategies and programmes There are severa nationa poicies, strategies and programmes that are reevant to improving sanitation and hygiene in Ethiopia. Key poicies are: The Heath Poicy (1993) which stresses that environmenta heath, occupationa heath and safeguarding the environment are priority issues. The Environmenta Poicy (1997) which promotes the use of renewabe resources and recycing, and incudes specific poicies for industria waste. The Water Resources Management Poicy (1999) which describes the conservation, expoitation, use and protection of water resources. These poicies are reinforced by procamations such as the Pubic Heath Procamation No. 200/2000, the Ethiopia Water Resources Management Procamation No. 4/1995, and the Procamation for the Estabishment of the Ethiopian Environmenta Protection Authority These procamations provide support for regions, zones and woredas to deveop a reguatory framework for their activity in the water, sanitation and hygiene sector. The Nationa Hygiene and Sanitation Strategy of 2005 (MoH, 2005) sets out a sanitation vision for Ethiopia that is: 16 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

17 Summary of Study Session 1 100% adoption of improved (househod and institutiona) sanitation and hygiene by each community which wi contribute to better heath, a safer, ceaner environment, and the socio-economic deveopment of the country. The goa of 100% access to basic sanitation has been carried forward to other poicies and programmes, and is one of the targets of the new One WASH Nationa Programme. ( WASH stands for water, sanitation and hygiene.) The One WASH Nationa Programme (OWNP), as the name suggests, is a singe programme that combines the three interinked components. Announced in 2013, it aims to address the WASH chaenges in Ethiopia by adopting a unified and coaborative approach. The overa objective of the OWNP (FDRE, 2014) is: to improve the heath and we-being of communities in rura and urban areas in an equitabe and sustainabe manner by increasing access to water suppy and sanitation and adoption of good hygiene practices. The OWNP is unike previous WASH programmes because it takes a sector-wide approach and invoves the federa ministries of Water, Irrigation and Energy, Heath, Education, and Finance and Deveopment. The four ministries have signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) that sets out their roes and responsibiities. It therefore cuts across the traditiona separation of responsibiities between ministries and has structures and processes designed to ensure coser cooperation and coaboration between a the stakehoders. In comparison with the WASH sector, there are fewer poicies and reguations reevant to soid waste. The Soid Waste Management Procamation of 2007 has the objective to enhance at a eves capacities to prevent the possibe adverse impacts whie creating economicay and sociay beneficia assets out of soid waste (FDRE, 2007). It sets out the obigation for urban administrations to create the right conditions to promote investment in soid waste management services and ensure the participation of oca communities in the process of designing and impementing their soid waste management pans. It aso sets out requirements for the suppy and management of specific types of waste, incuding gass, tin cans, pastic bags, used tyres, food-reated waste, househod waste, and construction and demoition waste. Summary of Study Session 1 In Study Session 1, you have earned that: 1 Sanitation and waste management both refer to the appropriate management of waste to protect peope and the environment. Sanitation generay focuses on iquid waste and waste management on soid waste. 2 Liquid waste incudes a types of wastewater and incudes human excreta. Soid waste is any soid materia discarded by peope and is often cassified according to its source. 3 The sanitation adder iustrates the different types of sanitation provision in order of desirabiity. 4 The waste hierarchy is a guide to the different ways of treating wastes from waste reduction (the best option) through to disposa (the worst option). 17 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

18 Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 5 The chaenges of rapid and unpanned popuation growth and urbanisation in Ethiopia make it difficut to achieve acceptabe eves of sanitation and waste management quicky. 6 Sanitation in Ethiopia has shown significant improvement in recent years. There is ess data for trends in waste management. 7 There are severa Ethiopian poicies, strategies, procamations and programmes that address sanitation and waste management issues. Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 Now that you have competed this study session, you can assess how we you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcome 1.1) On a piece of paper, write down each of the key words printed in bod in this study session. Cut the paper into strips with one word on each strip; fod them and put them in a bow. Take a strip, read the word and write a definition in your notebook. Then check your definitions with those in the study session. Answer This game is intended to famiiarise you with the terms you wi meet again in subsequent study sessions. To find the right answer, you can check the definition written in your own words with that in the study session. SAQ 1.2 (tests Learning Outcomes 1.1 and 1.2) Arrange the foowing phrases under the correct heading in the tabe beow. aims to protect peope from disease management of e-waste mainy concerned with soid waste options are described as a adder management of industria wastes aims to prevent poution mainy concerned with iquid waste options described as a hierarchy management of human excreta. 18 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

19 Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 Sanitation Waste management Both sanitation and waste management Answer Sanitation Waste management Both sanitation and waste management Mainy concerned with iquid waste Options are described as a adder Management of human excreta Mainy concerned with soid waste Options described as a hierarchy Management of e-waste Aims to protect peope from disease Aims to prevent poution Management of industria wastes SAQ 1.3 (tests Learning Outcomes 1.1 and 1.3) Rearrange the foowing into two separate ists, one in the correct order to form the sanitation adder and the other in the correct order for the waste hierarchy. Put the best option at the top of your ists. pour fush toiet od cardboard box, fattened out, used as door mat defecating on waste ground broken wooden box used for firewood simpe pit atrine with no ventiation or sab refiing a pastic botte with cooking oi Answer The sequence for the sanitation adder is: pour fush toiet (improved atrine) simpe pit atrine with no ventiation or sab (unimproved atrine) defecating on waste ground (open defecation). The sequence for the waste hierarchy is: refi pastic botte with cooking oi (reuse) od cardboard box, fattened out, used as door mat (recycing) broken wooden box used for firewood (recovery if the fire is used to keep warm or to cook food. If just burned without benefit then this is cassed as disposa). 19 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016

20 Sef-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 SAQ 1.4 (tests Learning Outcome 1.4) Name three ways in which urbanisation creates chaenges for effective sanitation and soid waste management. Answer There are severa possibe answers to this question, but the main chaenges from urbanisation are caused by many peope iving very cose together which puts pressure on a urban services. The rate of increase in popuation is very fast and the deveopment of infrastructure for water suppy and sanitation services cannot maintain the same pace of change. Peope arriving in cities often ive in informa settements which are deveoped without panning or contro and ack essentia faciities for the peope who ive there. SAQ 1.5 (tests Learning Outcome 1.5) There have been significant improvements in sanitation provision in Ethiopia in recent years, but progress is not so good for soid waste management. What reasons can you think of that might expain this difference? Answer There are severa possibe reasons, but you may have thought of the foowing: There is a we-known and direct ink between poor sanitation, a ack of safe water, poor hygiene and human heath. The impacts from poor soid waste management, however, are more environmenta, socia and economic and ess directy inked to heath so corrective actions are not aways considered urgent. There is imited data avaiabe about current soid waste production which makes it more difficut to manage. There are many different poicies and aws that reate to sanitation that have been in pace for many years. Legisation about soid waste management is more recent and enforcement is not yet compete. 20 of 20 Tuesday 29 March 2016