Nitrate Contamination. Exposure, Consequence, and Control

Transcription

1 Nitrate Contamination Exposure, Consequence, and Control

2 NATO ASI Series Advanced Science Institutes Series A series presenting the results of activities sponsored by the NATO Science Committee, which aims at the dissemination of advanced scientific and technological knowledge, with a view to strengthening links between scientific communities. The Series is published by an international board of publishers in conjunction with the NATO Scientific Affairs Division A Life Sciences B Physics C Mathematical and Physical Sciences D Behavioural and Social Sciences E Applied Sciences F Computer and Systems Sciences G Ecological Sciences H Cell Biology I Global Environmental Change Plenum Publishing Corporation London and New York Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht, Boston and London Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest NATO-PCO DATABASE The electronic index to the NATO ASI Series provides full bibliographical references (with keywords and/or abstracts) to more than contributions from international scientists published in all sections of the NATO ASI Series. Access to the NATO-PCO DATABASE compiled by the NATO Publication Coordination Office is possible in two ways: - via online FILE 128 (NATO-PCO DATABASE) hosted by ESRIN, Via Galileo Galilei, Frascati, Italy. - via CD-ROM "NATO-PCO DATABASE" with user-friendly retrieval software in English, French and German ( WTV GmbH and DATAWARE Technologies Inc. 1989). The CD-ROM can be ordered through any member of the Board of Publishers or through NATO-PCO, Overijse, Belgium. Series G: Ecological Sciences Vol. 30

3 Nitrate Contamination Exposure, Consequence, and Control Edited by Istvan Bogardi Department of Civil Engineering University of Nebraska-Lincoln Lincoln, Nebraska USA Robert D. Kuzelka University of Nebraska Water Center Lincoln, Nebraska USA Technical Editor: Wilma G. Ennenga Department of Civil Engineering University of Nebraska-Lincoln Lincoln, Nebraska USA Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division

4 Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Nitrate Contamination: Exposure, Consequences, and Control held at Lincoln, Nebraska (USA) from September 9-14, ISBN-13: DOl: / e-isbn-13: This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9,1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1991 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991 Typesetting: Camera-ready by authors 31/ Printed on acid-free paper

5 CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PREFACE VIII XI I. OVERVIEW OF PROBLEM Nitrates and their Control in the EEC Aquatic Environment J.J. Fried Nitrate Contamination in the Contiguous United States RF. Spalding and M.E. Exner The Nitrate Content of Drinking Water in Portugal S.M. Cardoso Nitrate Contamination of Surface and Ground Water in Greece J. G. Ganoulis II. EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT Risk Analysis for Water Supply from a River Polluted by Nitrate Runoff E.J. Plate and L. Duckstein 67 Nitrogen Modeling on a Regional Scale P.E. Rijtema and J.G. Kroes 81 Nitrate Ground-water Modeling for Agricultural and Other Nonpoint Sources W.E. Kelly, B. Curtis, and D. Adelman 97 Principles of Monitoring and Analysis H.P. Nachtnebel, L. Duckstein, and I. Bogardi 115 Nitrate Balances in Aquifers R. Mull, C. Bugner, F. Harig, W. Pfingsten, and M. Pielke 129 Fertilizer and Water Application, and Control of Nitrate Pollution: Management Issues L.S. Pereira and J. Quelhas dos Santos 141 Integrated Water and Nitrogen Management J.S. Schepers, D.L. Martin, D.G. Watts, and RB. Ferguson 163 Biochemistry of a Plume of Nitrate-contaminated Ground Water P.J. Dillon, S.R Ragusa and S.B. Richardson 173

6 VI Nitrate Contamination of Ground Water in Southern Ontario and the Evidence for Denitrification R.W. Gillham 181 Nutrient Transport in Two Major Catchments of Turkey S. Soyupak 199 Potential Nitrate Pollution of Ground Water in Limestone Terrain by Poultry Litter, Ozark Region, U.S.A. K.F. Steele and W.K. McCalister 209 Nitrogen Management Research in the President's Water Quality Initiative C.A. Onstad, I.S. Schepers, and W.E. Larson 219 Panel Discussion: Nitrate Exposure in Agriculture 227 ill. HEALTH CONSEQUENCES Evidence that N-Nitroso Compounds Contribute to the Causation of Certain Human Cancers M. Crespi and V. Ramazzotti 233 The Significance for Human Health of Nitrate, Nitrite and N-Nitroso Compounds S.S. Mirvish 253 Epidemiological Studies of the Endogenous Formation of N-Nitroso Compounds H. Moller and D. Forman 267 Nitrate Exposure and Human Cancer D. Forman 281 Development of a Reliable Measure for Determining Nitrate Exposure for Use in Epidemiological Studies P.I. Packer, P.R. Randell, S.N. Duncan, B. Van Acker, P.I. Reed, M.H. Thompson, M.I. Hill, and S.A. Leach 289 Quantifying Gastric Nitrate and Nitrate Reductase Activity in the Normal and Achlorhydric Stomach I.H. Hotchkiss, C.M. Maragos, and R. Hai Liu 297 Potential Health Consequences of Ground-water Contamination by Nitrates in Nebraska D.D. Weisenburger 309 Some Factors Affecting N-Nitroso Compound Formation from Ingested Nitrate in the Stomach: Achlorhydria, Bacterial N-Nitrosation and its Modulation S. Leach, C. Mackerness, K. McPherson, P. Packer, M. Hill, and M. Thompson 317

7 VII Panel Discussion: Health Consequences 327 IV. CONTAMINATION CONTROL Control of Ground-water Nitrate Pollution in Britain by Land-use Change P.J. Chilton and S.S.D. Foster 333 Nitrate Treatment Methods: An Overview M.F. Dahab 349 Experience with Nitrate-Removal Methods from Drinking Water F. Rogalla, G. de Larminat, J. Coutelle, and H. Godart 369 A Newly Developed Process for Nitrate Removal from Drinking Water A.F. Miquel and M. Oldani 385 Nitrate Pollution in Ground Water A. Tiirkman 395 Mitigating Nonpoint-Source Nitrate Pollution by Riparian-Zone Denitrification L.A. Schipper, A.B. Cooper, and W.J. Dyck 401 Elimination of Ground-water Contamination by Septic-Tank Effluent C.A. Rock, S. Irrinki and P.S. Pinkham 415 Control of Nitrogen Sources and Principles of Treatment A. Samsunlu 435 u.s. Environmental Protection Agency Programs Related to the Agricultural Use of Nitrates T.L. Amsden 445 Panel Discussion: Nitrate Treatment and Control 451 v. INTEGRATION: TIlE SYSTEMS APPROACH A Mathematical Systems Model of Nitrate Contamination L. Duckstein, K.L. Head, and I. Bogardi Impact of Risk-related Concerns on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Programs M. Dourson, B. Stem, S. Griffin, and K. Bailey Nitrate Risk Management A. Bardossy Panel Discussion: Integration, the Systems Approach Index

8 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BOD CAG COD DEA DOC ER FEM MCL NA NDELA NHL NMAP NNC NOC NPC NPRO RID TEM TKN TOC TOD TSS WSC biological oxygen demand chronic atrophic gastritis carbon oxygen demand denitrifying enzyme activity dissolved organic carbon electrical resistivity frequency domain electromagnetics maximum contaminant level N-nitrosamines N-nitrosodiethanolamine non-hodgkin's Lymphoma N-nitrosomethylamino propionitrile N-nitroso compounds (Mull) N-nitroso compounds (Crespi) nasopharingeal carcinoma N-nitroso proline reference dose time domain electro magnetics total kjeldahl nitrogen total organic carbon total oxygen demand total suspended solids water soluble carbon

9 PREFACE

10 XI PREFACE The nitrate content of drinking water is rising at an alarming rate in several regions of NATO countries and elsewhere in the world. The increase is due to lack of proper sewage treatment, and primarily to excess fertilizer application. Also, eutrophication in several coastal areas is triggered by high nitrate concentrations. The main purpose of this book is to integrate scientific knowledge related to exposure assessment, health consequences and control of nitrate contamination in water. The motivation is related to the magnitude, the possible adverse health effects, and the high cost of controlling nitrate contamination. Future research tasks are defined by an interaction among hydrologists, toxicologists and environmental engineers in an integrated framework for nitrate risk management. The target readership of this book is a mix of university colleagues, practitioners from both the private and public sectors and advanced graduate students working with the hydrological, health science or environmental engineering aspects of nitrate contamination. The main conclusions include: 1. For risk assessment purposes, knowledge and sufficiently accurate models are available to predict nitrate load and its fate in water under changes in land use. 2. Once agricultural exposure controls are implemented, the response times in ground water may be so long as to make controls unrealistic. 3. It is still unknown whether agricultural best management practice is a compromise between nitrate risk reduction and agricultural revenue. 4. The current drinking water guidelines of 10 mg/l NOrN need not be changed. 5. No adverse health effects apart from methemoglobinemia in infants are observed with water concentrations less than 20 to 30 mg/l. Above this level there is epidemiological evidence for increased incidence of non-hodgkin's lymphoma. Epidemiological gastric cancer studies have not been able to demonstrate a clear link between high nitrate concentrations in water and gastric cancers. 6. The relationships between N-Ioads and concentrations and variables characterizing eutrophication in estuaries and coastal areas are important research targets.

11 XII 7. Nitrate removal is the most expensive control solution. Bio-denitrification appears to be most effective, with selective ion exchange and electrodialysis techniques competitive for less-contaminated waters. 8. The cost of nitrate removal is around $1 U.S./1000 gal. When compared to European water prices that average around $5 U.S./1000 gal., the additional expense for nitrate removal may be bearable. 9. In-situ remediation is the most promising option and research should be encouraged despite rather disappointing first trials. 10. Nitrate risk analysis (to include exposure, consequence and control) is warranted in high-exposure areas. Such analysis should consider total nitrate exposure (including drinking water) and the uncertainties involved, and compare the results with risks from other environmental hazards. This book is the outcome of a NATO Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) directed by 1. Bogardi and A. Samsunlu, and organized with the help of Robert D. Kuzelka, Assistant Director of the University of Nebraska Water Center. The ARW was held in September 1990 at Lincoln, Nebraska. The Organizing Committee also included 1.1. Fried and E. Plate, whose contributions are gratefully acknowledged. We gratefully acknowledge our sponsors, the NATO Scientific Affairs Division, the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, the University of Nebraska Medical Center, the Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, the State of Nebraska Governor's Research Initiative Funds, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the U.S. National Science Foundation. Specific thanks are due to the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln for helping to ease the work load of the Director, and to the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Water Center for providing organizational, secretarial and support assistance. We also wish to thank Ann Mack, Conservation and Survey Division, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, for her assistance in assembling figures and camera-ready copy. We are grateful to all the ARW lecturers, including those whose papers could not be included in the volume, the lively participants and observers, and many individuals who helped kindly before, during, and after the ARW.