實驗室消毒 滅菌原理及應用 周文祥 AUG. 02, 2016

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1 實驗室消毒 滅菌原理及應用 周文祥 AUG. 02,

2 Outline 1. 消毒與滅菌原理 2. 危險群微生物分類 3. 實驗室生物安全等級 4. 消毒與滅菌時機 5. 實驗室空間消毒方法 6. 高壓高溫滅菌器 7. Sterility Assurance Level ( SAL ) 8. 高壓高溫滅菌器使用注意事項 2

3 名詞定義 : 消毒 : 使用物理 ( Thermal ) 或化學方法摧毀病原菌及其他類型微生物, 但不一定是微生物全部形態 ( 如 Bacterial spores) 滅菌 : 使用驗證過程毀滅殺死所有形態的微生物, 每一物品上出現微生物係以概率 ( Probability) 方式呈現 雖然很低但無法降到零, 任何微生物存活概率少於百萬分之一 (1 in a million ) 3

4 生物安全領域常用於消毒或滅菌之不同術語 : 除污 (Decontamination): 去除或殺死微生物之任何過程 該名詞也用於去除或中和有危害之化學品及放射性物質 消毒 (Disinfection): 殺死微生物之物理或化學手段, 但不一定殺死其孢子 消毒劑 (Disinfectant): 用於殺死微生物之化學品或化學混合物, 但不一定殺死其孢子 消毒劑常用於非生物體或其表面 滅菌 (Sterilization): 殺死及 或去除所有微生物及其孢子之過程 滅菌劑 (Microbicide): 能夠殺死微生物之化學品或化學混合物 該名詞常常可以代替 生物殺蟲劑 化學殺菌劑 或 抗菌劑 4

5 消毒與滅菌原理 1. Denaturation of proteins. 2. Oxidation of sulfhydryl enzymes and Ring chlorination of amino acids. 3. Loss of intracellular contents. 4. Decreased uptake of nutrients ; Decreased oxygen uptake; Oxidation of respiratory components; Decreased adenosine triphosphate production. 5. Breaks in DNA; Depressed DNA synthesis. 6. Alkylating the amino and sulfhydral groups of proteins; Ring nitrogen atoms of purine bases. 7. Disruption of protein and nucleic acid structure and synthesis. 8. Destructive hydroxyl free radicals that can attack membrane lipids, DNA, and other essential cell components. 9. Blocking the spore germination process. 10. Disrupts the cell wall permeability; Oxidizes sulfhydryl and sulfur bonds in proteins, enzymes, and other metabolites. 11. Gross protoplasmic poison, penetrating and disrupting the cell wall; Precipitating the cell proteins. 5

6 影響消毒與滅菌效力之因素 1. Number and Location of Microorganisms. 2. Innate Resistance of Microorganisms. 3. Concentration and Potency of Disinfectants. 4. Physical and Chemical Factors. 5. Temperature, ph, relative humidity, and water hardness. 6. Organic and Inorganic Matter. 7. Duration of Exposure. 8. Biofilms. 6

7 Biofilms are a collection of microorganisms surrounded by the slime they secrete, attached to either an inert or living surface. 7

8 Biological agent Infectious dose* Route of inoculation Escherichi coli 10 exp8 Ingestion Escherichi coli O157: H7 10 Ingestion Bacillus cereus > or = 10 exp5 per gram Ingestion Campylobacter jejuni < or = 500 Ingestion Treponema pallidum 57 Intradermal Francisella tularensis 10 Inhalation, Ingestion Bacillus anthracis 8-50 exp3 Inhalation, Ingestion Mycobacterium tuberculosis and bovis < 10 Inhalation Coxiella burnetii 10 Inhalation Salmonella typhi 10 exp5 Ingestion Shigella flexneri 180 Ingestion Treponema pallidum 57 Intradermal Vibrio cholerae 10 exp8 Ingestion Yersinia pestis Ingestion, Inhalation Smallpox virus (V. major) Ingestion, Inhalation (rare) Poliovirus 2 Ingestion Influenza A2 virus < 790 Inhalation Venezuelan encephalitis virus 1 Subcutaneous Hepatitis A virus Ingestion, intravenous Adenovirus > 150 Intranasal Respiratory syncitial virus > Intranasal Plasmodium falciparum 10 Intravenous Histoplasma capsulatum 10 (mice) Inhalation Some infectious doses for humans and route of inoculation the definition of "infectious dose" see: Johnson B. OSHA Infectious Dose White Paper. Applied Biosafety 2003; 8(4):

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11 第一級至第四級危險群微生物分類表 Risk Group Definition RG 說明範例 RG1 未影響人類健康之微生物 Agents that are not associated with disease in healthy adult humans. Adeno-associated virus (Type 1~4) Escherichia coli K-12 RG2 影響人類健康輕微, 且通常有預防及治療方法之微生物 Agents that are associated with human disease which is rarely serious and for which preventive or therapeutic interventions are often available. RG3 影響人類健康嚴重, 但可能有預防及治療方法之微生物 Agents that are associated with serious or lethal human disease for which preventive or therapeutic interventions may be available (high individual risk but low community risk). RG4 影響人類健康嚴重或可能致死, 且通常無預防及治療方法之微生物 Agents that are likely to cause serious or lethal human disease for which preventive or therapeutic interventions are not usually available (high individual and high community risk). Hepatitis B virus Plasmodium falciparum Staphylococcus aureus Mycobacterium tuberculosis Human Immunodeficiency virus (Type1, 2) Ebola virus Variola (major and minor) virus 資料來源 source : 感染性生物材料管理辦法 Regulations Governing Management of Infectious Biological Materials (103 年 3 月 日 )

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15 影響消毒劑作用因素 濃度 A. 一般 : 愈高愈好, 但高濃度會使材質受損 B. 例外 : 酒精 70%>90% 受污染微生物種類及數量 A. 細菌繁殖體 黴菌及親脂性易殺死, 結核菌及親水性病毒難殺, 孢子最難 B. 微生物數量愈多愈難消毒 消毒物品表面之清潔程度 A. 不乾淨會阻止消毒劑與微生物細胞接觸, 效果降低 B. 清潔劑殘留會抑制消毒劑作用 消毒時間 A. 依消毒劑不同, 須足夠時間 B. 時間愈長效果愈好, 含菌越高須越長時間 溫度 A. 提高溫度可增進殺菌率 B. 但溫度不可超過消毒劑極限 ( 如沸點或消毒劑分解溫度 ) 會降低殺菌效力或令人感不適 中毒 水的硬度硬水含鈣 鎂不適用, 須以去離子水或無菌蒸餾水稀釋 15

16 化學消毒劑之使用原則 依據製造廠商說明書之使用方法 依標的物種 使用目的配置適當濃度 對器具消毒前須先進行清洗 器材表面須完全浸泡於消毒劑溶液, 管狀物須將內部空氣排除 戴口罩或手套才可使用具刺激性或腐蝕性消毒劑 調配時須注意容器清潔, 減少消毒劑與不相容物質發生反應 16

17 消毒與滅菌時機 1. 年度檢查維修前 2. 室內空調與 Bag-In/Bag-Out 之 HEPA Filter change 3. BSC 年度性能檢測與更換 HEPA Filter 等 4. 維護人員與環境安全及避免操作檢體污染 5. 實驗室空調體系之維修 6. BSL-3 以上實驗室, 轉換操作不同病原體前, 應進行適當的除污消毒程序 7. 感染性生物材料洩漏之後續處理 8. 器具與設備搬離實驗室 17

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19 General Lab Use Hypochlorite Solutions 1. Large Spills/Large Organic Load undiluted from bottle 2. Small Spills/Virus Inactivation 10% - 1:9 3. General Surface Disinfection 1% - 1:99 19

20 手部衛生 / 手部除污 加強感染控制第二期 推廣手部衛生計畫 手部衛生工作手冊行政院衛生署疾病管制局 20

21 加強感染控制第二期 推廣手部衛生計畫 手部衛生工作手冊行政院衛生署疾病管制局 21

22 實驗室空間消毒方法 1. Formaldehyde Fumigation. ( 福馬林燻蒸 ) as a fumigant date back to the 1880s (Lach, 1990) 2. Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide, VHP.( 過氧化氫蒸氣 ) 3. Gaseous Chlorine Dioxide. ( 氣態二氧化氯 ) both chlorine dioxide gas and ozone gas have been used effectively in fumigation applications (Pan et al.,1992; Rastogi et al., 2009; Sy et al., 2005; Wilson et al.,2005). 22

23 The chamber must be sealed to contain the decontaminating agent, whether Formaldehyde gas, VHP, or CD gas is used. 23

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25 (35%-40%) Solutions of Formaldehyde in water are called Formalin Formaldehyde usage is simple and inexpensive, 但關注於 Toxicity 與 Carcinogenicity 燻蒸消毒是指利用福馬林與高錳酸鉀反應, 產生甲醛氣體, 經一定時間後殺死病原微生物 optimum level of relative humidity (i.e. greater than 35% but less than 80%) 燻蒸完畢剩餘 Formaldehyde gas must be neutralized Using Ammonia created by heating Ammonium Bicarbonate or Ammonium Carbonate 表面上殘餘物必須予以擦拭 燻蒸消毒所需時間長, 消毒期間不得進入實驗室, 易導致電子設備氧化銹蝕 25

26 Gaseous Chlorine Dioxide The first involves the reaction of Chlorine Gas with the salt Sodium Chlorite The second reaction, requiring the presence of water, involves the reaction of Chlorite ions from Sodium Chlorite reacting with acid 26

27 PEL for chlorine dioxide has a high toxic potential at only 0.1 ppm. Chlorine dioxide is easily detected in the air by its identifiable smell. Extremely effective in decontaminating microorganisms and spores. Gas, it can easily expand to all areas. Its gaseous properties also allow the penetration of plastics. Chlorine dioxide is highly corrosive and is known to react negatively with steel and plastics. 27

28 Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen peroxide is a clear, colorless liquid, and more viscous than water. Consumers, it is usually available from pharmacies at 3 and 6 wt% concentrations. For laboratory use, 30 wt% solutions are most common. First requires a procedure to dehumidify. Humidity and Temperature levels are stabilized, a 35% hydrogen peroxide solution is vaporized via a generator and released. 28

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30 Chemical Methods of Disinfection: An ideal antiseptic or disinfectant should have following properties: 1. Should have wide spectrum of activity. 2. Should be able to destroy microbes within practical period of time. 3. Should be active in the presence of organic matter. 4. Should make effective contact and be wettable. 5. Should be active in any ph. 5. Should be stable. 6. Should have long shelf life. 7. Should be speedy. 8. Should have high penetrating power. 9. Should be non-toxic, non-allergenic, non-irritative or non-corrosive. 10. Should not have bad odour. 11. Should not leave non-volatile residue or stain. 12. Efficacy should not be lost on reasonable dilution. 13. Should not be expensive and must be available easily. 30

31 焚化 1. 在處理那些經過或事先未經除污之動物屍體以及解剖組織或其他實驗室廢棄物時, 焚化是一種有效之方法 需要有效控制溫度, 並配備二次焚化室時才能實現徹底焚化 2. 理想之第一次焚化室之溫度至少應達到 800, 第二次焚化室之溫度至少應達到 焚化爐之操作是否有效, 主要取決於對需要處理之廢棄物中物品之正確混合 31

32 紫外線消毒 波長在 240~280nm 時有殺菌效果 用於工作區域表面的消毒及殺死空氣中懸浮的微生物 可採固定裝置在 BSC 內, 牆上或天花板上或移動式車輛型式 牆上或天花板上者不可超過 0.1μwatt/cm 2 使用時不可進行任何實驗或作業, 以免眼睛受傷或皮膚灼傷 可於實驗結束後開燈至少一小時以上以達到殺菌效果 穿透力弱, 灰塵 油脂即可阻斷光線, 應每週以酒精棉 擦拭燈管 每三個月檢查殺菌力, 若輸出力低於 70% 即予以更換燈管 32

33 高壓高溫滅菌器 33

34 鍋爐及壓力容器安全規則 第一章總則第一條本標準依勞工安全衛生法第五條第三項及第八條第五項規定訂定之 鍋爐及壓力容器安全規則行政院勞工委員會 96 年 8 月 13 日勞安 2 字第 號令第五次修正第四條本規則所稱壓力容器, 分為下列二種 : 一 第一種壓力容器, 指合於下列規定之一者 : ( 一 ) 接受外來之蒸汽或其他熱媒或使在容器內產生蒸氣加熱固體或液體之容器, 且容器內之壓力超過大氣壓 ( 二 ) 因容器內之化學反應 核子反應或其他反應而產生蒸氣之容器, 且容器內之壓力超過大氣壓 ( 三 ) 為分離容器內之液體成分而加熱該液體, 使產生蒸氣之容器, 且容器內之壓力超過大氣壓 ( 四 ) 除前三目外, 保存溫度超過其在大氣壓下沸點之液體之容器 第五條本規則所稱小型壓力容器, 指第一種壓力容器合於下列規定之一者 : 一 最高使用壓力在每平方公分一公斤以下或零點一百萬帕斯卡 (MPa) 以下, 且內容積在零點二立方公尺以下 二 最高使用壓力在每平方公分一公斤以下或零點一百萬帕斯卡 (MPa) 以下, 且胴體內徑在五百毫米以下, 長度在一千毫米以下 三 以 每平方公分之公斤數 單位所表示之最高使用壓力數值與以 立方公尺 單位所表示之內容積數值之乘積在零點二以下, 或以 百萬帕斯卡 (MPa) 單位所表示之最高使用壓力數值與以 立方公尺 單位所表示之內容積數值之乘積在零點零二以下 34

35 Sterility Assurance Level ( SAL ) Probability of a viable microorganism being present on a product unit after sterilization. Usually expressed as a SAL of 10-6 means 1/1 million chance that a single viable microorganism is present on a sterilized item. A SAL of 10-6 generally is accepted as appropriate for items intended to contact compromised tissue (i.e., tissue that has lost the integrity of the natural body barriers). The sterilizer manufacturer is responsible for ensuring the sterilizer can achieve the desired SAL. 35

36 Bioburden ( 負荷菌 ) and Log Reduction Bioburden = 100 CFU ( colony forming unit ) Log Reduction To reduce the microbial population from 100 to 1 Log ( 100 ) = 2 理論上要達到 SAL 10-6, 因此 Total Log Reduction = = 8 需要滅菌鍋週期 ( Cycle ) 達到降低 Log 10-8 功效才行 36

37 Overkill ( 過度滅菌法 ) Approach For items that are not heat sensitive: Bioburden: 10 6 of a highly heat resistant spore forming bacteria ( Geobacillus stearothermophilus ) D-value at 121 is generally slightly above 2 minutes. Worst-case value = 2.5 minutes. Overkill sterilization cycle at 121 = ( 12 log )*( 2.5 min./log ) = 30 minutes. 37

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40 Biological Indicators ( 生物滅菌確效指示劑 ) Bio-indicator organisms: thermally resistant indicator Bacillus atrophaeus ATCC 9372 (10 4 ) used to demonstrate a 4 log 10 reduction of viable spores. Geobacillus stearothermophilus ATCC 7953 (10 6 ) used to demonstrate a 6 log 10 reduction of viable spores. 試驗 : 有顏色改變 ( 由紫色變黃色 ) 或顏色有點變黃則指示出一個失敗的滅菌週期 試劑瓶保持原來的紫色沒有混濁物或顏色改變的話, 則指示出完成了適當的滅菌週期 GS/6 瓶裝生物指示劑 (Near the center of the waste load ) Bacillus atrophaeus C Geobacillus stearothermophilus C 40

41 生物指示劑位置

42 4 minutes at 132 C/270 F in dynamic-air-removal steam sterilizers 42

43 高壓高溫滅菌器之三種基本運作模式 1. 硬性物品 ( Vacuum ): Air removal, steam penetration are highly effective. 2. 包裝物品 ( Vacuum): Gowns, long lengths of tubing, and tanks/vessels/ apparatus with small inlet/outlet ports and /or vent filters. Draw three or more vacuums prior to reaching the desired sterilization temperature and beginning the sterilization dwell period. A post sterilization vacuum also is usually drawn to evacuate the steam from the load items. The length of time to pull and release the vacuums exceeds the length of the sterilization dwell. 3. 液體 / 重力 (Non-Vacuum) : Liquid cycles generally just heat up and cool down and do not utilize vacuums. Another term for a liquid cycle is gravity displacement as the air is displaced by gravity ( removing the air by introducing steam into the top of a chamber and displacing the air which is heavier than steam, by removing the air from the bottom of the chamber). 43

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45 正確操作 Autoclave 的重要性 45

46 使用第一道容器 ( primary container ) 直接接觸到除污或滅菌物品時使用之 勿裝載超過容量之 75% 除污滅菌袋材質一般採用 Polypropylene 46

47 使用第一道容器 ( Primary Container ) 勿牢固密封容器 ( 可能會爆炸 ) 須讓熱蒸氣滲入容器内 Loosen screw caps or use self venting caps Cap open containers with aluminum foil If using plastic waste bags, leave a small opening Small opening Loosen screw caps 47

48 使用第二道容器 (Secondary Container) 用來裝載洩漏液體 第二道容器四周高度足夠容納洩漏液體量 使用 Autoclave 安全盤子 For liquids add water 48

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50 使用 Temperature Sensitive Tape 表示達到高溫 無法證明完成消毒或滅菌功效 可作為分辨滅菌及未滅菌物品 Before After 50

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52 胴體鋼板厚度 ( 年度重點檢測 ) 52

53 安全閥測試 ( 年度重點檢測 ) 53

54 滅菌鍋品管測試 如有以下的情況發生時, 需進行滅菌鍋品管測試的抽真空測試 : (1) 新裝置的滅菌鍋 (2) 滅菌鍋故障 大維修後 (3) 滅菌鍋經重新設計或位置搬遷 (4) 滅菌過程失敗 (5) 滅菌鍋效能監測時發現抽真空測試紙的顏色變化不一致時 滅菌鍋品管測試時, 需使用含有生物指示劑的 1 號或 2 號 PCD 包, 連續進行 3 次的鍋次控制後, 再進行連續 3 次的抽真空測試 54

55 紀錄保存 1. 定義將滅菌過程中所有的資料加以整理記錄並保存 2. 目的可作為滅菌物品流向的追蹤及滅菌鍋功能與維修時的參考 3. 紀錄保存 3.1 滅菌過程紀錄 滅菌鍋編號及鍋次 滅菌日期及時間 滅菌鍋次的參數, 如溫度 時間 壓力 環氧乙烷低溫滅菌時須另紀錄相對溼度等 環氧乙烷低溫滅菌鍋之曝氣時間 滅菌鍋內的內容物 生物測試 ( 含對照組 ) 結果 化學測試結果, 包含包內化學指示劑及包外化學指示劑 操作者簽名 3.2 滅菌鍋維修保養紀錄 壓力容器自動檢查表 抽真空測試紀錄紙 故障原因及維修紀錄, 如維修日期 更換零件 維修情況簡述 維修工程師及操作人員簽名等 3.3 滅菌物品標示 -- 滅菌物品必須標示滅菌有效日期 3.4 紀錄保存方式 -- 紀錄保存的方式可以書面或電子格式保存 3.5 資料保存期限 -- 因應醫院評鑑或特殊回收等需求, 建議相關資料應保存至少 4 年 55

56 高壓高溫滅菌器使用注意事項 下列規定能夠減少操作壓力容器時發生之危險 : 1. 應由受過良好訓練之人員負責高壓滅菌器之操作及日常維護 2. 預防保養週期應由有具備資格人員定期檢查滅菌器櫃腔 櫃門之密封性以及所有儀錶及控制器 3. 應使用飽和蒸氣, 並且其中不含腐蝕抑制劑或其他化學品, 這些物質可能污染正在滅菌之物品 4. 所有要高壓滅菌之物品都應放在空氣能夠排出, 並具有良好熱滲透性之容器中 ; 滅菌器櫃腔裝載要鬆散, 以便蒸氣可以均勻作用於裝載物 5. 當滅菌器內部加壓時, 互鎖安全裝置可以防止櫃門被打開, 而沒有互鎖裝置之高壓滅菌器, 應當關閉主蒸氣閥並待溫度下降到 80 以下時再打開門 6. 當高壓滅菌液體時, 由於取出液體時可能因過熱而沸騰, 故應採用慢排式設置 7. 即使溫度下降到 80 以下, 操作者打開門時, 也應穿戴適當之手套及眼罩來進行防護 8. 在進行高壓滅菌效果之常規監視中, 生物指示劑或熱電偶計應置於每件高壓滅菌物品之中心 最好在 最大 裝載時, 使用熱電偶計及記錄儀進行定時監視, 以確定滅菌程序是否適當 9. 滅菌器如果有排水濾網, 應每日拆下清洗 10. 應注意保證高壓滅菌器之安全閥, 沒有被高壓滅菌物品中之紙屑等堵塞 56

57 個人安全注意事項 1. 消毒滅菌後之物品卸載時, 戴口罩 耐熱手套 護眼及實驗衣 2. 避免蒸氣燒傷, 開啟鍋門前務必確認 autoclave 的壓力降至零 3. 不要高壓滅菌密封容器或狹窄瓶頸的 bottle, 可能會爆炸 4. 勿高壓滅菌含溶劑 揮發性或腐蝕性化學品之物品 ( 如 Phenol Chloroform Bleach Formalin 或 Glutaraldehyde 等 ) 5. 勿高壓滅菌 Radioactive 物品 57

58 References 1. Laboratory Biosafety Manual, 3rd edition, The World Health Organization, Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories, 5 th edition, CDC and NIH, The NIH Guidelines for Research Utilizing Recombinant DNA Molecules. 4. The Laboratory Biosafety Guidelines, 3rd Edition, Canada, 實驗室生物安全手冊, 譯自 WHO Laboratory Biosafety Manual 3rd edition 第三版, 衛生署疾病管制局, 基因重組實驗守則,93 年 5 月, 行政院國家科學委員會 7. 加強感染控制第二期 推廣手部衛生計畫 手部衛生工作手冊, 行政院衛生署疾病管制局 8. Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities, 2008.CDC 9. 滅菌監測感染控制措施指引, 引衛生署疾病管制局 2010/04/21 修訂 58

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