Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) 固態氧化物燃料電池

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Lawrence Anthony
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Department of Mechanical Engineering/Fuel Cell

1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) 固態氧化物燃料電池 Guo-Bin Jung ( 鐘國濱 ) Associate Professor/Associate Researcher Department of Mechanical Engineering/Fuel Cell Center Yuan Ze University 海峽兩岸新能源技術研討會 2011 年 10 月 8 日至 17 日湖北武漢

2 Content ( 內容 ) 1. Introduction / 簡介 2. Electrolyte / 電解質 3. Cathode / 陰極 4. Anode / 陽極 5. Interconnect / 連接板 6. Seal / 密封材料 7. Cell Stack System / 電池至系統 8. Others

3 How Does A PEM Fuel Cell Work? Anode ( 陽 ) reaction: 2H 2 4H + + 4e - Cathode ( 陰 ) reaction: O 2 + 4H + + 4e - 2H 2 O Overall reaction: 2H 2 + O 2 2H 2 O + Heat Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

4 Introduction SOFC PEMFC O = (O 2- ) H +

5 Cathode ( 陰 ) reaction: ½ O 2 + 2e O 2 (O = ) Anode ( 陽 ) reaction: H 2 + O 2 H 2 O + 2e Net cell reaction: Introduction(Cont d) Principle ( 工作原理 ) (CO + O 2 CO 2 + 2e ) H 2 + ½ O 2 H 2 O + We + Waste Heat (CO + ½ O 2 CO 2 ) Can operate on hydrocarbon fuels 碳氫燃料 (natural gas, methanol) directly (through internal reforming); But really intended to operate on gasified coal gases 焦煤氣 ; No problem with CO and CO 2 ; in fact, CO becomes the fuel; and CO 2 is inert.

6 SOFC vs. Reformer ( 重組器 ) (External) Reformer Internal Reformer (via anode) Reformer is necessary for PEMFC, however, this equipment can be eliminated in HT-SOFC

7 What is a fuel processor (Reformer) A device that uses heat and a catalyst to change the chemical composition of a hydrocarbon(ch X ) to liberate the hydrogen Ex. 蒸汽重組 (Steam reformer, SR): Brings together hydrocarbon fuel, catalyst, and steam (vapor H 2 O) and then applies additional heat from an external source to generate the chemical reaction. One advantage of this system is high efficiency. 2CH 4 + H 2 O+heat 5 H 2 + CO + CO 2 (methane,natural gas) C 8 H H 2 O+heat 21 H 2 + 4CO + 4CO 2 (octane, gasoline) CH 3 OH+H 2 O + heat CO 2 +3H 2 (methanol)

8 PEMFC vs. H 2 Fuel Supply 90 vol.% CH 4 H 2 For home-used power generation

9 PEMFC 與 SOFC 之相關組件與次系統 PEMFC-Based System PEMFC stack SOFC stack SOFC systems is more competitive with PEMFC with less components and cheaper materials

10 SOFC 與其他 FC 之相關組件與次系統 SOFC systems is more competitive with other FCs with less components and cheaper materials

11 Comparison of Fuel Cells and Other Distributed Generation Options Including heat recovery Sources: Siemens Power Generation :Combined heat and power co-generation

12 Introduction(Cont d) SOFC component and unit cell (or stack) Unit cell Stack ( 堆疊 ) Unit cell.

13 Introduction(Cont d) Evolution ( 演進 ) of Cell Component Technology

14 Current FC Component Introduction(Cont d) SOFC URFC DMFC PEMFC Electrolyte YSZ Nafion Nafion Nafion Anode Ni/YSZ Pt-IrO2/C Pt-Ru/C Pt/C Cathode LaSrMnO Pt/C Pt/C Pt/C GDL None This component is developable Carbon cloth or paper Carbon cloth or paper Bipolar plate LaSrCrO Metal Graphite Graphite (Metal for the future) (Metal for the future) (Metal for the future)

15 Introduction(Cont d) SOFC Component and specification Electrolyte Cathode Anode Interconnect Material Y X Zr 1-X O 2-X/2 (YSZ) La 1-X Sr X MnO 3 30vol% Ni/YSZ La 1-X Ca X CrO 3 Conductivity Ionic Electronic Electronic Electronic 導性 >0.1S/cm >50S/cm >120S/cm >1 S/cm (1000 ) No electric is allowed Ionic is favorable Ionic is favorable No ionic is allowed Dense ( 緻密性 ) Stability ( 穩定度 ) >94% 20-40% Both fuel and oxidant For oxidant (fuel) to transport within easily >94% Oxidant Fuel both fuel and oxidant

16 Introduction(Cont d) Component Resistivity ( 阻值 )& Temp Therefore, SOFC should be operated at higher temperature as possible to decrease the component resistivity(lower the ohmic resistance).

17 Introduction(Cont d) Simplified SOFC System & Components

18 Introduction(Cont d) Why SOFC? the most efficient (green energy) most suited to applications in the distributed generation (ie, stationary power) market produces manageable quantities of high grade waste heat suited well to cogeneration applications. do not contain noble metals do not utilise liquid electrolytes which can be problematic and expensive. electrolyte is a solid with very thin sheets and result in a very compact package

Introduction(Cont d) Efficiency ( 效率 ) 40-60% electrical efficiency in simple and hybrid combination and up to 85% efficiency in combined heat and power applications.

19 Introduction(Cont d) Efficiency ( 效率 ) 40-60% electrical efficiency in simple and hybrid combination and up to 85% efficiency in combined heat and power applications. Fuel Flexibility ( 燃料彈性 ) Uses commonly available liquid fuels such as gasoline, diesel, hydrogen, LNG, methanol, coal-gasified fuel as well as natural gas. Distributive Energy ( 分散式能源 ) Makes electricity available very close to the load it serves and to remote locations with no access to the transmission grid. Avoids transmission line losses. Environmental ( 環保 ) Avoids formation of nitrogen oxide NOx, reduces emission of greenhouse gases particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) thereby reducing global warming and air pollution. Energy Security and Reliability ( 能源安全 ) Reduces dependence on foreign oil through use of low-cost domestic energy resources, enables siting flexibility, and alleviates transmission and distribution (T&D) grid congestion which reduces infrastructure vulnerability. Power Generation Choices ( 住宅 / 工業用 ) Makes available more power generation choices for residences and businesses. Grid integration and grid independence assists deregulation. Positions U.S. industry to export highly cost-competitive power generation systems to meet the rapidly growing global energy market. - Benefits

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Cathode Reaction: ½ O 2 + 2e O 2 Temperature( 電池溫度 ):1000 C Anode ( 陽極 ): Nickel-Zirconia cermet (Ni-ZrO 2 ) Cathode ( 陰極 ): Modified lanthanum manganite(lasrmno)

20 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Cathode Reaction: ½ O 2 + 2e O 2 Temperature( 電池溫度 ):1000 C Anode ( 陽極 ): Nickel-Zirconia cermet (Ni-ZrO 2 ) Cathode ( 陰極 ): Modified lanthanum manganite(lasrmno) Electrolyte ( 電解質 ): Yttria (Y 2 O 3 ) stabilized Zirconia (ZrO 2 ) Interconnect ( 連接極 ): LaCrMgO Anode Reaction: CH 4 + O 2 H 2 O + CO 2 + 2e Net Reaction: Drawback: Limited Substitute Materials CH 4 + ½ O 2 H 2 O + CO 2 We + Waste Heat SOFC The Answer is IT-SOFC

21 Content 1. Introduction 2. Electrolyte 3. Cathode 4. Anode 5. Interconnect 6. Seal 7. Cell Stack System 8.Others

22 High ionic conductivity (> 95%). Stability in both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres at the cell operating temperature Low permeability ( 低穿透 ) for oxygen and hydrogen to minimize direct combination of oxidant and fuel during cell operation. A thermal expansion ( 熱膨脹 )close to that of the cathode and the anode. Low-reactivity ( 低反應性 ) with the the cathode and the anode. Electrolyte Function: Use VACANCY to conduct oxygen ion (O 2- ) Thus the material must be:

23 Electrolyte Production of Vacancy( 空洞 ) (1) Extrinsic ( 外質 ) vacancy(defect): by doping chemically ( 化學性添加 ) with low valence cation(ex. Y 3+ ) (2) Intrinsic ( 本質 ) vacancy(defect): by operating at high T, low P O2

24 Electrolyte(cont d).. (1)Extrinsic vacancy(defect, V O ): 空洞缺陷 ZrO ' Zr.. O 2 Y O 2Y V 3O 2 3 Minus charge Positive charge X O Neutral 2 O Fluorite Structure( 螢石型結構,half unit)

25 Electrolyte(cont d) (1)Extrinsic vacancy(defect, ):.. V O - ZrO 2 and its derivatives (after doping ) O O O O Zr O Zr O Zr O O O + Y 2 O 3 + CaO O O O O O O Y zr V Y zr O Zr O O Ca zr O Zr O Zr O O O O O O O

26 Electrolyte(cont d) (2) Intrinsic vacancy(defect) At low oxygen partial pressure and high temperature, oxygen(o X o) within the structure is evoluted as O 2

27 Electrolyte(cont d) Application (1) SEP (Solid Electrolyte Potentiometry) : 為一種 in situ 量測觸媒表面熱力學活性的方法 (2) EOP (Electrochemical Oxygen Pumps) : 外接電源來控制電流的方向, 進而影響觸媒電極上的反應 (3) SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cells) : 固態氧化物燃料電池顧名思義是以固態導氧離子材料做為電解質的一種發電裝置 (1)SEP (2)EOP (3)SOFC

28 Electrolyte(cont d) Conductivity & Temp Arrhenius Relationship

29 Effect of Temperature and Dopant Concentration on the Conductivity of Sm-doped Ceria Electrolyte 2SmO 1.5 CeO2 2Sm ' Ce O O V.. O (3) A maximum in conductivity versus dopant concentration corresponds to a minimum in activation energy. The conductivity is completely due to oxygen vacancy conduction. The conductivity increases with increasing samaria doping and reaches a maximum for (CeO 2 ) 0.8 (SmO 1.5 ) 0.2, which has a conductivity of 5.6x10-1 S/cm at 800 o C. SOFC Guo-Bin Jung, Ta-Jen Huang and Chung-Liang Chang, Effect of Temperature and Dopant Concentration on the Conductivity of Samaria-doped Ceria Electrolyte, J. Solid State Electrochem., 6, (2002).

30 Electrolyte(cont d) Key Features of HT(800~1000 C ) SOFC Direct Conversion Anode No external reformer Fuel flexibility Advanced Thermal Management System High Power Density: 1-2 W/cm 2 at 800~1000 C Drawback: High T operation could cause material decay

31 Electrolyte(cont d) Key feature of IT (600~800 C ) SOFC Sintering and Creep - Less sintering and creep of the stack materials. This helps maintain geometrical tolerances and high surface area of reaction. Thermal Stress - Lower operating temperature can in general improve material properties allowing greater geometrical flexibility and use of less material which in turn can improve overall area-specific-resistance and allow a wider range of sealing options. Material Flexibility - The type and range of materials is greater at lower temperatures. In particular metallics may be incorporated into SOFC stack designs. Balance of Plant - The balance of plant in general should cost less if the stack fuel and oxidant exit temperature is less than 800 C for the same reasons the stack should cost

32 Electrolyte(cont d) Key feature of IT (600~800 C ) SOFC Heat Loss - Less heat loss from the stack for similar levels of insulation. In particular radiation losses can be significantly less since these are a function of T4. This can have a significant effect on the self-sustainability of the stack. Time to Reach Operating Temperature - Lower nominal operating temperature is obviously a benefit. Potential use of metallics can also impact this in a beneficial way. Thermally Activated Processes - Any detrimental thermally activated processes can be affected beneficially such as chromium vaporization, elemental interdiffusion and migration, metallic corrosion affects and some ceramic aging affects.

33 Electrolyte(cont d) Drawback for IT (600~800 C ) SOFC application Low conductivity of ZrO 2 Solution: Thin-film ZrO 2 (YSZ) therefore, anode supported cell is more suitable than electrolyte supported cell New electrolyte

34 Content ( 內容 ) 1. Introduction / 簡介 2. Electrolyte / 電解質 3. Cathode / 陰極 4. Anode / 陽極 5. Interconnect / 連接板 6. Seal / 密封材料 7. Cell Stack System / 電池至系統 8. Others

35 Requirements Cathode (Air electrode) Main function is to provide reaction sites for the electrochemical reduction of the oxidant. O 2 (1) + 2e - (2) O 2- Thus the material must be: Stable (1) in the oxidizing environment at the temperature of operation Sufficient electronic conductivity (2) in the oxidizing environment Must be compatible with the other cell components (I & E) Sufficient catalytic activity (3) (3)

36 Cathode (Air electrode) Requirements Must have: 4. Must have a similar CTE to zirconia (electrolyte) 5. Must have sufficient porosity to allow gas to transport to the reaction sites 6. High strength (particularly in cathode supported) and toughness 7. Ease of fabrication 8. Cheap

37 Cathode (con t) Status Pt: 表現出的陰極特性佳之金屬導體, 但價格昂貴易揮發, 僅止於學術探討 La 1-x M x MnO 3 (M=Sr,Co) : 目前較常用來取代 Pt 的鈣鈦礦型氧化物, 在高溫下具有良好之導電導離子特性, 為一混合離子導體( Mixed Ionic- Electronic Conductor, MIC )

38 Cathode (con t) Reaction mechanism (metal based, ex. Pt) ZrO 2

39 Cathode (con t) Reaction mechanism (based on mixed conductor ex. La 1-x M x MnO 3 ) O 2(g) O (a d s ) total area is active mixed conducting electrode O 2- e - electrolyte (ionic conductor) O 2- Whole cathode = Active site

40 Cathode (con t) Reaction mechanism step O x O 2(g) 2 x O 2 x x 2O x O x O x(ers) O x (ers) 2e V O(ers) O O x (ers) X: normal site Xers: electrochemical reaction site

41 La 0.8 Sr 0.2 MnO 3 (LSM) 優點 : 高導電性缺點 Cathode (con t) 離子導性低易與電解質 YSZ 形成高阻值之 La 2 Zr 3 O 7 及 Sr 2 ZrO 4 熱膨脹係數高於 YSZ LSM: cm/cm YSZ : cm/cm

42 Cathode (con t) Pervoskite structure oxide( 鈣鈦礦氧化物,ABO 3 ) 通常以二價的鹼土族金屬 (alkaline earth, Sr Ca) 部分置換三價的稀土族離子, 電荷的補償可由過渡金屬離子價數的變化 (Mn 3+ Mn 4+ ), 或者在某些特定的條件下形成氧空位來維持電性中和 A-rare earth cation (La 3+ ) B-transition metal (Mn 3+ ) [Sr / Mn ] =[Mn. Mn ] + 2[Vö] Oxygen ion

43 LaCoO 3 : High catalytic activity (O), high reactivity with YSZ electrolyte (X) Catalytic Activity Cathode (con t) Different oxide materials show different catalytic activities for oxygen reduction. LaCoO3 > LaMnO3 > LaFeO3 > LaCrO3 The activity decreases with decreasing (operating) temperature

44 Content ( 內容 ) 1. Introduction / 簡介 2. Electrolyte / 電解質 3. Cathode / 陰極 4. Anode / 陽極 5. Interconnect / 連接板 6. Glass sealant / 密封材料 7. Cell & Stack construction / 電池至系統 8. Others

45 Functions and Requirements Provide active sites (nature of catalyst) for electrochemical oxidation of fuel (eg H 2 ) They must be: Stable in fuel environment (1) Sufficient electronic conductivity (2) Sufficient catalytic activity (3) Chemically and thermally compatible with (I and E) Anode (3) O 2- + H 2 (1) H 2 O+2e - (2) Catalyst Reactants --- Products

46 Must have: 5. Must have a similar CTE to zirconia (electrolyte) 6. Must have sufficient porosity to allow gas to transport to the reaction sites 7. High strength (particularly in anode supported) and toughness 8. Ease of fabrication 9. Cheap Functions and Requirements

47 Anode (fuel electrode) Evolution Year Material Main contribution 1965 多孔性 Pt 電化學反應位僅侷限於燃料, 電極及電解質間的三相處 (tpb) 1975 Ni/YSZ cermet 電化學反應位可深入至全電極中

48 Anode (fuel electrode) Conductivity of Ni/YSZ at 1000 o C S-shape Curve

49 Anode (fuel electrode) Anode structure Porosity (H 2 inlet, H 2 O exit) YSZ electrolyte

50 Anode (fuel electrode) Reaction mechanism (methane fuel based) CH 4( g ) CH 4 CH 4 C 2H 2 H 2H ( electrolyt YSZ ( anode) O YSZ O H OYSZ H O 2e

51 Anode (fuel electrode) Other Materials (not Ni/YSZ) Co is a very suitable material Co/CaO-doped ZrO2 anodes have been used Co has a higher sulfur tolerance, but is more expensive, and has a higher oxidation potential Ru( 釕 )/YSZ also tested

52 Content ( 內容 ) 1. Introduction / 簡介 2. Electrolyte / 電解質 3. Cathode / 陰極 4. Anode / 陽極 5. Interconnect / 連接板 6. Seal / 密封材料 7. Cell Stack System / 電池至系統 8. Others

53 Interconnect Requirement Nearly 100% electronic conductivity (100% 電導 ). Stability in both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres at the cell operating temperature Low permeability ( 低穿透 ) for oxygen and hydrogen to minimize direct combination of oxidant and fuelduring cell operation. A thermal expansion ( 熱膨脹 )close to that of the cathode and the anode. Low-reactivity ( 低反應性 ) with the the cathode and the anode.

54 Interconnect (cont d) 以鈣鈦礦結構的 LaCrO 3 為主, 其中的導電性質可藉由低價的陽離子取代 La 或 Cr, 因電中性原理而形成高導電性的 Cr(4+) [Mg / Cr ] =[Cr Cr. ] + 2[Vö] A-rare earth cation (La 3+ ) B-transition metal (Cr 3+ ) Oxygen ion

55 Interconnect (cont d) 在高氧分壓的環境下 ( 陰極端 ), 假設 [Cr Cr. ] >>[Vö] [Mg / Cr ] =[Cr Cr. ] 所以 e [ Mg ' Cr ] 添加量導電性 (Ca) 導電性 (Mg) The Cr element within is easily to oxidize to CrO2 and vaporize to deposit between Cathode and Electrolyte to increase the interface resistance Therefore, more and more researches devoted to the study of non-cr metal alloy for IT-SOFC

56 在低氧分壓的環境下 ( 陽極端 ), k x x 1 1 2CrCr OO 2CrCr VO O [ Cr [ Cr x Cr Cr Interconnect (cont d) 2 ] [ VO 2 ] [ O x O ] ] P O2 1 / 2 [ V [ Cr O Cr ] ] 2 P 2 1 / 2 O2 ([ Mg ' Cr [ VO ] ] 2[ V O ]) 2 P 1 / 2 O2 e ' 1 / 2 1/ {[ MgCr] / k} PO 2 4

57 Content ( 內容 ) 1. Introduction / 簡介 2. Electrolyte / 電解質 3. Cathode / 陰極 4. Anode / 陽極 5. Interconnect / 連接板 6. Seal / 密封材料 7. Cell Stack System / 電池至系統 8. Others

58 Seals ( 密封材料 ) 變形 (RT 800oC) Hermetic: 密封的 Hydrogen embrittlement ( 氫脆 ): structure break due to continuous H2 slip in

59 Content ( 內容 ) 1. Introduction / 簡介 2. Electrolyte / 電解質 3. Cathode / 陰極 4. Anode / 陽極 5. Interconnect / 連接板 6. Seal / 密封材料 7. Cell Stack System / 電池至系統 8. Others

60 Stacking( 堆疊 )

61 Stack designs There are (at least) 5 different stack designs (although several more are under investigation) Sealless ( 無需密封 ) tubular( 圓管型 ) design Segmented-cell-in-series (SCIS) Monolithic Flat (planar) plate( 平板狀 ) Micro-tubular flow through

62 (X) (O) (X) (O) (O) (X) (X) (O)

63 Planar Design (unit)

64 Planar Design (flat plate) Electrolyte Supported Cell Anode Supported Cell Air cathode (LSM) Air cathode (LSM) electrolyte(ysz)-200um electrolyte(ysz)-20um anode( Ni/YSZ) support (800um) H 2 anode ( Ni/YSZ) H 2 Advantage: Higher Power (thinner electrolyte) Disadvantage: Low Power Output (thicker electrolyte)

65 Planar Design Stack

66 Planar Design Stack System Residential SOFC- 1 kw system Hexis

Tubular Design (Seal-less, 無需密封 ) Sources: Siemens Power Generation This diagram shows the arrangement of components in the tubular solid oxide fuel cell.

67 Tubular Design (Seal-less, 無需密封 ) Sources: Siemens Power Generation This diagram shows the arrangement of components in the tubular solid oxide fuel cell. Air is channeled into the cell stack and through the center of each tube. The innermost layer of the tube is the cell cathode and is surrounded by the electrolyte (middle layer). Fuel flows over the outer layer that serves as the anode. Bundles of tubes are joined together into modules to make a fuel cell stack. The modular nature of fuel cells is one of their strengths, because power plants can add modules as they need them and keep unused capacity to a minimum

68 Tubular Design (Seal-less, 無需密封 ) Sources: Siemens Power Generation

Tubular Design Stack 1.5-meter solid oxide fuel cells, Westinghouse "Siemens Westinghouse cell configuration is a tube composed of multiple ceramic layers bonded together.

69 Tubular Design Stack 1.5-meter solid oxide fuel cells, Westinghouse "Siemens Westinghouse cell configuration is a tube composed of multiple ceramic layers bonded together. Multiple tubes link to form bundles (Stack); bundles link to form sub-modules for small power systems; and submodules link to form a generator module for larger power plants."

70 Planar Design Stack System

"The Siemens Westinghouse 220-kw power system is the first in the world to combine a solid oxide fuel cell and a microturbine in an innovative 'hybrid' configuration.

71 "The Siemens Westinghouse 220-kw power system is the first in the world to combine a solid oxide fuel cell and a microturbine in an innovative 'hybrid' configuration." Tubular Design Stack System The following excerpt is from the DOE press release dated 17 April 2000, that announced the shipment of this cell to California. "The new power plant is made up of 1152 individual tubular cells which give it the capability to generate about 200 kw of electricity. The unit is the world's first to operate the cells under high pressures and to use the hot, pressurized exhaust gases to drive a microturbine generator which will generate an additional 20 kw of electricity at full power.... The power plant's combined maximum output of 220 kilowatts is enough electricity to power more than 200 homes.

72 SOFC System Hybrid SOFC Integrated with Gas Turbine

73 SOFC System SOFC & H 2 Co-Production Unit (Z-TEK) e- H2 Natural Gas

74 FutureGen Plant ( 次世代發電廠 ) with SOFC

75 Content ( 內容 ) 1. Introduction / 簡介 2. Electrolyte / 電解質 3. Cathode / 陰極 4. Anode / 陽極 5. Interconnect / 連接板 6. Seal / 密封材料 7. Cell Stack System / 電池至系統 8. Others

76 Technology drawbacks ( 短處 ) High operating temperature (Materials with lower temperatures have been reported (as low as 500 )) Slow warm up Glass-ceramic seals ( 玻璃陶瓷密封材料 ) Exotic ( 奇特 ) interconnects Materials stability

77 A SOFC in Reality - Oxygen Sensor( 氧感測器 ) Oxygen sensors are employed in industry to monitor and control processing atmospheres and also in automobile to monitor and control the air-to-fuel ratio ( 空 / 燃比 ) in the internal combustion engine. A prominent sensor material is zirconia, which, as noted above, can be an excellent high-temperature oxygen conductor if suitably doped with Ca 2+ or Y 3+. A tube or thimble made of zirconia can be exposed on its exterior to the hot atmosphere to be monitored and on its interior to air, with high-temperature seals preventing leakage between the two environments. Porous platinum(pt) electrodes on the two surfaces can be used to register a galvanic cell voltage across the solid zirconia electrolyte that is proportional to the difference in oxygen content between the exterior atmosphere (ref) and the interior air.

78 SOFC and Oxygen Sensor (1) Oxygen sensor (2)EOP (3)SOFC (1) Oxygen sensor: 為一種 in situ 量測觸媒表面熱力學氧活性的方法 (2) EOP (Electrochemical Oxygen Pumps) : 外接電源來控制電流的方向, 進而影響觸媒電極上的反應 (3) SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cells) : 固態氧化物燃料電池顧名思義是以固態導氧離子材料做為電解質的一種發電裝置 Low A/F: low fuel efficiency High A/F: corrosion

79 Thanks for Your Attention

) 系列 I,II , 快速拆卸 MIL-DTL 產品規格. Insert MS3114. Finish (Table 4, MS. Series I number. & shell material. arrangement (Table 3) Class

) 系列 I,II , 快速拆卸 MIL-DTL 產品規格. *Insert MS3114. Finish (Table 4, MS. Series I number. & shell material. arrangement* (Table 3) Class MIL-DTL-26482(M26482) ) 系列 I,II 圓型連接接器 MIL-DTL-26482( 系列 I&II) 環境密封, 快速拆卸, 圓形連接接器設計用於於範圍廣泛泛的軍事和商業應用 M26482 的耐用用性和多功能能性也使其其廣泛用於石石化, 工業業控制, 機器器人, 自動動化, 加工, 使用和電電信行業 MIL-DTL-26482 連接器 : 系列 I 和系列 II 這兩兩種功能刺刀刀接頭,