MISSAKA HETTIARACHCHI, CLIVE MCALPINE
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1 GOVERNING THE URBAN WETLANDS: A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF ECOLOGY, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND GOVERNMENT POLICY MISSAKA HETTIARACHCHI, CLIVE MCALPINE AND TIFFANY MORRISON S CHOOL OF G EOGRAPHY P LANNING AND E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT, THE U NIVERSITY OF Q UEENSLAND, A USTRALIA Society of Wetland Scientists Annual Conference June 2013 Duluth. Minnesota
2 WETLANDS POLICY : MAIN TREND SETTERS Ramsar Convention (1971) Main global trend-setter for national level policies Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (1972) Major practical implication on wetland governance, through shore-bird networks World Heritage Convention and UNHESCO Biosphere Program Lesser impact than Ramsar or Bonn. Effective in Protected Area wetlands Major transnational initiatives Wadden Sea Plan (1982), Med-Wet forum (1991), Great Lakes Wetlands Initiative (1994)
3 < TIME WETLANDS POLICY : BEYOND RAMSAR GLOBAL TRANS NAT. NATIONAL RAMSAR Convention 1971 Bonn Convention 1972 EU Directive on Birds 1979 Wadden Sea Plan 1982 Shorebird Ntws 80s,90s CWA (USA) 1972, 1977 State Wetlands Acts (USA) 70s,80s Wetlands Act NZ 1986 MEA2005 MedWet Forum 1999 EU Water Directive 2000 Wetland Policies 14 countries
4 WETLANDS POLICY : WHERE ARE URBAN WETLANDS? Less than 2% of wetlands literature covers urban wetlands Comprehensive studies on urban wetlands policy and governance is rare or nonexistent No global policy directive on urban wetlands to date Ramsar adopted a resolution on urban wetlands in the 10 th CoP (R X.27) Urban wetlands are not specifically mentioned in most of the existing 15 national wetlands policies
5 URBAN WETLANDS POLICY : ANALYSIS CRITERIA Policy Subsystem 1. Main actors 2. Institutions 3. Organization of govt. agencies (Sabatier & Jenkins-smith, 1999) Nature of Formal Institutions (Laws & Regulations) 4. Coordination 5. Delegation 6. Property rights (Alston et al, 1996; Adger and Luttrel, 2000) Policy Process 7. Valuing of ecosystem services 8. Stakeholder access 9. Information flow (Turner et al, 2000; Adger and Luttrel, 2000)
6 THE CASE STUDIES Case Location Area Downstream New York Tidal Wetlands Long Island, Jamaica bay USA ~2000 ha Hudson Bay Wetland type Tidal (Estuarine) RAMSAR status No Eastern Kolkata Wetlands Lower Gangetic Delta: INDIA 12,500 ha Bay of Bengal Tropical Marsh (Palustirne) YES (2002) Colombo Flood Detention Area Colombo SRI LANKA 500 ha Kelani River Tropical Marsh (Palustirne) NO Yatsuhigata Mud Flat Tokyo JAPAN 40 ha Tokyo Bay Tidal Flat (Estuarine) YES (1998)
7 Yatsuhigata East Kolkata New York Colombo
8 SOME CHARACTERISTICS NY KOL CMB Yatsu Main State Actor (s) Department of Nature Conservation NY East Kolkata Wetland Mgt. Authority Land Reclamation Board Env. Agency Narshino City Foci of programs Primary : Waterways conservation Secondary : Recreational services. Primary : Drainage improvement Fish and crop productivity Secondary : Ecological restoration Primary : Flood control Secondary : Waterways conservation Primary : Nature Conservation Secondary : Environmental Education
9 SOME CHARACTERISTICS Key State Actors NY 1 KOL 3 Land Tenure Mainly private Mainly private Formality of Institutions Integrated decisionmaking Community particip n Strictly formal Moderate Poor Mixed Strong Moderate CMB 1 Mixed Strictly formal Poor Poor Yatsu 2 Totally state Mainly Formal Poor Moderate
10 < TIME TIMELINE OF INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT NY CMB KOL YATSU 1972 CWA 1973 NY Tidal Wetlands Act 1923 Floods 1 st Flood Plan 1934 SLLRDC Act 1968 Hoogli River Degradation WW Fishery 1930s Rapid loss of tidal flats 60s Local conservation 1970s Inventorying Wetlands Rpts 1990s 1991 Floods 2 nd Flood Plan Floods SLLRDC Act ammd Rapid wetland loss s Court case 1996 RAMSAR 2002 EKWMA 2005 Conservation Plan 1994 YNOC 1994 RAMSAR 1998
11 MAIN OBSERVATIONS Common characteristics of the cases Very diverse policy instruments and regulations Policy development influenced both by local problems and global/national trends Influence of Ramsar is mixed: Not the main trend setter Institutional arrangements are mainly formal Single agency emerged prominent as regimes matured Partnerships are common, power delegation is rare Strong use of scientific information in policy formulation and implementation Community participation in decision-making is limited
12 KOLKATA AND COLOMBO : WHY THE DIFFERENCE? Urban wetlands in Kolkata and Colombo have same wetland type Similar socio-economic environment and political history Yet the institutional arrangements are very different in the outlook Why the difference?
13 KOLKATA City Expansion Floods & Cholera Wetland Re-Engineering (Sewage Diversion) Wastewater Fishery Population boost Reclamation for housing Wetland Degradation Free Market Reforms Conservation Policies Real estate take over COLOMBO City Expansion Floods Wetland Re-Engineering (Flood Head-works) Agriculture Wanes Population boost Reclamation for housing Free Market Reforms Real estate takeover Wetland Degradation Acute Flooding Conservation Policies Further wetland Re- Engineering Chronology of wetland policy development in Colombo and Kolkata
14 THE POLICY OUTCOMES Colombo High rate of wetland conversion / modification No marketable wetland products or community use High rate of marsh to shrub transformation (44% to 2008)
15 THE POLICY OUTCOMES Kolkata Moderate rate of wetland conversion Good market for wetland products (Fish & Vegetables) Strong community use Moderate organic pollution but ecologically stable
16 COLOMBO & KOLKATA: DIVERGING INSTITUTIONAL PARADIGMS? Policy Process Institutional arrangements Colombo Kolkata Both cases had similar political histories and trends (Colonial, Post-Independent and Free Market Reform) Strong formal/statutory Mix of statutory and informal /de facto institutions Eco-system Services Grass-root user community Heavily focused on flood control Small number, politically weak Healthy mix of multiple ecosystem services Large number, politically strong Markets Mainly real-estate Real estate, Wetland products Environmental Issues High rate of modification and ecological transformation Moderate conversion rate but ecologically stable
17 CONCLUSIONS AND LESSONS Despite the apparent differences, the formal institutional arrangements (legislations/regulations) have many similarities in both cases The formal policy development shared common political histories and traditions in both cases The endurance of wastewater fishery and related de facto informal institutions mark the main difference in Kolkata Strong user community and market for wetland products were the main reasons for endurance of WW fishery Diversity of ecosystem services contributed to ecological stability
18 Chronologies of Institutional Change Ecological (Habitat Type) Change Institutional Change Time series of Watershed and Climatic Parameters Analysis of Trends & Correlations Quant./Qual. Analysis of Relationships
19 REFERENCES Adger, N. W. & Luttrell, C Property Rights and Utilization of Wetlands. Ecological Economics, 35, Alston, L. J., T. Eggertsson, et al Empirical Studies in Institutional Change. New York, Cambridge university Press. Ostrom, E Governing the Commons, New York, Cambridge university Press. Sabatier, P. & Jenkins-smith, H. C The Advocacy Coalition Framework: An assessment. In: SABATIER, P. (ed.) Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder, Westview Press. Turner, R. K., Van Den Bergh, J., Soderqvist, T., Barendregt, A., Van Der Straaten, J., Maltby, E. & Van Ierland, E. C Ecological-economic analysis of wetlands: scientific integration for management and policy. Ecological Economics, 35, 7-23.
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