Wake Measurements Behind An Array Of Two Model Wind Turbines

Transcription

1 Wake Measurements Behind An Array Of Two Model Wind Turbines Jan Bartl Master's Thesis Submission date: October 2011 Supervisor: Lars Sætran, EPT Co-supervisor: Fabio Pierella, EPT Norwegian University of Science and Technology Department of Energy and Process Engineering

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3 ABSTRACT During the last decades the exploitation of energy from the wind has become one of the most promising renewable energy technologies. The main strive in today s development of wind turbines is to increase the efficiency of the turbine and to build bigger rotors that are able to extract more power out of the wind. When it comes to the planning and designing of a wind park, also the aerodynamic interactions between the single turbines must be taken into account. The flow in the wake of the first row turbines is characterized by a significant deficit in wind velocity and by increased levels of turbulence. Consequently, the downstream turbines in a wind farm cannot extract as much power from the wind anymore. Furthermore, the additional turbulence in the wake could be a reason for increased material fatigue through flow-induced vibrations at the downstream rotor. The main focus of this experimental study is to investigate the local velocity deficit and the turbulence intensities in the wake behind an array of two model wind turbines. For two different turbine separation distances, the wake is scanned at several different downstream positions behind the second model turbine. Thus, it is possible to map the axial development of mean velocity and turbulence intensity and to evaluate the influence of turbine separation distance. Furthermore, the effect of varying tip speed ratios of the first and second turbine onto the wake flow field is investigated. The experiments are performed at the wind tunnel (1.9m x 2.7m cross section) at NTNU Trondheim using two model wind turbines with a rotor diameter of 0.9m. A hot wire probe is used to scan the wake behind the model turbines in defined positions. The velocity deficit and the turbulence intensity behind an array of two turbines are found to be significantly higher than behind one unobstructed turbine. Moving axially downstream, a gentle broadening of the wake can be observed. The wake profiles measured in close distances behind the rotor are characterized by evident asymmetries. Further downstream in the wake, the flow field becomes more symmetrical. The flow conditions in the inner part of the wake behind the two turbines are observed to be mainly dominated by the operational characteristics of the second turbine rotor. Although the first turbine has hardly any influence on the inner part of the wake, the outer dimensions of the wake can be tracked back to the influence of the first turbine. I

4 AFFIDAVIT I hereby declare that I wrote thesis on my own without any assistance from a third party. I confirm that no sources have been used other than those clearly marked as other sources. This thesis has not been received by any examination board, neither in this nor in a similar form. Trondheim, October 31 th, 2011 II

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The present thesis has been performed at Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet (NTNU) in Trondheim. It will be submitted for the degree Diplom-Ingenieur at Technische Universität München (TUM) as well as for the degree Civilingenjör at Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (KTH) in Stockholm. Many people have been involved in supervising this thesis, who I would like to express my gratitude to: First of all, I would like to thank Professor Lars Sætran at the Department of Energy and Process Engineering at NTNU for giving me the opportunity to work on this thesis. Thank you for many fruitful discussions and for always being available when help was needed. My biggest thanks goes to Fabio Pierella with whom I spent numerous hours in the wind tunnel throughout this project. Thank you for teaching me all the experimental procedures, for your creative ways of solving problems but above all for a fun time in and outside of the wind tunnel laboratory. Also, I would like to thank Pål Egil Eriksen at the Department of Energy and Process Engineering at NTNU whose self-written data conversion programs I used for the evaluation of the hot wire signals. At TUM I would like to thank Professor Rudolf Schilling at the Chair of Fluid Mechanics for supervising and accrediting this thesis from distance. Special thanks to Matthias Faust who helped in organizing with words and deeds before the thesis even started. Many thanks to Andreas Rosenberger for taking over the supervision at TUM. Thank you for proofreading and your helpful comments. At KTH I would like to thank Damian Vogt of the Department for Heat and Power Technology for officially examining this thesis. Many thanks to Miroslav Petrov for supervising the project at KTH and for organizing all the paper work involved with this thesis. Special thanks to Jens Fridh for imparting the contact to Miro and for teaching me how to work experimentally during my time at KTH. During this thesis I could profit in many ways from what I have learned back then. Finally, I would like to thank my friends Andreas Hövelmann and Michael Tiefenbrunn for proofreading. Thank you for your helpful comments and corrections. III

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7 Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT... I AFFIDAVIT... II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... III TABLE OF CONTENTS... V LIST OF FIGURES... VII LIST OF TABLES... X NOMENCLATURE... XI 1 BACKGROUND WIND POWER WIND TURBINE AERODYNAMICS Energy Extraction from the Wind Blade Aerodynamics Wake Aerodynamics WIND FARM ARRANGEMENT MOTIVATION OBJECTIVES METHODOLOGY EXPERIMENTAL SETUP TEST RIG Closed-Return Wind Tunnel Model Wind Turbines Turbine Blades Traverse Mechanism INSTRUMENTS Barometer Inlet nozzle Reference Pitot tube Thermocouple Traverse Pitot tube Hot wire probe RPM sensor Torque transducer Force balance INSTRUMENT CALIBRATIONS Pressure transducer calibration Hot wire calibration Torque sensor calibration Force balance calibration CONTROL SYSTEM V

8 Table of Contents 5 MEASUREMENT CAMPAIGN & DATA EVALUATION MEASUREMENT CAMPAIGN DATA EVALUATION Evaluation of Power and Thrust Curves Evaluation of Wake Velocity Field Velocity Deficit Turbulence Intensity MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY RESULTS & DISCUSSION INLET FLOW FIELD TURBINE ARRANGEMENT (A): SINGLE TURBINE MEASUREMENTS Turbine Performance Curves First Turbine Performance Second Turbine Performance Downstream Flow Field TURBINE ARRANGEMENT (B): TURBINE DISTANCE X/D= Turbine Performance Curves Downstream Flow Field Horizontal Line Wake Measurements Full Area Wake Measurements TURBINE ARRANGEMENT (C): TURBINE DISTANCE X/D= Turbine Performance Curves Downstream Flow Field Horizontal Line Wake Measurements Full Area Wake Measurements COMPARISON OF TURBINE ARRANGEMENTS (A), (B) AND (C) Turbine Performance Curves Downstream Flow Field D Wake D Wake D Wake VARIATIONS IN TIP SPEED RATIO Turbine Performance Curves Downstream Flow Field CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE WORK CONCLUSIONS FUTURE WORK REFERENCES APPENDIX: COMPARISON OF PERFORMANCE CURVES VI

9 List of Figures LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1.1: Imaginary wind tube around a wind turbine rotor showing a decrease in wind velocity and a distinct pressure drop over the rotor... 3 Fig. 1.2: Typical C P- and C T curves of a modern wind turbine... 5 Fig. 1.3: Stream lines around wind turbine blades at different angles of attack... 7 Fig. 1.4: Velocity triangle on a wind turbine blade... 9 Fig. 1.5: Formation of the tip vortex Fig. 1.6: Cylindrical shear layer in the wake of the rotor induced by tip vortices Fig. 1.7: Turbulent mixing process in the wake behind a wind turbine rotor Fig. 1.8: Wind turbine wake effects in the Danish offshore wind farm Horns Rev 1 [20] Fig. 1.9: CFD simulation of the propagation of wind turbine wake in a wind farm arrangement [21]...14 Fig. 4.1: Wind tunnel at the Fluid Engineering laboratory at NTNU [27] Fig. 4.2: The two model wind turbines set up in the wind tunnel of NTNU Fig. 4.3: Experimental setup and reference orientation Fig. 4.4: View on blade in (a) streamwise and (b) circumferential projection [29] Fig. 4.5: Scaled blade profile NREL S826 14% thickness [30] Fig. 4.6: Automatic traverse system installed in NTNU s wind tunnel Fig. 4.7: Schematic sketch of the inlet contraction Fig. 4.8: Parallel probe setup Fig. 4.9: Hot wire probe Fig. 4.10: CTA circuit containing a Wheatstone bridge Fig. 4.11: Cross section of the hub of the second turbine [27] Fig. 4.12: Calibration curve of a pressure transducer Fig. 4.13: Calibration curve for the hot wire probe signal Fig. 5.1: Location of measurement points for the Horizontal Line Wake measurements Fig. 5.2: Location of measurement points for the Full Area Wake measurements Fig. 5.3: Data acquisition and evaluation for C P and C T curves Fig. 5.4: Velocity signal in a turbulent flow Fig. 6.1: Mean velocity (U m) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) at the wind tunnel inlet Fig. 6.2: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) at the wind tunnel inlet Fig. 6.3: Experimental setup and axial probe measurement stations for turbine arrangement (A): the single turbine measurements Fig. 6.4: Performance curves of the first turbine (Tu1) at different inflow wind speeds: (a) power coefficient C P and (b) thrust coefficient C T Fig. 6.5: Performance curves of the unobstructed second turbine (Tu2) at different inflow wind speeds: (a) power coefficient C P and (b) thrust coefficient C T Fig. 6.6: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 1D, 3D and 5D downstream of the unobstructed turbine VII

10 List of Figures Fig. 6.7: Experimental setup and axial measurement stations for turbine arrangement (B) Fig. 6.8: C P curve of the second turbine (red) operating 3D downstream of the first turbine: (a) reference velocity U =11.5 m/s (b) reference velocity U ref,3d =7.8 m/s Fig. 6.9: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 1D, 3D and 5D downstream of the second turbine operating 3D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.10: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 1D downstream of the second turbine operating 3D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.11: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine operating 3D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.12: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 5D downstream of the second turbine operating 3D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.13: Experimental setup and axial measurement stations for turbine arrangement (C) Fig. 6.14: C P curve of the second turbine operating 5D downstream of the first turbine: (a) reference velocity U =11.5 m/s (b) reference velocity U ref,5d =8.1 m/s Fig. 6.15: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 1D, 3D downstream of the second turbine operating 5D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.16: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 1D downstream of the second turbine operating 5D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.17: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine operating 5D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.18: Comparison of the performance curves and the wakes 1D and 3D downstream of the second turbine, when the turbine is (A) unobstructed, (B) operating 3D downstream of the first turbine and (C) operating 5D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.19: C P curve of the second turbine operating (A) unobstructed, (B) 3D and (C) 5D downstream of the first turbine: (a) reference velocity U =11.5 m/s (b) reference velocity U ref,3d =7.8 m/s and U ref,5d =8.1 m/s Fig. 6.20: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 1D downstream of the second turbine operating (A) unobstructed, (B) 3D and (C) 5D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.21: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 1D downstream of the second turbine operating 3D downstream of the first turbine (B) Fig. 6.22: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 1D downstream of the second turbine operating 5D downstream of the first turbine (C) Fig. 6.23: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine operating (A) unobstructed, (B) 3D and (C) 5D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.24: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine operating 3D downstream of the first turbine (B) VIII

11 List of Figures Fig. 6.25: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine operating 5D downstream of the first turbine (C) Fig. 6.26: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 5D downstream of the second turbine operating (A) unobstructed and (B) 3D downstream of the first turbine Fig. 6.27: Experimental setup and axial probe measurement station for the investigation of the effect of turbine tip speed ratio variations Fig. 6.28: C P curves of the second turbine operating in the wake 3D downstream for varying tip speed ratios of the first turbine: (a) reference velocity U =11.5 m/s (b) U ref,opt =7.8 m/s, U ref,low =8.4 m/s and U ref,high =9.0 m/s Fig. 6.29: Combined power output (C P,Tu1 + C P,Tu2) of both turbines operated in 3D distance for the nine investigated test cases Fig. 6.30: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine for the TSR Cases 1, 2 and Fig. 6.31: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine for the TSR Cases 4, 5 and Fig. 6.32: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine for the TSR Cases 7, 8 and Fig. 6.33: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine for the TSR Cases 1, 4 and Fig. 6.34: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine for the TSR Cases 2, 5 and Fig. 6.35: Velocity deficit (U m/u ) and turbulence intensity (u /U m) in the wake 3D downstream of the second turbine for the TSR Cases 3, 6 and Fig. 6.36: Comparison of the minimum velocity deficit (U m/u ) min and the maximum turbulence intensity (u /U m) max in the 3D wake for the nine different test cases Fig A.1: C P and C T curves of second turbine operating unobstructed at five different inflow wind speeds Fig A.2: Reynolds number effect on model turbine performance characteristics [28] IX

12 List of Tables LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Dimensions of the experimental setup Table 5.1: Measurement campaign Table 6.1: Investigated test cases with different tip speed ratios of the turbines X

13 Nomenclature NOMENCLATURE Latin Symbols A Area [m 2 ] c Cord length [mm] C Coefficient [-] D Rotor Diameter [mm] F Force [N] p Pressure [Pa] r Radius [mm] R Rotor radius [mm] Re Reynolds number [-] T Torque [Nm] U Absolute velocity [m/s] V Relative velocity [m/s] x x-coordinate [mm] y y-coordinate [mm] z z-coordinate [mm] Greek Symbols Pitch angle [ ] Yaw angle [ ] Density [kg/m 3 ] Tip speed ratio [-] Circumferential component [-] Kinematic viscosity [m²/s] Rotational Speed [1/s] Subscripts avg ax hub m Average Axial reference Hub Mean XI

14 Nomenclature max min rot P stat T tip tot Tu1 Tu2 Maximum Minimum Axial measurement station in the plane of the rotor Power Static Thrust Tip Total first (upstream) model wind turbine second (downstream) model wind turbine Abbreviations ACD AD BC CAD CFD CTA EEA GWEC HAWT KTH NTNU LDA LES PS RPM SS TE TI TSR Tu1 Tu2 TUM Actuator Disc Method Anno Domini Before Christ Computer Aided Design Computational Fluid Dynamics Constant Temperature Anemometry European Environment Agency Global Wind Energy Council Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet Laser Doppler Anemometry Large Eddy Simulation Pressure Side Revolutions per Minute Suction Side Trailing Edge Turbulence Intensity Tip Speed Ratio First (upstream) model wind turbine Second (downstream) model wind turbine Technische Universität München XII

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17 Background 1 BACKGROUND 1.1 Wind Power The exploitation of wind energy and its conversion to useful energy is one of the oldest methods in energy transformation. The earliest known utilization of wind power was in sailing boats which used the aerodynamic drag and lift forces. Around 1700 BC a wind powered system was used to irrigate agricultural fields in ancient Mesopotamia [1]. Almost two millenniums later, about AD, the first windmills were developed in old Persia. In early developments of windmills the kinetic energy in the wind was converted into mechanical energy which was at that time primarily used for grinding grain and pumping water [2]. The first windmills designed for electric power production were developed in the late 19 th century in more or less at the same time in the United States, Scotland and Denmark. In the beginning of the 20 th century fossil fuelled developments began to dominate the power production all over the world, relegating wind power devices a rather insignificant role in small-scale applications. The renewed interest in wind power for electric power production arose in the late 1960s as the first signs of fossil fuel resources being finite emerged. Wind as a primary energy resource was eventually considered to have a significant potential for electrical power production [3]. The first countries to seize the potential of wind power and setting up commercial wind turbines were Denmark, Germany and the United States. In the late 1990s a new awareness of a sustainable management of energy resources evolved, stimulating a renewed interest in renewable energy sources. This could be ascribed to substantial drawbacks of both fossil fuelled power plants and nuclear power plants regarding their sustainability. From both sides of the Atlantic one could hear politicians speak of a global clean-energy revolution [4] in which the exploitation of wind power could play an essential role. From a global point of view wind power is one of the most promising renewable energy sources as wind is available everywhere on the planet and at some places even features a considerable energy density. In the end of each calendar year the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) publishes a report on the state of the global wind energy market. The latest report for 2010 shows the enormous significance of today s wind industry. Although the annual growth rate 1

18 Background decreased for the first time, the globally installed wind power capacity increased by 24.1% and in the end of 2010 stands at GW. [5] In terms of capacity China with 44.7 GW installed wind power took over the lead from the United States, which currently have 40.2 GW installed. Within Europe the biggest capacities are set up in Germany and Spain, making up a total of 27.2 GW respectively 20.7 GW in the end of 2010 [5]. Norway s share is considerably smaller as it has lower energy needs and is almost completely supplied by hydropower. Norway s installed wind power comprises a total installed power of 0.4 GW in the end of 2009 [6]. However, Norway could play an important role in the future energy supply in Europe having a large potential for onshore and offshore wind power in its coastal regions at the Atlantic Ocean [7]. As Norway already is the largest hydropower producer in Europe there are considerations that the Norwegian hydropower plants could act as a balance for the growing amount of intermittent wind power entering the electrical grid. Therefore, experts consider Norway to become the battery for renewable energy within Europe [8]. According to the European Environment Agency (EEA) wind power can play a key role in achieving Europe s future energy targets. For the year 2030 the EEA predicts an economically competitive potential of TWh for Europe, of which TWh would be produced by onshore wind farms and 3400 TWh by offshore wind farms [9]. As the installation and maintenance of onshore wind power is much cheaper and economically more competitive, the main focus is directed on the exploitation of onshore potentials until 2030 [9]. 1.2 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics In the following section it is tried to give an elementary overview of the most important aerodynamic concepts concerning a wind turbine. Starting with the rotating wind turbine as an energy extraction device, it is thereafter looked into the basics of wind turbine blade aerodynamics. Finally, the basic aerodynamic conditions that prevail in a wind turbine wake are presented. However, wind turbine aerodynamics is a very complex field of which many aspects are not yet completely investigated. 2

19 Background Energy Extraction from the Wind Any kind of fluid contains energy which can exist in different forms: potential energy, thermodynamic pressure, kinetic energy and thermal energy [10]. When looking into basic wind turbine aerodynamics only the kinetic energy and the pressure energy contained in the wind are relevant. Temperature and potential effects in a wind flow can be neglected. As a wind turbine by definition extracts kinetic energy from the wind, the wind passing through the wind turbine rotor has to slow down. Assuming a boundary between the mass of air passing through the rotor and the unaffected flow a circular stream tube can be imagined as depicted in Fig For air flows below, density changes in the air can be neglected. Under normal ambient conditions, an air flow, which is slower than, can be regarded as an incompressible flow. According to the continuity equation the mass flow rate along the stream tube must be constant. (1.1) Consequently, the cross sectional area of the stream tube must become wider as the wind is slowed down by the rotor. However, the wind velocity does not suddenly change over the rotor, it decreases continuously. Starting in a certain distance in front of the rotor plane, the kinetic energy in the wind is transformed to pressure energy as the blockage of the rotor affects the flow upstream of the rotor. Fig. 1.1: Imaginary wind tube around a wind turbine rotor showing a decrease in wind velocity and a distinct pressure drop over the rotor The static pressure built up upstream of the rotor, on the other hand, is reduced in one distinctive step as shown in Fig The air exiting from the rotor is at a static pressure 3

20 Background level below the atmospheric pressure. As the velocity in the imaginary wind tube continues to decrease downstream of the rotor the static pressure rises again and reaches the atmospheric pressure level at a certain distance downstream of the rotor [11]. The energy extracted from the wind is partly converted into mechanical energy on the rotor shaft, whereas the other part is dissipated by the generated turbulence in the downstream flow field [11]. When quantifying the power extracted by wind turbine usually a simplified model, called the Actuator Disc Concept, is used. The turbine rotor is reduced to a simple actuator disc, which induces a velocity variation to the free-stream flow. Combining the kinetic energy and the air mass flow, the power contained in the imaginary wind tube can be quantified as follows. (1.2) As the density of the air is almost constant for a normal range of wind velocities, the power grows proportionally with the cube of the wind velocity. Moreover, it is obvious that the power available in the imaginary wind tube increases with the square of the rotor diameter. One of the most important parameters for wind turbines is the non-dimensional power coefficient, which is defined as the actually extracted power on the rotor axle divided by the maximum power contained in the wind tube. (1.3) Applying the momentum theory, the German aerodynamicist Albert Betz [12] found in 1920 that the maximum power extractable from the wind in an imaginary wind tube amounts (1.4) This is called the Betz Limit and until today no wind turbine has been designed surpassing this limit. The complete derivation of the Betz Limit can be found in many text books dealing with wind turbine aerodynamics, such as [3] or [11]. 4

21 Background Another important parameter used to describe the performance of a wind turbine is the thrust coefficient, which is often used to describe the load onto the turbine blades and the structural design of the turbine tower. It is defined as the total axial thrust force onto the rotor divided by a dynamic reference force from the wind onto the rotor area. (1.5) In theory the power coefficient can be increased by increasing rotational speed of the turbine, by increasing the number of rotor blades or by increasing the lift by either pitching the blades or increasing chord length [11]. The rotational speed of the turbine is often represented by a non-dimensional parameter called tip speed ratio which is defined as the speed of the rotor tip divided by the approaching wind speed. (1.6) The non-dimensional parameters and of a wind turbine vary with the incident wind speed as well as the rotational speed of the turbine, which are included in the tip speed ratio. This makes it possible to express the performance of a wind turbine in characteristic curves. Typical performance curves for power and thrust of a modern wind turbine are shown in Fig Fig. 1.2: Typical C P- and C T curves of a modern wind turbine 5

22 Background The power coefficient features a distinct maximum at a certain tip speed ratio for which ideal flow conditions predominate in every section of the turbine blade profile. This point is usually the design operating point of the wind turbine. Modern wind turbines usually reach a maximum value of around 0.45 to 0.50 [13] which is significantly below the Betz limit. Firstly, no blade design is aerodynamically perfect so that there are always losses due to drag. There always will be aerodynamic losses at the blade tips and blade roots for any blade design [11]. Additionally, friction losses in the bearings and gearbox have to be taken into account. At lower than design tip speed ratios a negative angle of attack at the inner section of the blade (close to the blade root) causes stall. This is often referred to as the stall region in which considerable power losses occur [14]. At higher than design tip speed ratios highly positive angles of attack cause a considerable amount of drag on the blades which is responsible for a significant decrease in the power coefficient with increasing tip speed ratios [11]. In this region, the flow separates from the blade profiles. When the turbine does not extract any more energy from the wind, the value consequently goes down to zero again. The inner part of the rotor aerodynamically acts as a propeller, which actually adds energy to the fluid. Only the outer part of the rotor performs as a turbine and still extracts energy from the wind flow. When the amount of energy added to the flow and extracted from the flow are in balance, this is called the runaway point of the wind turbine. In case the wind turbine would not be connected to an electrical generator, the turbine would rotate at the tip speed ratio at the run-away point. The thrust coefficient of a wind turbine is of great importance for the construction of the rotor support and the structural design of the turbine tower [11]. It continuously grows with increasing tip speed ratio. The blockage effect of the rotor rises with increasing rotational speeds and thus causes higher thrust forces onto the turbine. In the transition from the stall region to the optimum tip speed often a slight buckling of the curve can be observed as the blades are not operated in stalled conditions any more. 6

23 Background Blade Aerodynamics The blades of a wind turbine are designed with the goal to extract as much energy from the wind as possible. Dependent on the wind speed at the turbine site and a variable or constant rotational speed operation of the turbine, a specific blade design is developed. Most turbine blades are designed according to the blade element method wherein the blades are cut into infinitesimally small span-wise blade elements. On every blade elements the two-dimensional cross section is adjusted so that the angle of attack and the aerodynamic forces are optimized. During the operation of a wind turbine many situations occur where the flow locally does not hit the blades at the designed angle of attack. This can be caused by the highly stochastic wind field hitting the rotor as well as to slow or to high rotational speeds of the rotor, which can lead to stall at a certain section of the blade. The development of stall at a span-wise blade element is depicted in Fig Fig. 1.3: Stream lines around wind turbine blades at different angles of attack Fig. 1.3 (a) shows a wind turbine blade profile hit by the incoming relative flow at the design angle of attack. The flow adheres and follows the blade profile perfectly. When the relative angle of attack is increased as shown in Fig. 1.3 (b) it is still possible that the flow 7

24 Background adheres and follows the profile. Exceeding the critical angle of attack, a certain limit dependent on the blade profile itself, however, the flow cannot follow the blades contour anymore and highly turbulent recirculation zones appear near the blade surface as shown in Fig 1.3 (c). So-called stalled conditions are dominant in this section of the blade resulting in substantial aerodynamic losses. The span-wise position on the blade, the operating conditions of the turbine and the composition of the incoming wind to the rotor have a considerable influence on the flow exiting from the turbine rotor. The flow behind the turbine rotor is called wake and it is characterized by very turbulent flow. The flow field in the wake behind the rotor is influenced by a number of aerodynamic effects Wake Aerodynamics The aerodynamic conditions prevailing in the wake of a wind turbine have been one of the main topics of research since the beginning of wind turbine research. As mentioned above stall is an essential phenomenon during the operation of a wind turbine which together with non-uniform transient inflow defines the general aerodynamic conditions prevailing in the wake of a wind turbine. Although a modern rotor of a horizontal axis wind turbine only consists of three rotating blades, many aerodynamic effects combine to a very complex flow field in the wake. In a comprehensive literature study about wind turbine wakes from 2003, Vermeer et al. conclude that some of the most basic aerodynamic mechanisms governing the power output are not yet fully understood [10]. The main features of the turbine wake are a considerable velocity deficit and increased turbulence levels. The velocity deficit yields a significantly lower power extraction of the downstream wind turbines in a wind farm arrangement. The increased turbulence levels in the wake can involve bigger fatigue loads on the downstream turbines [14]. The aerodynamic structures of the flow field in the wake of a wind turbine rotor depend on many different parameters. The aerodynamics of the incoming flow, the aerodynamic design of the blade as well as the rotational speed of the rotor itself have an influence on which sections of the blades stall occurs or not. However, there are some basic aerodynamic phenomena which are predominant in almost every wind turbine rotor. 8

25 Background One of the most important aerodynamic phenomena is the rotation of the flow field in the wake of a wind turbine rotor. The velocity triangles in front of (Index 1) and behind (Index 2) a cross section of a wind turbine blade are sketched in Fig Fig. 1.4: Velocity triangle on a wind turbine blade Under idealized conditions there is a purely axial inflow (1) to the wind turbine rotor. In the flow field downstream of the rotor (2), however, the absolute flow velocity features a velocity component in circumferential direction creating a rotation of the flow in the wake behind the rotor. As it can be seen in Fig 1.4, the circumferential component causes the wake to counter-rotate in respect to the direction of rotation of the turbine rotor. Manwell et al. rationalize that the flow behind the rotor rotates in the opposite direction to the rotor, in reaction to the torque exerted by the flow on the rotor [3]. However, also a number of other aerodynamic phenomena have to be taken into account when investigating the turbulent structures in the wake. Another dominating phenomenon is the formation of the tip vortex which leads to a shear layer that separates the highly turbulent flow in the rotor wake from the surrounding ambient flow. Wind turbine blades have a profile that creates aerodynamic lift similar to the profile of an airplane wing. The air around a blade profile is accelerated that a pressure side (PS) and a 9

26 Background suction side (SS) are established. The pressure difference between the PS and the SS generates the aerodynamic lift and thereby sets the blades into rotation. On the tip of the blade a three-dimensional secondary flow establishes. In order to decrease the pressure difference between the high pressure air on the pressure side flows around the blade tip to the lower pressure on the suction side as shown in Fig This secondary flow around the tip mixes with the main flow around the blade which creates a vortex behind the blade tip. Fig. 1.5: Formation of the tip vortex A similar observation can be made at the wingtips of airplanes where the tip vortex phenomenon considerably reduces the effective area of the wing that creates lift. The tip vortex is characterized by high velocities and low pressures and induces additional aerodynamic losses. This can be attributed to the fact that the effective angle of attack is reduced in regions close to the tip as some air is sucked sideways through the pressure gradient at the tip [15]. On most wind turbine blade designs there is also a sharp edge near the root of the blade. Also around the root edge a secondary flow establishes due to the pressure gradient between the blade s pressure and suction side. When mixing with the main flow the root vortex is generated in the same way as described above. However, the aerodynamic losses caused by the root vortex are assumed to be considerably lower than those by the tip vortex as the relative velocities are significantly lower near the root [16]. 10

27 Background The tip vortices shed by the turbine blades move further downstream in helical spirals. As the speed of the blade tips usually is much higher than the incoming wind speed, the distance between the tip vortex spirals is very low. Therefore, the vortex system can be approximated as a very turbulent cylindrical shear layer [17]. A schematic sketch of the tip vortices forming a cylindrical shear layer is presented in Fig Fig. 1.6: Cylindrical shear layer in the wake of the rotor induced by tip vortices The low velocity turbulent flow in the wake is separated from the surrounding faster moving laminar flow by this shear layer. Moreover, the considerably weaker root vortices create a turbulent swirl in the region around the rotor axis, which is however of significantly weaker intensity. It has been shown that the aerodynamics in the wake behind a wind turbine rotor is characterized by a complex vortex system, which is influenced by a number of different phenomena: the structures in the incoming wind flow, the swirl generated by the rotation of the blades, the root vortices and the shear layer created by the tip vortices. Additionally, the geometry of the wind turbine tower and nacelle affect the turbulent structures prevailing in the wake. 11

28 Background The distinct tip and root vortices destabilize when moving downstream. The small-scale turbulence of the vortices brakes down into large-scale turbulence due to turbulent mixing processes [18]. Fig. 1.8 shows a model of the turbulent mixing process in the wake behind the rotor and the corresponding velocity profiles. Fig. 1.7: Turbulent mixing process in the wake behind a wind turbine rotor Moving further downstream, the cylindrical shear layer expands due to turbulent diffusion. The turbulence in the shear layer mixes the slow moving fluid in the wake with high velocity fluid surrounding it. Thus, momentum is transported into the wake, which results in a wake expansion but reduction in velocity deficit [19]. The mean velocity gradually recovers and the velocity profiles smoothen when moving downstream in the wake as shown in Fig At a certain downstream distance the shear layer reaches the center of the wakes indicating the end of the near wake region. After a transition region the wake is completely developed, which is thus called the far wake region [17]. The root vortices and tip vortices are predominant in the near wake regions. The number of blades, adherent or stalled flow and three-dimensional flow have a large influence on the flow in this region [10]. In the far wake region, however, the focus is no longer on the flow phenomena around the rotor blades. The single turbulence generating phenomena have mixed into a general turbulence distribution, which dominates the flow [18]. When modeling an entire wind farm, far wake simulation is the main focus [10]. When defining the downstream distance x/d, where the near wake ends, different values can be found in the literature. Vermeer et al. [10] as well as Sanderse [19] define the near wake to be over at around x/d=1, whereas Gómez-Elivra et al. [17] claim that the near wake ends somewhere between x/d= 2-5 rotor diameters. 12

29 Background 1.3 Wind Farm Arrangement During the last decades strong efforts have been made to increase the efficiency of wind turbines in order to extract as much energy as possible from the wind. The research focused on optimizing the single components of a turbine. Gearless wind turbines were introduced and another main focus was the aerodynamic optimization of the turbine blades. When it comes to optimizing a whole wind farm as one single power production device, also the aerodynamic interactions between the single turbines of the wind farm have to be taken into account. As the first row wind turbines extract a considerable amount of the kinetic energy in the wind there is much less energy left for the turbines in the following rows. The distance between the single turbines, the arrangement pattern and the amount of power extracted from the wind by the single turbines are some of the most important parameters when designing a wind farm. Fig. 1.8: Wind turbine wake effects in the Danish offshore wind farm Horns Rev 1 [20] Fig. 1.9 shows the turbulent flow field in the Danish offshore wind farm Horns Rev 1. At the time the picture was taken the air in the rotor plane of the turbines was very humid. The rotating wind turbine blades locally induced condensation of the humid air making it possible to see the turbulent flow structures in the wake of the wind turbines [20]. It can 13

30 Background be clearly seen that the turbulent flow in the wake of the first row turbines hits and interacts with the following turbine rows. There are two main effects of wake interaction in a wind farm arrangement. Obviously, the velocity deficit in the wake of the first turbine yields a significantly lower power extraction of the following downstream wind turbines. Furthermore, the increased turbulence levels in the wake of the first row turbines cause higher fatigue loads for the downstream turbines [10]. In order to investigate the aerodynamic properties prevailing in a wind turbine wake CFD computer simulations and wind tunnel experiments on model wind turbines are nowadays performed. Full scale measurements on wind turbine wakes are by far too expensive or simply not possible. In a CFD simulation Ivanell et al. [21] investigated the propagation of the wake through an array of two wind turbines. In this Large Eddy Simulation (LES) study the Actuator Disc Method (ACD) was used for modelling the wind turbines. Appling the 3D solver EllipSys3D and multi block finite volume grid, the first turbine was impinged with a pregenerated turbulence. Fig shows a 2D plot of the velocity deficit in the wake propagating through three turbine rows at a zero degree inflow angle. Fig. 1.9: CFD simulation of the propagation of wind turbine wake in a wind farm arrangement [21] From this simulation Ivanell et al. [21] conclude that turbulent inflow to the first row turbines leads to a complex but realistic flow structure in the wake. They state, however, that this study does not give any correlation between the turbulence intensity of the inflow and the level of production yet. In order to be able to find a correlation further investigations would have to be made including real wind farm measurement data for verification. 14

31 Background When designing a wind farm an economic compromise for the separation distance of the single wind turbines has to be found. On the one hand space in a wind farm is not unlimited; on the other hand the losses in energy extraction due to wake interactions are quite considerable. In modern wind farms, such as the Horns Rev 1 from 2002, the single wind turbines are set up with a separation distance of around 7 rotor diameters (7D) [22]. In a recent study, however, Barber et al. [23] recommend that the spacing between the single turbines should be increased to 12-15D in order to optimize the overall power output. According to Barthelmie et al. [24] the average power losses that can be ascribed to wind turbine wakes range in the order of 10-20% compared to a wind farm of unobstructed turbines. The effect of increased fatigue loads on the downstream turbine due to turbulent flow in the wake was measured to be 80% in a real wind farm in Vindeby, Denmark [19]. As a consequence the blades of the downstream turbines are predicted to have a considerably shorter lifetime. Nevertheless, the difference in fatigue loads on turbines operating in the wakes of multiple upstream turbines was found to be small [19]. In fact the arrangement of the single turbines in a wind farm in order to maximize the overall power output is a very complex problem. In a study from 2007 Marmidis et al. [25] applied the mathematical Monte Carlo method to simulate the maximum energy production versus the minimum installation costs of different placement patterns of the turbines in a wind farm. When optimizing a wind farm with respect to the overall maximum power output, not only the separation distance and the placement pattern, but also the operation points of the single turbines are of importance. By extracting a lower amount of energy from wind by the upstream wind turbine more kinetic wind energy is left for the downstream turbine. This reduction in the so-called axial induction factor can be achieved by controlling the blade pitch angle or the tip speed ratio of the upstream turbine. An investigation by Johnson and Thomas [26] has shown that an operation of the first turbine slightly below its maximum power point considerably increases the power output of the downstream turbine and thereby increases the overall output of the two turbine setup. This implies that the total power output of wind farm might be enhanced by actively controlling pitch angle, yaw angle and tip speed ratio of the single wind turbines. 15

32 Background 1.4 Motivation One of the main goals in modern wind farm design is to reduce the interaction between the single wind turbines. However, the disposable space for a wind farm is not unlimited which results unavoidably in interactions of the wind turbine wakes for certain wind directions. In a wind farm the wakes of the first row turbines cause a non-uniform flow field, which hits the second row turbines. The wake of a horizontal-axis wind turbine can be characterized by turbulent flow structures in rotational motion. A substantial velocity deficit and high turbulence intensities are the main features in the wake of a wind turbine. The velocity deficit is equal to a loss of kinetic energy in the wake, which constitutes a loss of power available for the downstream turbines. Increased turbulence levels may affect the dynamic loads onto the rotor blades of the downwind turbines. Furthermore, it could be possible that the swirling motion exiting from a wind turbine rotor could excite an eigenfrequency of the blades of the downstream turbine and thereby cause material fatigue. Investigating the influence of the wake of the upstream turbine onto the performance and dynamic behavior of the downstream turbine the next logical step is to examine the wake behind the downstream turbine. A number of numerical models have been and are being developed which require comprehensive experimental data for validation. Wind tunnel simulations under controlled conditions are a powerful means to achieve this. Moreover, this experimental study of the wake behind an array of two model wind turbines shall contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the turbulent flow structures in wind turbine wakes, which could be helpful in the planning and design of future wind farms. 16

33 Objectives 2 OBJECTIVES The main focus of performing the measurements in the wind tunnel laboratory at NTNU is to get a picture of the flow conditions, i.e. the local velocity deficit and the turbulence intensities, in the wake behind an array of two model wind turbines. This study shall help to get an extensive knowledge of the complex flow field in wind turbine wakes and act as an experimental database for the validation of numerical models. It is desirable that this experimental study can contribute to yield data that can be used in the design of future wind farms. The objectives of the present work are the experimental investigation of the influence of the wake of the first turbine onto performance of the downstream turbine at different turbine separation distances the axial development of the local velocity deficit and turbulence intensities in the wake downstream of the second turbine the axial development of the dimensions of the wake the influence on the velocity deficit and turbulence intensities when the distance between the turbine is increased the effect of different tip speed ratio combinations of the first and second turbine onto the flow field in the wake behind the second turbine 17

34 Objectives 18

35 Methodology 3 METHODOLOGY This experimental investigation is performed in the wind tunnel at NTNU s Department of Energy and Process Technology. The closed-return wind tunnel is equipped with one force balance which makes it possible to measure the thrust force onto one of the two model wind turbines. Two fully operational three-bladed model wind turbines with a rotor diameter of about are available. Both turbines are equipped with torque sensors on their rotor shafts and optical RPM-sensors inside the hub casing. It is thereby possible to measure the power the turbine extracts from the wind directly. Inside the wind tunnel there is a three-axis traverse system installed, which can be controlled by a LabVIEW computer program. This traverse system allows scanning the flow field in the wake of the wind turbine arrangement automatically. To do this, a parallel setup of a Pitot tube and a hot wire probe is used. The hot wire signal is calibrated against the signal acquired from the parallel Pitot tube, which itself is calibrated against a manual Lambrecht manometer. The hot wire probe is connected to a Constant Temperature Anemometry (CTA) circuit. The output signal yields a velocity signal with very high frequency resolution which then can be recalculated into a mean velocity and turbulence intensity. A National Instruments BNC-2110 data acquisition board and an in-house designed LabVIEW routine are used to record the acquired data on the computer. For the post-processing of the recorded data an in-house programmed FORTRAN routine temperature-corrects the data acquired from the hot wire and converts it to mean velocity and turbulence intensity values. Finally, meaningful plots are created using the software MATLAB for the evaluation of the measured flow parameters. 19

36 Methodology 20

37 Experimental Setup 4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 4.1 Test Rig Closed-Return Wind Tunnel This experimental study is performed in the large wind tunnel at the Department of Energy and Process Technology at NTNU. The driving fan has a maximum power of which makes it possible to generate wind speeds up to in the test section of the wind tunnel. The air flow enters the test section through an inlet contraction which is equipped with static pressure holes at the circumferences of two defined cross sections. In chapter it is explained how these pressure holes are used to calculate the inlet speed of the wind tunnel. Fig. 4.1: Wind tunnel at the Fluid Engineering laboratory at NTNU [27] As shown in Fig. 4.1 the airflow then enters the long test section of the wind tunnel. It has a cross section of height and width. The roof of the tunnel is adjusted so that a zero static pressure gradient is present in flow direction over the entire test section [14]. After passing through the driving fan, the air flows back to the inlet contraction in a closed loop tunnel above the test section. 21

38 Experimental Setup Model Wind Turbines In NTNU s wind tunnel laboratory two fully operational model wind turbines are available. Both model wind turbines were originally designed as prototypes for tidal turbines by the Norwegian company Hammerfest Strøm AS. The turbines are now equipped with new wind-optimized blades which are described in chapter in detail. Fig. 4.2 shows a picture of the first experimental setup with both model wind turbines established in NTNU s wind tunnel. Fig. 4.2: The two model wind turbines set up in the wind tunnel of NTNU The first model wind turbine (Tu1) is mounted on a 6-component force balance, which is located underneath the test section of the wind tunnel. The force balance makes it possible to measure the thrust force onto the turbine and is more thoroughly described in chapter The second model wind turbine (Tu2) is fixed on the wind tunnel floor through a wooden plate. The rotors of both model turbines are driven by a 0.37 kw AC electric motor produced by Siemens [28]. The motor is located at the level of the wind tunnel floor and drives the rotor axis through a belt, which runs inside the turbine mast for the first turbine respectively behind the turbine mast for the second turbine. The rotational speed both turbine rotors is controlled by a Siemens Micromaster 440 frequency inverter from 22

39 Experimental Setup outside of the wind tunnel. The motors can be impinged with a wide range of rotational speeds and similarly work as generators when the turbine rotors are subject to an external wind load. The inverters are connected to a standard electrical heater which acts as an electrical resistance for the excess power produced by the turbine rotors in this case. Fig. 4.3 shows a sketch of the basic experimental setup in the wind tunnel. The separation distance between the two model turbines can be varied. The dashed red lines refer to the axial downstream measurement locations where the aerodynamic probes are traversed in order to record the flow field in the wake of the turbines. An overview of the most important dimensions is presented in Table 4.1. Fig. 4.3: Experimental setup and reference orientation Rotor diameter Tu1 D mm Rotor diameter Tu2 D mm Hub diameter Tu1 d hub1 130 mm Hub diameter Tu1 d hub2 90 mm Hub height Tu1 h hub1 950 mm Hub height Tu2 h hub2 950 mm Separation distance between the turbines x/d 1 3 resp. 5 Wind tunnel height h 2000 mm Wind tunnel width w 2700 mm Wind tunnel length l mm Table 4.1: Dimensions of the experimental setup In comparison to a real wind turbine, the rotor dimension of the model turbines are in the scale of about. With a hub diameter of respectively the dimensions of the nacelle are much bigger in respect to the rotor diameter than in a real turbine. This has to be taken into account when analyzing and comparing the structure of the wake behind the turbine. 23

40 Experimental Setup The first model wind turbine which is mounted on the force balance is additionally supported by four wooden blocks in order to achieve the same hub height as the second turbine. Both turbines are positioned centrally in the wind tunnel having an equal distance to both wind tunnel side walls. Paying to the fact that both turbines are equipped with the exactly same blades but the hub diameter of the first turbine is slightly bigger, the rotor diameter of the first turbine exceeds that of the second turbine insignificantly Turbine Blades As mentioned above both model wind turbines are equipped with the same blades. Standard NREL airfoils of the type S826 with a 14% thickness are used. The chord length distribution and the twist of the rotor blade are designed according to a standard blade element momentum method [29]. Fig. 4.4 shows a view onto the model blade in streamwise and circumferential projection. Fig. 4.4: View on blade in (a) streamwise and (b) circumferential projection [29] The profile which features a separation ramp at the back is designed for a Reynolds number of to give maximum lift [29]. According to Krogstad and Lund the blade geometry can be characterized by a gentle separation due to trailing edge ramp, a rapid transition on suction side due to small radius of curvature, a low sensitivity to surface roughness and a strong separation on lower side at negative angle of attack [29]. A cross section of the NREL S826 profile is shown in Fig Further information on the profile can be found in the document [30]. 24

41 Experimental Setup Fig. 4.5: Scaled blade profile NREL S826 14% thickness [30] A comprehensive investigation of the blade geometry mounted on the Department s second model wind turbine (Tu2) was performed by Karlsen [16] as well as Krogstad and Lund [29] applying experimental and computational methods Traverse Mechanism The test section at NTNU s wind tunnel is equipped with an automatic computercontrolled traverse mechanism as sketched in Fig The traverse system is fixed on rails right underneath the roof of the wind tunnel. It is possible to bring the traverse mechanism into the right streamwise position by moving it manually on the rails. Fig. 4.6: Automatic traverse system installed in NTNU s wind tunnel With an aerodynamic probe connected to it, the traverse system allows automatic flow measurements at almost any position in the wind tunnel. The position of the probe can be controlled by a computer in all three dimensions using in-house designed LabVIEW software. 25

42 Experimental Setup 4.2 Instruments Barometer The ambient pressure is acquired through a mercury barometer produced by Lambrecht. It is manually read from a mercury column in the unit [mm Hg]. If needed, the pressure can be recalculated into [Pa] using the formula [ ] [ ] (4.1) Inlet nozzle Before the air flow enters the test section of the wind tunnel, it passes through an inlet contraction, which is simultaneously used as a nozzle that measures the inlet velocity. In this contraction there are pressure holes around the entire circumference at two defined axial stations as schematically shown in Fig By measuring the pressures and at these defined circumferences and knowing the areas and, it is possible to calculate the velocity the test section at the outlet of the contraction. This velocity is equal to the inlet velocity to of the wind tunnel. Fig. 4.7: Schematic sketch of the inlet contraction Applying the continuity equation the inlet velocity can be calculated from ( ) (4.2) 26

43 Experimental Setup In the present wind tunnel the area ratio square is (4.3) Reference Pitot tube In order to be able to double check the velocity at the wind tunnel inlet a Pitot tube is installed at a height of about above the wind tunnel floor and a distance of about from the right wind tunnel wall. It is possible to calculate the velocity from the pressure difference given by the Pitot tube. (4.4) In contrast to the inlet speed acquired at the inlet contraction, the velocity is only acquired in one defined position at the wind tunnel inlet Thermocouple For acquiring the temperature in the wind tunnel a thermocouple is placed at the right wind tunnel wall. The voltage from the thermocouple is converted into a signal on a National Instruments NI 9211 thermocouple board and sent to the computer. The temperature in the wind tunnel is used to calculate the air density and for the temperature correction of the hot wire signal during the post-processing of the acquired data. 27

44 Experimental Setup Traverse Pitot tube The flow field in the wake behind the model turbines is traversed using another Pitot probe and a hot wire probe in a parallel setup as depicted in Fig Fig. 4.8: Parallel probe setup The velocity is again calculated from the pressure difference of the total and the static pressure measured with the Pitot tube. (4.5) The hotwire probe has a much higher frequency response than a Pitot tube and therefore is much more appropriate for measurements in turbulent flow. The Pitot tube fixed right next to the hot wire probe is however essential for the calibration of the hot wire probe. It also can be used to double-check the velocity values acquired by the hot wire probe Hot wire probe The main instrument for acquiring the velocity field in the wake behind the model turbines is a hot wire probe connected to a constant temperature anemometry (CTA) circuit. The probe head of a hot wire probe consists of a very thin tungsten wire in the range of in diameter connected to two prongs [31]. The resistance of the wire changes 28