Ecological Sanitation An Introduction to the Philippines

Transcription

1 Ecological Sanitation An Introduction to the Philippines General Paper prepared within the DILG-GTZ Water Program towards an Integrated Water Resources Management for the Philippines Claudia Früh Manila, Philippines October 2003

2 Background This report was prepared during the first two months of my three months stay as a trainee in the DILG-GTZ Water Program. As an environmental engineer, used to the conventional way of wastewater management, it was especially interesting to learn more about ecosan and its possible implementations worldwide but also in the explicit case of the Philippines. May this report clarify important aspects of this topic and serve as a basis for further more detailed studies. I would like to thank GTZ and especially Andreas Kanzler as the Program Director for the opportunity to gain this interesting experience and address additional acknowledgements to him as well as to Carissa Noche, Joan Lacson and Leo Wales from the DILG-GTZ Water Program team and the girls from the Water Supply and Sanitation Program Management Office (WSSPMO), Vince Delector from GTZ and Dan Lapid from CAPS for their comprehensive assistance during my time in the Philippines. Claudia Früh, Environmental Engineer and Master of Science in Water Resources Engineering and Management Manila, October 2003 Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October 2003 ii

3 Table of Contents Table of Contents... iii List of Figures... iv List of Tables... iv List of Appendix Figures... v List of Abbreviations... vi 1 INTRODUCTION DEFINITION OF ECOSAN CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN EXCRETA AND GRAYWATER COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS Conventional Systems Advantages of ecosan Possible Problems and Risks of ecosan TECHNICAL POSSIBILITIES General Remarks Sanitary Devices Treatment Processes Separated Urine Separated Feces Graywater Combined Collection of Urine and Feces PROJECT EXAMPLES GENERAL TOOLS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOSAN Interdisciplinary Holistic Approach Household Centered Ecological Sanitation Approach-HCES Analysis of the Present Situation Public Awareness, Mobilization and Participation Implementation, Operation and Maintenance Monitoring and Evaluation ECOSAN AS SOLUTION FOR THE PHILIPPINES Analysis of the Wastewater Sector Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October 2003 iii

4 8.2 Regulatory Framework Experience of ecosan in the Philippines Information Assessment during short Field-trip to Bantayan Background Household Questionnaire for Barangay Sillion Additional Information Summary RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Appendix Dehydration Toilet Composting Toilet Final Products Graywater Treatment Separation Anaerobic Digestion Tingloy ecosan Pilot Project Biogas Plant, Tingloy Island Questionnaire with Answers from Field-trip to Sillon, Bantayan Pictures taking during Field-trip Bantayan List of Figures Figure 3-1: Characteristics of divertible domestic wastewater flows with no dilution for urine and feces (TUHH, Otterpohl 2003)...2 Figure 5-1: Examples for urine-diverting sanitary devices...6 Figure 6-1: Examples of ecosan dehydration toilets with urine-diversion in Tanzania using local material (Shayo, 2003)...10 Figure 6-2: Ecosan toilets in Mexican middle-class indoor bathrooms...10 Figure 6-3: Schematic view of the ecosan concept of the Flintenbreite, Lübeck, Germany...11 Figure 6-4: Pictures of one of the family houses, of the vacuum station, the sanitization tank and the biogas plant, Flintenbreite, Lübeck, Germany.11 Figure 7-1: Household Centered Environmental Sanitation Approach (adapted from Schertenleib)...13 Figure 8-1: Monthly averaged water-borne diseases from 1998 to 2002 of Bantayan Island...19 List of Tables Table 4-1: Disadvantages of common flush-and-discharge and drop-and-store systems...3 Table 4-2: Advantages of the ecosan approach...4 Table 7-1: Motivation for implementation of ecosan for different levels...14 Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October 2003 iv

5 Table 8-1: Lessons-learnt from Tingloy ecosan project...18 List of Appendix Figures Appendix Figure 1: Vietnam double-vault dehydration toilet (Esrey, 1998)...23 Appendix Figure 2: Double-vault toilet in India (Esrey, 1998)...23 Appendix Figure 3: Continuous composting toilets...24 Appendix Figure 4: Final products of dehydration and composting toilet systems...25 Appendix Figure 5: Schematic view of a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland...25 Appendix Figure 6: Constructed wetland, Lambertsmuehle, Germany (Otterwasser GmbH)...26 Appendix Figure 7: Graywater garden in Mali...26 Appendix Figure 8: Enviroo Loo dehydration toilet with combined caption of urine and feces and separation...27 Appendix Figure 9: Deydration toilet with solar heater and pusher, Tecpan, El Salvador (Esrey, 1998)...28 Appendix Figure 10: View of the processing chamber of a CCD toilet (Esrey 1998)...28 Appendix Figure 11: CCD composting toilet with attached greenhouse and evapotranspiration bed (Esrey, 1998)...29 Appendix Figure 12: Composting toilet using a plastic refuse bin...29 Appendix Figure 13: Aquatron to separate solids from liquids...30 Appendix Figure 14: Simple biogas plant with fixed dome (WHO, 1992)...30 Appendix Figure 15: Household biogas tank directly connected to a latrine...31 Appendix Figure 16: Features of the first ecosan toilet model in Brgy Appendix Figure 17: New ecosan dry urine-diverting toilet model with improved design, Brgy Appendix Figure 18: Biogas plant with inlet, digester tank with gas collector pipe and outlet...35 Appendix Figure 19: Part of drainage system and disassembled gas generator...35 Appendix Figure 20: Model of biogas plant...35 Appendix Figure 21: Meeting in Barangay Sillon, Bantayan...37 Appendix Figure 22: Different bathrooms in Sillon, Bantayan...37 Appendix Figure 23: One of the view water-sealed toilets with septic tank in Sillon, Bantayan, near by a well...37 Appendix Figure 24: Meeting with Sanitary Inspectors and Municipal agriculturist...37 Appendix Figure 25: Municipal Plant Nursery Bantayan...37 Appendix Figure 26: Infiltrating manure from piggery in Bantayan...37 Appendix Figure 27: Old fish nets contaminating the shoreline of Bantayan Island 37 Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October 2003 v

6 List of Abbreviations CAPS DENR DESAR DILG DOH DPWH EMB FAO GTZ IRR ITNF IWRM JICA LGU LWUA MWCI MWSI MWSS NGO PCWS PD Php RA SIDA STP UN UNEP UWEP WB WHO WSSPMO Center for Advanced Philippine Studies Department of Environment and Natural Resources Decentralized Sanitation and Reuse Department for the Interior and Local Government Department of Health Department of Public Works and Highways Environmental Management Bureau Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN Gemeinschaft für technische Zusammenarbeit, German agency for technical cooperation Implementing Rules and Regulations International Training Network Foundation Integrated Water Resources Management Japan International Cooperation Agency Local Government Unit Local Water Utilities Administration Manila Water Company, Inc. Maynilad Water Services, Inc. Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System Non-governmental organization Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation Presidential Decree Philippine Peso ( , 1 Euro = 63 Php) Republic Act Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency Sewage Treatment Plant United Nations United Nations Environment Programme United Waste Management Expertise Program World Bank World Heath Organization Water Supply and Sanitation Program Management Office Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October 2003 vi

7 1 INTRODUCTION The future quality of water is one of the most pressing environmental problems in the Philippines today (WB, 2003). On top of the water quality issue, the average per capita water availability also indicates limited water resources in general and a present water scarcity in some regions, e.g. in the Province of Cebu 1. Like in other countries worldwide unsatisfactory wastewater management and uncontrolled discharge of wastewater threatens water resources, as well as public health and in general a sustainable development of the country. Within the DILG-gtz Water Program towards an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) advisory assistance is also provided to the sanitation sector with its high need for development. One focus of the Technical Cooperation is the introduction of innovative sanitation concepts and systems eventually supported by the implementation of pilot projects to overcome possible drawbacks of conventional wastewater management. In this report, the concept of ecological sanitation is introduced and illustrated including examples and general tools for its implementation, already existing experiences in the Philippines as well as a small case study for information assessment towards a possible implementation in this country. 2 DEFINITION OF ECOSAN Ecosan as the short term for ecological sanitation is an alternative approach to conventional wastewater treatment systems towards an ecological and economical sustainable wastewater management. Ecosan can be carried out by a variety from low-tech to high-tech solutions, which are based on a systematic material-flow-orientated recycling process. Urine and feces are no longer considered as waste but as valuable resources like fertilizer and soil conditioner. Ideally, ecological sanitation systems permit the complete recovery of all nutrients from feces, urine and graywater, benefiting agriculture and minimizing water pollution and health risks, as well as allowing economical use of water and its maximal reuse, particularly for the purpose of irrigation. Ecological sanitation is often referred to a so-called closed-loop approach considering nutrients. But in terms of pathogenic organisms it should be understood as an approach to actually break the pathogen loop by properly sanitizing human excreta. Rainwater harvesting, co-treatment of solid organic waste as well as energy saving and recovery by suitable treatment of liquid and solid organic wastes can also be included in a broader definition of ecosan 2. 1 Average water availability in the Philippines: 1,907 m 3 /cap, in Cebu Island 218 m 3 /cap (WB, 2003). According to FAO, with a water availability less than 2000 m 3 /cap, water is regarded as a potentially serious constraint and with an availability less than 1000 m 3 /cap, water is regarded as a severe constraint on socioeconomic development and environmental protection (FAO, 2 For completeness, so-called Decentralized Sanitation and Reuse (DESAR) systems are based on a similar concept. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

8 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN EXCRETA AND GRAYWATER To clearly understand the idea behind ecosan it is helpful to take a look at the properties of the different partial flows of human wastewater like the so-called yellowwater (= urine), brownwater (= feces) and graywater (= from showering, washing, cleaning, etc.) that are commonly mixed in conventional systems. The following Figure 3-1 shows these properties for European conditions and indicates clearly that urine can be considered as a good resource for fertilizer due to its high content of nitrogen (N), phosphor (P) and potassium (K). Whereas fecal matter is rich in humus building organic matter and could be used as a soil conditioner. Graywater, which presents volumetrically the highest portion of wastewater, can be considered as only slightly polluted when not mixed with human excreta, which simplifies its treatment and possibility to reuse. The amount of excreta can vary in function of factors like the type of diet, the climate and lifestyle, but the proportion of nutrients and water excreted remains roughly the same independent of the total output (Esrey, 2001). Figure 3-1: Characteristics of divertible domestic wastewater flows with no dilution for urine and feces (TUHH, Otterpohl 2003) Humans excrete on average sufficient amounts of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium as plant nutrients to grow the 230 kg of crops they need annually (Mashauri, 2002). Besides the nutrient content of the different partial flows, the distribution of pathogens is of high interest as well. Urine-transmitted pathogens are less common than pathogens transmitted by feces (Schönning, 2003). Feces are considered to be hygienically critical whereas graywater bears no major hygienic concern (GTZ, 2002). In general, appropriate treatment and handling of the products is required to prevent any possible health risks. The logical consequence of the above-mentioned would be a diversion of the different partial flows to facilitate appropriate and efficient treatment as well as reuse of the different components as it is already a common practice for industries with a modern wastewater management. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

9 4 COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Conventional Systems Conventional systems can be basically divided into the two groups of so-called flush-and-discharge and drop-and-store systems. In developed countries the commonly used water-sealed toilet connected to a public sewer and eventually to a centralized wastewater treatment plant falls thereby under the first category whereas the widely spread pit latrine in developing countries is representative for the latter one. It is questionable if these systems can cope with the unsatisfying worldwide solution where still more than 90 % of the produced wastewater receives no satisfying treatment before discharge. The situation is especially severe in emerging countries where it is estimated that around 80 % of all illnesses and 25 % of all deaths can be attributed to contaminated water (WHO, adapted by GTZ, 2002). The following Table 4-1 summarizes the general drawbacks of the two most common conventional systems. Table 4-1: Disadvantages of common flush-and-discharge and drop-and-store systems Flush-and-discharge system (e.g. conventional waterborne sewer system) Usually applied in urban areas Misuse and waste of drinking water for sewage transport High investment, energy, operation and maintenance costs Unsatisfactory treatment or uncontrolled discharge of more than 90 % of wastewater worldwide leads to pollution of water and environment Threatening of water resources and public health due to high pollution of water resources by organics, nutrients, pathogens and chemical substances Systems usually demand for high technical skills and know-how for implementation, operation and maintenance High amounts of wastewater require high hydraulic capacities, the high dilution rate makes effective treatment more difficult Frequently subsidization of prosperous areas and neglection of poorer settlements Drop-and-store system (e.g. conventional pit latrine) Usually applied in rural areas No permanent solution, once the pit latrine is full, a new one has to be built Limited use to areas with sufficient space and appropriate soil conditions, pit latrines can not be constructed into rocky grounds No safe installation if the water table is shallow, area is periodically flooded or soil collapses easily Pit latrines can lead to soil and groundwater contamination, especially by nitrogen compounds and pathogens like viruses and bacteria, nearby installation to drinking water wells leads to illnesses and disease spreading Bad odors, outdoor installation of the toilet and fly breeding are some reasons for a inconvenient, non-attractive system, considered to be only for the poor Fly breeding, other insects and eventually rodents contribute to additionally disease spreading Simple pit latrines are low cost options, but improved versions like the VIP latrine are quite expensive and often not affordable to the poor Loss of valuable nutrients and trace elements contained in human excreta with resultant loss of soil fertility and agricultural productivity Increasing dependence on chemical fertilizers Another widely spread solution is a pour flush toilet with a septic tank, which can be considered as an appropriate solution if the soil conditions are suitable, Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

10 construction and maintenance is done properly and if it is emptied regularly and the sludge receives treatment before disposal. Unfortunately this is seldom the case and considerable groundwater pollution can be expected. Additionally valuable nutrients are lost as well. 4.2 Advantages of ecosan The numerous disadvantages of the conventional wastewater systems and the need to solve the present and future water crisis have lead to a new thinking about human excreta. The advantages that can be provided by an ecological sanitation approach are summarized in the following Table 4-2. Table 4-2: Advantages of the ecosan approach Advantages of the ecosan approach Conservation of water resources due to lower water consumption and minimal water pollution Improvement of health by properly sanitizing human excreta and prevention of disease spreading Provides more appropriate, cost-effective, hence more affordable treatment solutions due to modular, decentralized, partial-flow systems Substitution of chemical fertilizers with higher heavy metal content possible Preservation of soil fertility, improves agricultural productivity and contributes towards food security Can help to reduce poverty by saving income and generating income by selling ecosan products like fertilizer, biogas Can support small business and enterprises to develop, e.g. construction workshops for special toilets, maintenance services, market for fertilizer products and biogas Safe, hygienic recycling of nutrients, trace elements, water and energy Compared to a pit latrine, ecosan toilets can also be constructed inside the house and provide a safer, more convenient, private and hygienic option 4.3 Possible Problems and Risks of ecosan Due to the fact that ecosan represents a relatively new approach its implementation also bears some problems and risks that are summarized below. Sanitation is a very personal topic and has to be treated with special care in order to handle cultural, religious or social taboos appropriately Acceptance of the approach and especially the use of the ecosan products like fertilizer from human excreta by a wide range of people in different social groups is a key issues and should be addressed The concept has to be fully understood to provide proper use, operation and maintenance of the installed systems Ecosan toilets require in general more maintenance and care by the user than the common used flush toilet or a conventional pit latrine and therefore a higher participation Improper use and insufficient elimination of pathogens or crosscontamination of urine by feces might provide considerable health risks The implementation in densely populated areas still needs more experience Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

11 An upgrading of a conventional system is more complicated than a introduction as the first sanitary installations or the implementation in a new settlement Most of the mentioned problems can be addressed and even solved when the implementation is carried out in a proper way, which is described further in chapter 6. 5 TECHNICAL POSSIBILITIES 5.1 General Remarks As mentioned before, the ecosan concept comprises a variety of different techniques ranging from very simple approaches to technically sophisticated systems. The most efficient ecosan systems apply the so-called don t mix approach where urine and feces and even graywater is captured and treated separately due to the different characteristics of the partial flows as shown in chapter 3. But resource recovery can also take place to some extent after mixing of urine and feces has already occurred. Therefore the three methods of diversion, separation and combined processing, which are defined below, can be used in an ecosan system (Esrey, 1998). Diversion: Urine is diverted directly from feces and therefore never mixed with it Separation: Urine and feces are first mixed together and separated later Combined processing: Excreta are mixed and processed together and the resource value is captured together Implementation of the ecosan approach is basically carried out by decentralized or semi-centralized schemes, but also centralized systems with appropriate treatment that emphasizes rather on sanitation and reuse of the effluents than on the elimination of nutrients could fall within the ecosan definition (Werner, 2000). While there are many viable options for ecosan in rural and less densely populated peri-urban areas, there is still a fairly limited number of concepts, especially low-tech ones, available for urban areas (Otterpohl, 2003). A representative selection and short description of possible technical implementations is given below dived into sanitary devices and processes for treatment which have to be selected in a way that they are suitable and correspond to one another. Due to the scope of this report, a complete presentation of existing technical solutions cannot be provided. 5.2 Sanitary Devices Urine-diverting toilets can best fulfill the Don t mix approach. Urine and feces are separated directly at the source in the toilet bowl or squatting plate and captured in different systems for further treatment. The toilets can work completely dry without any use of water or demand some water for flushing. Usually men are required to sit down while urinating, which might not be accepted. This problem can be avoided by providing an additional urinal, e.g. a waterless urinal. For upgrading a common toilet a urine-diverting insert can be installed. Figure 5-1 gives some examples of the various existing ecosan sanitary devices. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

12 Low-flush toilets with water saving button can be installed to limit the use of flush water to the amount that is actually needed to clean the toilet bowl. This advice helps to prevent extended dilution of human excreta which is usually captured together to facilitate a more efficient treatment. By using vacuum toilets, the use of flush water can also be remarkably reduced to about 1 liter per flush or even less (Wendland, 2003). But the implementation of vacuum toilets requires the availability of the technique and technical skills as well as funds for the relative costly installations. To obtain more information on vacuum toilets, please refer to A toilet that does not consume water for flushing is called a dry toilet. Dry toilets can range from urine-separation toilets to a simple structure like a hole in a wooden beam used for urinating and defecating and are drained by gravity. Urine-diversion insert, esac/citacating.htm Urine-diversion flush toilet, Germany Dry urine-diversion toilet with child seat, Botswana Urine-diversion squatting panel, China Urine-diversion toilet with additional urinal Figure 5-1: Examples for urine-diverting sanitary devices 5.3 Treatment Processes The selected treatment process has to fit to the chosen sanitary equipment and vice versa. In the following, some treatment options for diverted partial flows including separately collected graywater are specified as well as for the combined collection of urine and feces. Generally the diversion of urine is recommended to avoid excess humidity in the processing vaults of dry toilet systems, which might Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

13 cause smell and fly breeding, and also to capture urine as a valuable fertilizer without a possible contamination by fecal bacteria (Esrey, 1998) Separated Urine Enclosed storage of the undiluted or only slightly diluted urine at ambient temperature, e.g. in a urine tank is considered as a viable treatment option and a storage time of at least six months for at 20 C is recommended for a safe product (Schönning, 2003). Higher ambient temperatures might require a lower retention time. If there is no intention or possibility to use urine as a fertilizer, diversion into a soaking pit with vegetation as an evapotranspiration bed or evaporation in general can be applied but nitrate accumulation in the soil has to be prevented Separated Feces In general, hygienisation of feces is best carried out by storage in combination with other factors such as high temperature, high ph value and a reduced moisture content (Schönning, 2003). Additives like lime or ash can be applied to increase the ph and also to serve as adsorbents for water. Enhanced ventilation and a high temperature are additionally supportive for the reduction of moisture content. For the dry collection of feces, possible treatment options are dehydration, composting and incineration. Dehydration Dehydration means lowering the moisture content under a value of 25 % by evaporation and addition of dry material such as ash, sawdust or husks. Sanitation systems based on dehydration usually require diversion of urine and water for anal cleaning and are best suitable for dry climates. Simple solar heaters can increase the efficiency of dehydration to enable an application in humid areas (Esrey, 1998). The product of the dehydration process is more a mulch than compost, but its rich in nutrients, carbon and fibrous material. To ensure complete destruction of pathogens rather than only deactivation, second treatment like high temperature composting or incineration is recommended. Some examples for dehydration systems can be found in the Appendix. Composting Composting is a complex aerobic biological process to mineralize organic substances and turn them into compost which requires certain boundary conditions like a moisture content between 50 to 60 %, a carbon to nitrogen ratio of about 30:1 and sufficient oxygen supply (Esrey, 1998). Composting toilets are assumed to work better with urine-diversion to avoid excess moisture and provide a better carbon to nitrogen ratio. But even if urine is diverted, carbonaceous material such as ash, sawdust, organic kitchen waste, toilet paper, grass clippings has to be added to provide the optimal carbon to nitrogen ratio. The compost after a retention time of about 8 to 12 months can be used as a rich soil conditioner or transferred to further treatment like high temperature cocomposting with organic waste. The Appendix shows some examples of composting systems, which can basically be divided into continuous and batch systems. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

14 Incineration Incineration is simply the process of burning of feces or fecal sludge which can be carried out in a high-tech incinerator or with a simple bonfire structure. It is considered to be by far the safest method since all pathogens are eliminated and the ash can be safely applied as fertilizer with all phosphorous and potassium retained (Schönning, 2003) but not as soil conditioner. The above processes are best used for the dry collection of feces, but for the wet collection, anaerobic digestion is a viable treatment option, which is further explained under chapter Graywater When graywater occurs in considerable amounts, the diverted and low polluted flow can be collected and treated by affordable low-tech solutions like constructed wetlands or stabilization ponds if the area is available. A possible high tech solution for limited space could be the treatment with membrane bioreactors (Otterpohl, 2003). As individual solutions, graywater can also be directly used as irrigation water in so-called graywater gardens. The schematic view of a constructed wetland and a picture of a simple graywater garden in Mali can be found in the Appendix Combined Collection of Urine and Feces Separation With very dry and hot climate, dehydration can also take place with a combined dry collection of urine and feces. But in general dehydration is rather complicated by the presence of urine and special care for enhanced evaporation by increased ventilation, solar or thermal heat and additional drying agents is necessary. In the case of composing toilets, they also work better with urine diversion, but separation of urine by evaporation and drainage can be provided if necessary. A technical device that can be used in wet systems to separate solids after being mixed with urine and flush water is the so-called Aquatron that was developed in Sweden. ( Some figures of a dehydration toilet without initial urine-diversion, of composting toilets for combined human excreta and of the Aquatron device are attached in the Appendix. Anaerobic Digestion for Combined Processing Anaerobic digestion or fermentation is a microbiological process in which the degradation of organic matter yields to biogas and a stabilized sludge. Key factors for a stable process and constant biogas production are the absence of oxygen (supported by an high moisture content above 60 %), sufficient supply of organic material with a suitable carbon to nitrogen ratio (20:1 to 30:1) and a temperature close to the optimum of 30 to 35 C. The process is very suitable for hot climates whereas heating might be required in colder regions. To provide sufficient organic material, the co-treatment of animal manure and organic waste on a household level would be necessary or several households could be connected to one semi-centralized biogas plant. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

15 The less diluted the blackwater, the more effectively and economically the biogas production works. Urine-separation might be beneficial due to the provision of a better carbon to nitrogen ratio. The sludge can be used in agriculture but second treatment to completely sanitize it, is usually recommended. A schematic view of a biogas plant is given in the Appendix. 6 PROJECT EXAMPLES The above-described technical solutions have been implemented in various projects all over the world. To get more familiar with the ecosan concept, a few selected examples are demonstrated here, also with the purpose to show that it actually works, even under very different conditions. China (Nanning conference, 2001;GTZ, 2003) The agricultural use of human excreta is traditional in China, but sanitary facilities with urine-diversion and treatment and safe handling of the excreta is rather a new idea, which has been promoted in the Guangxi province since So far, up to 100 so-called ecosan villages with around 30,000 tiled private bathrooms have been completed. In the Beijing suburb Yang Song, an important agricultural area for food supply of Beijing, a presently ongoing ecosan project has the scope to provide a municipal material-separating disposal and recycling concept for wastewater and organic waste for a cost-efficient recovery of useful material and energy. Tanzania (Chaggu, 2002; Shayo, 2003) African societies are historically not used to utilize feces in agriculture and gardening. But ecosan dehydration toilets with urine-diversion could be successfully implemented in the unplanned settlement of Majumbasita, a periurban area of Dar es Salaam with a total population of about 23,000. Dependence on water supply from wells recorded to be contaminated by fecal bacteria due to leakage from pit latrines, a shallow groundwater table and the collapse of existing pit latrines especially in the rainy season and the presence of diseases like diarrhea were supporting factors for the introduction of the ecosan concept. Stakeholders were involved from the beginning of the project applying the PHAST (Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation) method and also local masons were recruited. 95 household facilities were constructed by using local material and labor. Figure 6-1 shows some examples of the different materials used for the superstructure of the toilets and the above ground structure of the vaults can be nicely seen as well. Mexico (Nanning conference, 2001; Esrey et al, 2001) Based on the Vietnamese double-vault dehydration toilet, an ecosan facility was further developed and adapted to Mexican conditions. The facility looks like a standard WC but with urine-diversion and no requirement for water and can be constructed within the house without any problems of smell. The device is used and accepted by middle-class families. The toilet bowls are constructed in small family- or community-owned workshops using concrete or fiberglass and moulds have been exported South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe where they are now mass-produced with small changes. Main motivation factors for the successful Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

16 installation were water-scarcity and non-functional WCs. Two indoor bathrooms with ecosan toilets can be seen in Figure 6-2. Figure 6-1: Examples of ecosan dehydration toilets with urine-diversion in Tanzania using local material (Shayo, 2003) Figure 6-2: Ecosan toilets in Mexican middle-class indoor bathrooms Germany (Otterpohl; Oldenburg, 2002; Wendland, 2003) In Lübeck-Flintenbreite an innovative decentralized sanitation concept has been realized in a densely populated peri-urban area for a planned capacity of 350 inhabitants. Graywater and blackwater is collected and treated separately. By using vacuum toilets with only 0.7 l water per flush, relatively undiluted blackwater is collected and co-treated with shredded organic waste by anaerobic digestion Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

17 after a thermal sanitization. The produced biogas is used in a heat and power generator and the digested sludge goes to agriculture with further storage for the growth period. Graywater is drained by gravity and treated via a vertical constructed wetland. Rainwater is collected by small gutters on the ground surface and infiltrated by a swale system. The economically feasible project was pre-financed by a bank and a private company operates the system with high integration of the inhabitants. Figure 6-3 shows the ecosan concept of the project and one of the family houses and the main technical installations can be seen in Figure 6-4. Figure 6-3: Schematic view of the ecosan concept of the Flintenbreite, Lübeck, Germany Figure 6-4: Pictures of one of the family houses, of the vacuum station, the sanitization tank and the biogas plant, Flintenbreite, Lübeck, Germany Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

18 7 GENERAL TOOLS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOSAN In the following, some key-issues for a safe and sustainable implementation of the ecosan concept will be addressed. 7.1 Interdisciplinary Holistic Approach Due to the holistic view of the ecosan concept, collaboration of the involved sectors like e.g. water supply, water and resource conservation, sanitation and health, agriculture, education, urban and rural infrastructure planning, construction as well as support of small enterprises should be sought. It does not make much sense for example to produce fertilizer and compost from human excreta if there is not possibility of using it in agriculture or an introduction of a hygienic sanitation system will not show much improvement when people still rely on untreated and contaminated drinking water! The main stakeholders for the introduction of an ecosan sanitation system have to be identified and included as well. Important groups are the actual users on a household level, users of the recycled products if different from the first group, private or public service providers, community based organizations, local authorities and government, NGOs, developer and investors, financing and research institutes. 7.2 Household Centered Ecological Sanitation Approach-HCES The household centered ecological sanitation (HCES) approach is based on the Bellagio principles 3 for sustainable sanitation which require for example that human dignity, quality of life and environmental security at household level should be at the centre of any new approach and that the domain in which environmental sanitation problems are resolved should be kept to the minimum practicable size (household, community, town, district, catchment, city). The HCES demands therefore especially for the household as focal point of Environmental Sanitation (ES) Planning a solution of the ES problems as close as possible to their origin to balance human and environmental needs for a sustainable solution (Schertenleib). Figure 7-1 shows a schematic view of the HCES approach. The classical decision making process is represented by the arrows going from the upper authority level downwards to the household level. But now conditions and impulses from the household level are considered as well and information goes back to the higher levels to influence decision-making processes as well as existing boundary conditions. 7.3 Analysis of the Present Situation A sanitation concept has to be in accordance to the local conditions. Besides physical factors like climate, water resources, soil conditions and population density, also cultural, religious, social as well as economic and legal aspects have to be considered and suitable for a chosen concept. 3 The Bellagio Principles were endorsed by members of the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council during its 5 th Global Forum in November 2000 in Iguacu (Brasil). Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

19 Nation Province Municipality Barangay Household Figure 7-1: Household Centered Environmental Sanitation Approach (adapted from Schertenleib) An analysis of the present water supply and sanitation situation within the local frame of the previous mentioned factors is necessary to be able to develop an ecosan concept that fits to the local conditions. It is a fact that a system that does not require significant changes of personal habits can be introduced and accepted the easiest. But if some changes are required it is important to know it as soon as possible to be able to address and work on them as soon as possible as well. With respect to sanitation habits, it is for example important to know for the technical design if people prefer to sit or squat while using a toilet or how they clean themselves after defecation, e.g. if they are so-called washers that prefer to use water for anal cleaning or weepers with the use of toilet paper or any other available material. Possible problems for reusing fertilizer or compost originating from human excreta ranging from religious to legal constraints have to be known. Another obstacle might be the financial one and it is helpful to get a first idea of how much families could actually contribute on their own for an improvement and to get some ideas about possibilities of fund-raising. The access to sanitation technology in terms of knowledge, skills and material should also be evaluated. The role of agriculture has to be examined as well and the collection of data about common crops, animal farming, the use of fertilizer and the attitude towards reusing treated human excreta should be included. And finally, the responsible institution(s) for sanitation development with the relevant policies and targets on the considered level have to be identified. A good way to obtain information is getting in contact with local representatives and organizations, as well as directly with the inhabitants, e.g. by using a questionnaire to get personal data. Based on the gained overview of the present situation, the follow-up planning with regard to communication and mobilization, but also with regard to technology choice and implementation can start. 7.4 Public Awareness, Mobilization and Participation Sanitation programs depend critically for their success on effective public awareness and mobilization through information, education and communication (Wegelin-Schuringa, 2003). To be able to design effective messages for sanitation Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

20 improvements, it is important to identify different target audiences ranging from the community to the national level as well as within the different levels and address them in an appropriate way. One first, very important step for the implementation of ecosan is that people have realized that their present sanitation system if existent has many drawbacks and negative effects on themselves to create the demand for a possible change as well as the will to contribute something to it. Previous identified incentives can be used for further motivation. Table 7-1 lists some common motivation factors for different levels; the ranking of them, especially on the user level, depends strongly on the individual situation. Once the demand and the willingness of contribution are created, different solutions for the present sanitation problem including conventional systems should be presented to allow the involved persons to make their informed choice. It is very important that the ecosan concept is clearly understood and also accepted by the involved stakeholders and decision-makers, which can be supported by suitable educational material like posters for example as well as by demonstration of successful pilot projects. But if there is no real interest in the ecosan approach, it is also important that its implementation should not be enforced. Table 7-1: Motivation for implementation of ecosan for different levels User level Municipal level Convenience Satisfaction of inhabitants, reelection Safety Prestige, improvement of quality of life Privacy Status/prestige Comfort, quality Health improvements Economic benefits, low O&M, low water consumption, fertilizer Water saving, present water scarcity Improved environment Economic benefits Possibility of fund raising National level Improved heath statistics Cost-effective, sustainable solutions Protection of water resources Ensuring food supply Benefits for agriculture International reputation, Agenda 21 The participatory aspect is important from the beginning of an ecosan sanitation project. For on-site sanitation systems material and labor costs should be provided by the community and with the help of community organizing partly or if possible fully by the users. The costs for operation and maintenance of the facilities, which highly depend on the chosen technique, should be fully borne by the users. Different guidelines for a participatory approach were developed. One example is participatory hygiene and sanitation transformation (PHAST, training guidelines, 1998), which was for example applied in the ecosan example in Tanzania, mentioned in chapter 6. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

21 7.5 Implementation, Operation and Maintenance Implementation of the ecosan system has to be carried out with careful supervision and additional training of the involved stakeholders. Construction workshops and the recruitment of local skilled labor are helpful and support a selfreplicating effect of the chosen system. In general local material and expertise should be used. Even the ecosan concept should be clearly understood by now, training of the users to correctly use and maintain the system is still necessary as well as training for the application of the products in agriculture. Depending on the system and its extent, private or public service providers have to be educated as well. 7.6 Monitoring and Evaluation Monitoring should already start during the mobilization process to assess the effectiveness of the mobilization. But it is very important to carry on with it during the implementation and once the system is implemented to be able to detect possible problems and solve them, e.g. by adapting the chosen design and to finally evaluate the system. Locals like sanitary inspectors are best suitable for monitoring. Due to the fact that ecosan is a new approach, information of the project including possible encountered problems and lessons-learnt should be made available on a national and international level. Information & knowledge management and networking are key-issues to support the new approach worldwide. 8 ECOSAN AS SOLUTION FOR THE PHILIPPINES 8.1 Analysis of the Wastewater Sector According to an estimation of the UN for the year 2000, 86 % of the Philippines do have access to improved drinking water sources 4, with 91 % in urban and 79 % in rural areas. On the other side about 83 % of the Philippine population have access to improved sanitation facilities 5, with relatively high coverage of 93 % in urban areas and a lower coverage of 69 % in rural areas. But these numbers are considered to be generally too optimistic and should be verified. Additionally, access to improved sanitation does not automatically indicate proper wastewater disposal. It is estimated that more than 90 % of the total sewage of the country s population is not disposed properly (WB, 2003). The lack of urban sanitation is severe and the few existing treatment plants cannot cope with the daily produced wastewater amounts. On the rural side, septic tanks are considered as the major on-site sanitation system if a water-sealed toilet facility is used, but they are usually maintained poorly and sludge is hardly removed. Water quality protection and operation and maintenance of sanitation facilities is a collaborative undertaking of the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) operating on behalf of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) and the Department of Health (DOH) (WB, 2003). For Metro Manila, 4 Improved drinking water sources such as house connections, public standpipes, boreholes with hand pumps, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collection 5 Improved sanitation facilities such as a connection to a sewer or septic tank system, use of a pour flush latrine, simple pit or ventilated improved pit latrine Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

22 Maynilad Water Services, Inc. (MWSI) and Manila Water Company, Inc. (MWCI), both concessionaires of the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) as the regulator are responsible for domestic liquid waste management. The Local Water Utility Authority (LWUA) and the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) plan the sewerage system in urban areas except for Metro Manila and the DOH is in general responsible for domestic wastewater facilities and management (JICA, 2002). The Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) with its division of the Water Supply and Sanitation Program Management Office (WSSPMO) provides LGUs with advisory services in the fields of water supply and sanitation. In general, it is difficult for the responsible authorities to fulfill their assigned tasks due to a lack of funds and personal capacities and sanitation falls behind other issues such as water supply. A proper implementation of the ecosan concept could contribute to considerable improvements in the sector. 8.2 Regulatory Framework In the following, important regulations concerning the sanitation sector are shortly summarized. According to the Local Government Code of the Philippines (RA 7160, 1991), the LGUs are responsible to provide basic services and facilities including sanitation. But due to budgetary constraints and low priority for sanitation and sewerage projects the code is not strictly enforced (Magtibay, 1999; WB 2003). The National Building Code (PD 1096, 1977) requires that sewage from all buildings is discharged into the nearest existing sewerage system or if not available disposed into an Imhoff or septic tank and a subsurface absorption field. The Environment Code (PD 1152, 1977) demands for treatment of wastewater and gives minimum effluent requirements (Magtibay, 1999). This law is generally only enforced on big polluters, such as industries (WB, 2003). The Code on Sanitation (PD 856, 1976) and its implementing rules and regulations (IRR) have the main objective to protect and promote public health. Chapter XVII Sewage Collection and Disposal, Excreta Disposal and Drainage contains the relevant regulations for wastewater management. According to the code, an approved excreta disposal facility is defined as a flush toilet or as an approved pit privy or as any disposal device, which receives approval by the Secretary of Health or his duly authorized representative (Sec. 72). The construction of an approved type of toilet requires the approval of the Secretary of Health or his duly authorized representative as well (Sec. 72). According to Sec. 79, municipalities and cities are responsible to provide and maintain a wastewater drainage system without causing nuisance to the community and danger to public health. The IRRs based on chapter XVII demand that individual excreta disposal systems for every new building are approved by the local health authority (sanitary permit) and that all houses without approved excreta disposal systems are required to construct such facilities under the supervision of the local health officer. Considering individual sewage disposal systems, a sanitation permit as well as an operation permit has to be approved by the local health authority. The IRR of the National Pollution Control Commission for Domestic Wastewater Disposal (1981) declares the national policy that domestic Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

23 wastewater should be properly collected, conveyed, treated and disposed in a way that the environment is not polluted in order to protect public health and the country s water resources. The IRR contain requirements for the construction of sewer systems, wastewater treatment plants and for sewage sludge handling and disposal. Important for an implementation of ecosan is Sec. 7 in which variances from the regulations can be allowed in the case of government projects on housing, resettlements and urban renewal undertaken for the benefit of lowincome population groups if other satisfactory domestic wastewater treatment and disposal systems are provided. For an implementation of ecosan, an approval of the facilities by the DOH or the representative local health authorities would be a necessary step and emphasizes once more the requirement of promoting the concept and collaborating with the health sector. Favoring factors for an implementation of ecosan and a co-treatment of organic waste with composting toilets or biogas plants can be found in the Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management Act (RA 9003, 2000) and its IRRs that demand for waste segregation, especially at the source, recycling and composting and reuse to reduce efficiently the amount of solid waste that has to be deposed. 8.3 Experience of ecosan in the Philippines An ecosan project was accomplished within the global Urban Waste Management Expertise Program (UWEP)+ in the Municipality of Tingloy Island, Batangas, in 2002 up to spring 2003, coordinated and financed by the Dutch NGO WASTE and facilitated by the Center of Advanced Philippine Studies (CAPS) 6 and the Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation - International Training Network Foundation (PCWS-ITNF). Initially three dry urine-diversion toilets for three selected families were built but in a second phase two of them were converted into pour-flush toilets with septic tanks and the third one was assumed to be used as a bathroom due to operational errors and lack of convenience. One new urine-diverting toilet with improved design, using the Mexican toilet bowl model was constructed near the third remaining ecosan toilet. During a field-visit it was found that the old model is actually in use and that the users are now satisfied after some odor problems at the beginning. During inspection no odor problem was detected. The other toilet with the improved design is unfortunately not used. Only the superstructure serves as a place to dry cloths and the washing basin, installed for wet anal cleaning, is used for washing cloths and for urinating. The family tried the toilet for one week and stopped using it due to strong odor problems. Besides the fact that they were not adding adsorbents like ash after defecating, also the rather poor design of the ventilation of the toilet vault could be an explanation for the odor problems. The family is planning to convert the toilet into a pour-flush toilet with septic tank. The gained experience during this project can be very helpful for a further implementation of ecosan and the most important lessons-learnt are summarized in Table 8-1. Some pictures of the installed facilities can be found in the Appendix. 6 More information about CAPS can be found in the Appendix Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

24 Table 8-1: Lessons-learnt from Tingloy ecosan project Lessons-learnt from Tingloy ecosan project A sanitation project has to correspond to the local sanitation demands. General assessment on sanitation including the sanitation habits is necessary before the design of any training program. Stakeholders and beneficiaries have to be involved in an early project stage including Barangay Captains, Sanitary Inspectors, health workers, mayors, etc. Training on ecosan at an early stage of the project Careful selection of partner families (criteria like existing sanitation facilities, habits, location of house, participation, etc.) Ecosan concept has to be understood and accepted, especially by all family members of the selected families. Information and reference materials should be adapted to the local context. Simple translations of material from other ecosan projects might be misunderstood. Allow enough time and effort for the development of the technical design with the partner families and the community. Importing a toilet prototype that works perfect in another country might fail under local conditions. Allow enough time for construction and use local material and expertise for easier replication. Careful monitoring and supervision especially in the initial time of operation and preferably by local people and not by foreigners to prevent that users feel ashamed Besides the above-mentioned ecosan installations of urine-diverting toilets, also some small anaerobic biogas digesters for co-treatment of manure and human waste exist in the Philippines, for example in the Province of Cebu and in Tingloy Island, Batangas Province. The biogas plant in Tingloy Island that is treating manure from a piggery was visited during a field trip. The produced biogas is used for cooking as well as for generating electricity by a gas generator, which results in considerable financial savings for the family. The users are very satisfied with the installation and are promoting the successful concept. More information and some pictures can be found in the Appendix. 8.4 Information Assessment during short Field-trip to Bantayan Background The fresh water resources of the island of Bantayan located North of Cebu Island are limited to one fresh water lens in the center of the island on which the present population and the future development of the island depend. With the foundation of the Bantayan Island Water Association (BIWA) a first step towards an IWRM was undertaken. In the future BIWA shall assume the responsibility for a safe drinking water supply of the island. So far, the population depends on view private water suppliers, a water peddler network and a high number of private open dug wells. Besides the limited water quantity and infrastructure for a safe water supply, Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

25 water quality is an issue as well. Salt-water intrusion and bacterial contamination of unsanitary wells are the most severe problems and water-borne diseases like diarrhea are present with a peak during the rainy season. Figure 8-1 shows the monthly averaged cases of diarrhea and typhoid fever with a total number of Monthly averaged diarrhea and typhoid cases from 1998 to 2002 Diarrhea cases per month Jan Feb March April Source: District Hospital Bantayan Diarrhea Typhoid May June annual cases of 1307 of diarrhea and 116 of typhoid in the year Figure 8-1: Monthly averaged water-borne diseases from 1998 to 2002 of Bantayan Island During a visit to the island, it was possible to assess some information about a possible implementation of ecosan in the Barangay Sillion of the Municipality Bantayan where it is planned to construct one of three level II water supply systems within the Water Program Household Questionnaire for Barangay Sillion An informal meeting with the Barangay captain 7, other Barangay officials and residents was organized in the Barangay hall of Sillon, Bantayan. With the help of a prepared questionnaire and the translation of the questions and answers by a community organizer, information about the present situation including sanitation habits and attitudes towards sanitation and ecological sanitation could be collected. The posed questions were answered by a total number of 12 participants including (only!) three women in an open discussion. The entire questionnaire with the summarized answers as well as some pictures can be found in the Appendix. The main sources of income of the estimated 785 households in this typical rural settlement are fishery and agriculture. Drinking water is basically delivered by water peddlers or picked up at a private water source. Open dug wells provide water for washing and cleaning. According to the questionnaire and to data from the sanitary inspector, only a small percentage of the population have a sanitary toilet facility (10 % or 12.5 % respectively), usually a water-sealed toilet with an unsealed tank to receive the wastewater. The people without toilets usually wash July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Typhoid cases per month 7 Crispin B. Alon Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

26 themselves and urinate outside the house, protected by a fence of every available material (see pictures). Common practices for defecation are the so-called portable comfort room (CR), a simple bucket that is emptied somewhere outside the house or digging a hole. Diarrhea is a problem, especially in the rainy season. People are in general very concerned about saving water and for example already used to recycle graywater for toilet flushing in the case, a toilet is available. Some also even use diluted urine for watering (fertilizing) their plants but the idea of recycling human feces was a new and unpleasant idea for them. Despite their concerns for reusing human feces, the dry urine-diverting toilet aroused some interest basically due to the fact that scarce water can be saved and no smell problems are excepted if maintained properly. In general, a high need for sanitation actions could be detected as well as the willingness of the inhabitants to contribute to an improvement of their sanitation situation. A dry, urine-diversion toilet seems to be a good solution, but would require some effort in convincing the users and/or the farmers to actually reuse the products, especially treated feces. The Barangay captain requested the design of a dry toilet for a planned construction of a public toilet for a proposed number of 150 households in November/December Besides the fact that public awareness should be strengthened first, a public ecosan toilet in general is a very sensitive and delicate task which could easily fail due to the lack of proper operation and maintenance, especially with such a high number of proposed connected households Additional Information Besides the Barrangay meeting, the following additional information could be gained during a field-trip on the island e.g. by visiting a poultry farm and the municipal plant nursery of Bantayan as well as by short discussions with local sanitary inspectors and a municipal agriculturist. Some pictures taken during the field-trip are provided in the Appendix. The ecosan concept was explained to two Sanitary Inspectors 8 of the Municipality of Bantayan who were interested in the concept but also mentioned concerns about smell, the use of feces and health issues. More efforts should be invested to convince them. The municipal agriculturist from Bantayan 9, who supports organic fertilizer from manure to reduce costs for farmers and to improve soil texture, was impressed by the high nitrogen content of urine. He would be a good contact person to promote the ecosan idea on the island, especially to farmers, and his radio program could be suitable for that. The municipal plant nursery of Bantayan has a monthly consumption of about 30 bags à 50 kg of chicken dung for 30 Php per bag, 15 to 20 bags à 50 kg of urea for 600 Php per bag (price was just recently raised from previous 560 Php), 15 to 20 bags à 50 kg of 1414 with a similar price than urea and some rice husk for soil texture to grow around 2000 seedlings of ornamental plants and some tree species. This means that 8 Sofronio T. Negre Jr. (June) and Amelita Espina (Amy) 9 Sisihio Tayo Morada Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

27 around 20,000 to 25,000 Php are spent monthly on fertilizer and soil conditioner, which corresponds to around 5 to 6 times the monthly average income of inhabitants of Sillon. The site would be very suitable for a growing experiment using fertilizer from human excreta. Some pictures of the facility are shown in the Appendix. Poultry is an important agricultural activity on the island of Bantayan. The number of chicken is estimated to be in the range of 1.4 million. Usually no sealing measures to prevent the infiltration of chicken excreta into the soil are undertaken probably resulting in considerable groundwater pollution especially during the rainy season. Some dried chicken dung is sold for about 14 Php per 50 kg bag and transported by boat to Iloilo or used to produce organic fertilizer by DURABLOOM in the Municipality of Madridejos. In the Appendix, a picture of a piggery can be seen where manure is discharged on the soil surface. Again it is assumed that considerable organic and nitrogen loads reach the groundwater sources via infiltration. The energy supply on the island depends on a small diesel power plant The generation of biogas by fermentation of animal manure (chicken and pigs) including human excreta and organic waste would be an interesting alternative to supply some inhabitants in an more environmental-friendly and sustainable way. Fishery is an important source of income on the island. Unfortunately old used fishnets are simply disposed within or near the shoreline. This results in an accumulation of other waste and an unpleasant appearance. The reuse of these old nets for example like in the CCD composting toilet model constructed in the South Pacific under very humid climate conditions (see Appendix Figure 10 and 11) would be a very interesting option to prevent this shoreline contamination and to support the implementation of suitable sanitation facilities Summary As a brief summary, the first reactions towards the ecosan approach on the island were generally positive. The water scarcity and the lack of water distribution facilities are probably the most supporting motivation factors for ecosan using a dry sanitation system, for example the previous mentioned CCD composting toilet. The use of small biogas plants where livestock is present, especially in the case of the piggery is considered to be a vital ecosan option as well. Due to the limited number of time, the group discussion in Sillion was a good way to assess some information but it has to be questioned how representative the gained information is and more people should be addressed. Public awareness raising and promotion of the reuse of human excreta is necessary and the existent infrastructure for the use and the production of organic fertilizer could be helpful for marketing the recycle products from human waste. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

28 9 RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The main purpose of this report was to introduce the ecosan concept with the help of the illustration of some technical possibilities and project examples to arouse interest for an implementation in the Philippines. It was mentioned that the sanitation sector shows severe lacks and it is very questionable if conventional systems alone can solve the present problems. An adoption of the ecosan concept could surely contribute to an improvement. Besides the present lack of appropriate sanitation and the cost-effectiveness of the concept, the limitation of water sources is probably one of the best-selling factors for ecosan. The environmental legislation is extensive, but generally not enforced and focuses on conventional sanitation systems. Ecological sanitation would require a close collaboration with the Department of Health and its local representatives for a legal foundation. The small case study of Barangay Sillion was definitely not complete but a good start to gain some information of the acceptance and perception towards ecosan. The first results were positive and the concept aroused some interest but more information and education on ecosan is definitely needed. Although further assessment is necessary, the development of an ecosan project, for example in the Barangay of Sillion, could already be recommended at this point. A careful implementation resulting in a successful demonstration project would be good way to convince a broader audience of the concept s advantages. An interesting ecosan structure for implementation would be a dry urine-diverting composting toilet, which is better suitable for the existing humid climate than a dehydration toilet or a CCD composting toilet without urine-separation that has been tested under very humid conditions. One of the advantages of composting toilets is the possible co-treatment of organic waste that supports the waste segregation at source at the household level. Another interesting option would be a biogas plant for co-treatment of animal and human excreta and organic waste. The DILG-WSSPMO could take over the role of further promoting the ecosan concept within the Philippines and of supporting the implementation of one or several pilot projects eventually assisted by the DILG-GTZ Water Program. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

29 Appendix Dehydration Toilet Appendix Figure 1: Vietnam double-vault dehydration toilet (Esrey, 1998) Two processing chambers above ground, each with a volume of about 0.3 m 3, are covered with a squatting slap for urine diversion, a pot for urine collection and lids for the two openings of the processing chambers to remove the dehydrated material. But the size of the vault is rather considered to be too small. In general, it can be estimated that 5 to 6 persons produce almost 0.5 m 3 /a of dehydrated material in a dehydration toilet (Esrey, 1998). Composting Toilet This composting toilet is based on the previous presented Vietnamese double-vault toilet, adapted for a community in India with the habit of using water for anal cleaning. Both, urine and water for anal cleaning are diverted into an evapotranspiration reed bed and ash is applied after each use and carbon-rich material is added for good composting conditions. Due to the two chambers, it can be considered as a batch toilet system. When one chamber is full, it is closed and treatment continues without any addition of new feces until the other chamber gets full (about 1 year) and the treated content of the first one can be removed. Instead of using different chambers, one chamber with various vessels, e.g. buckets to receive feces and additives could be used as well. Once a vessel is full it stays in the chamber for further composting and a new one is used. Appendix Figure 2: Double-vault toilet in India (Esrey, 1998) The following pictures show some continuous composting toilets. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

30 Composting toilet adapted from Clivus Multrum, Inc TerraNova composting container (Berger, 2003) CTS toilet, Composting toilet systems, Appendix Figure 3: Continuous composting toilets Dried feces and compost from human excreta can be seen in the following picture. Both products have a pleasant appearance and usually do not cause odor problems when the system is well designed, operated and maintained. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

31 Final Products Left: Dried feces, Afghanistan (GTZ) Right: Compost from a composting toilet system with the Aquatron separator, Rostock, Germany (Berger Biotechnik GmbH) Appendix Figure 4: Final products of dehydration and composting toilet systems Five to six persons produce almost 0.5 m 3 dehydrated feces a year using a dehydration toilet. In a Clivus Multrum composting toilet about 10 to 30 l compost per person and year is produced. In a double-vault composting toilet in Mexico about 6 to 8 people fill one 1,2 m 3 vault in about year (Esrey, 1998) Graywater Treatment Key: 1... inflow; 2... distribution zone; 3... impermeable layer; 4... substrate (sand, gravel, or soil); 5... vegetation; 6... outlet collector; 7... collection zone; 8... water level; 9... outflow. Appendix Figure 5: Schematic view of a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland (Source: Kadlec & Knight, 1996, taken from Meister, 2003) Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

32 More information about constructed wetlands or reed beds can be found in the reports and additional material prepared by Solveig Meister within the DILG-GTZ water program (Meister, 2003). For graywater treatment, the required design area for constructed wetlands can be significantly reduced. Instead of the commonly used 4 to 5 m 2 per capita for the treatment of blackwater, an area of 1 to 1.5 m 2 is considered to be sufficient (Gallinat/Jurga, 2002). Appendix Figure 6: Constructed wetland, Lambertsmuehle, Germany (Otterwasser GmbH) Appendix Figure 7: Graywater garden in Mali Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

33 Separation Dehydration toilets 1. Drainage 3. Increased Evaporation 2. Ventilation 4. Removal of dried feces Appendix Figure 8: Enviroo Loo dehydration toilet with combined caption of urine and feces and separation More information under Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

34 Appendix Figure 9: Deydration toilet with solar heater and pusher, Tecpan, El Salvador (Esrey, 1998) Composting toilets CCD composting toilet in South Pacific This toilet is suitable for very humid climate. Evaporation of liquids is increased by the use of fishing nets and wicks from old cloths. Appendix Figure 10: View of the processing chamber of a CCD toilet (Esrey 1998) Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

35 Appendix Figure 11: CCD composting toilet with attached greenhouse and evapotranspiration bed (Esrey, 1998) Composting toilet with refuse bin The toilet was installed as a successful experiment by using 240 l standard wheeled plastic refuse bins as composting chambers. Near the base of each bin, a false floor by a mesh provides drainage to the liquids, which are conducted via pipe to a sealed evapotranspiration bed. Ventilation is provided by a cutout near the base of the bin and by perforated ventilation pipes running vertically along the inside walls of the bin (Esrey, 1998). Appendix Figure 12: Composting toilet using a plastic refuse bin Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

36 Aquatron for the solid-liquid separation Appendix Figure 13: Aquatron to separate solids from liquids (Esrey, 1998; Anaerobic Digestion Appendix Figure 14: Simple biogas plant with fixed dome (WHO, 1992) Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

37 Appendix Figure 15: Household biogas tank directly connected to a latrine ( Tingloy ecosan Pilot Project Upper left: Cement toilet bowl Lower left: Urine-diverting pipe discharging into and old bucket (no reuse) Right: Ferro cement superstructure (Pictures taken Nov 20, 2003) Appendix Figure 16: Features of the first ecosan toilet model in Brgy. 14 Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

38 Left: Toilet bowl with bucket to receive feces, Right: Cleaning basin and toilet bowl Left: Pipe from cleaning basin to soaking pit, right: Pipe from urine-diversion to bare soil (!) Left: Superstructure of local material Right: Open vault with bucket for feces (Pictures taken on Nov 20, 2003) Appendix Figure 17: New ecosan dry urine-diverting toilet model with improved design, Brgy. 14 Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

39 The new toilet has two vaults, a urine-diverting toilet bowl that diverts urine via a small diameter pipe to an evapotranspiration bed and a cleaning basin for anal cleaning with water as practiced by the family. The water from anal cleaning is drained at the back of the toilet into a soak bed in the ground. The change in operation using buckets from palm trees for the collection of feces and enough space in one vault for at least two buckets made one vault redundant (PCWS- ITFN, 2003). During a field visit it was found that the family does not use the toilet. Some information about CAPS The Tingloy ecosan project was coordinated by the Center for Advanced Philippine Studies (CAPS), a non-stock, non-profit research foundation that has carried out various studies and research activities for national agencies like the DENR or the Department of Agriculture (DA) and for international agencies such as WB, USAID, JICA or WASTE from the Netherlands. CAPS is the Southeast Asian Region partner of the Urban Waste Expertise Programme (UWEP) supporting integrated sustainable waste management approaches. For CAPS ecosan is rather connected to the solid waste sector than to the water sector and they are in favor of the dry toilet with urine separation and are mainly focusing on peri-urban areas. The regional program manager is Danilo G. Lapid who is very interested in the ecosan approach and promotes the idea in the Philippines. He is planning to assist a housing project of the Homeless People s Federation Philippines for squatters to consider ecosan for the sanitation facilities. New houses will be constructed in various Municipalities in Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao and the idea is to select a suitable project site to incorporate ecosan toilets in the new houses. To contact CAPS refer to www. caps.ph or contact Danilo Lapid directly under danlapid@info.com.ph. Biogas Plant, Tingloy Island The plant is located in the Barangay San Isidro and owned by Mercado G. de Guzman (SB member, Municipality of Tingloy) and his family. The biogas plant is installed in a piggery with about 12 sows (mother pigs), the number of total livestock heads varies between around 45 to 100 depending on the season. The idea of implementation was initiated by the Provincial Agricultural Office in 2001, the present owner received an invitation from the Office and was informed about the possible installation of a biodigester as an alternative to a septic tank; he was informed that he could receive technical assistance by writing a letter of request. Construction started in 2002, a gas generator was added later and its operation started in April Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

40 The design was provided by the Province and the construction was supervised by a Provincial Engineer. Total investment costs for material and labor were around Php with the biggest share for labor due to difficult soil conditions (hard rock). The generator was bought at second hand at a price of around Php. The costs of the biogas plant were shared among the family members. The owners are very satisfied with the operation of the biogas digester and the generator, although the generator was not in operation during the visit due to a broken spare part. But the owner assured that operation would start again in the next two days. During the stay, some smell was noticed once in while, but it was difficult to assign it to the piggery or to the biogas plant. The owners were not complaining about any smell. The dynamo of the generator has a theoretical capacity of 1.6 kw and a practical one of 1.2 kw. Presently, the following technical installations are connected to the generator 1 fridge (~ 250 W) 1 color TV (~ 150 W) 2 electric fans (~ 2x100 W=200 W) 7 energy saving bulbs à 9 W (~ 63 W) 4 energy saving bulbs à 9 W are provided in the neighborhood (~ 36 W) This sums up to a total amount of ~ 700 W In the staring phase, the maximum time of operation of the gas generator was 4 h, but could be increased to a present minimal time of operation of 7 hours and a maximum time of operation of 10 hours. (Present max. 7 kwh) The biogas plant including the generator results in considerable savings: Biogas is used for cooking and reduces the annual number of LPG (Liquefied Petroleum gas) tanks from former 13 tanks per year to 1 tank (for cooking inside). With a price of 200 Php per tank, this results in an annual saving of 2400 Php per year. With the use of the gas generator, the monthly electricity bill (from BATELEC=Batangas Electrical Cooperative) could be reduced from around 700 Php per month to 300 Php per month, which results in an annual saving of 4800 Php. Total annual financial saving sums up to 7200 Php per year The alternative of a septic tank would have requested similar funds for construction, but additional funds for regular emptying the tank rather than gaining funds from the use of the biogas and the produced energy from the generator. Some pictures of the installations can be seen in the following. Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

41 Appendix Figure 18: Biogas plant with inlet, digester tank with gas collector pipe and outlet Appendix Figure 19: Part of drainage system and disassembled gas generator Appendix Figure 20: Model of biogas plant Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

42 Questionnaire with Answers from Field-trip to Sillon, Bantayan Questions Answers Present situation 1. Municipality/Barangay? Bantayan/Sillon 2. How many persons live in your Average size of households: 5 persons (to 7) household? Age of persons? Age of parents between years, children stay in the household until marriage 3. Occupation, education, average income rated as low/middle class income (self-estimation)? 4. Where do you get your water from, peddlers, level I, level II (who and how often?) or level III? Name of provider? Quality of water? Do you boil or filter it before drinking? 5. How much water do you need on average a day/month? What expenses? (e.g. how many 20 l containers?) 6. How much water for toilet use, personal hygiene, cleaning, cooking etc. do you need? Give approximate proportions. 7. What wastewater facilities do you use e.g. own/neighbor s/public pit/bucket latrine, WC, inside/outside the house, septic tank, sewage system, mixture of all wastewater or separate collection? What expenses? Who constructed the facilities? Who is responsible for them within the household? Breadwinner is the man, most are fishermen with a monthly income of 4000 Php and farmers with a slightly higher income of 5000 Php/month, woman stay usually at home, education, most children attend high school, some go to college Water generally from peddlers at 2,5 Php per 20 l container (5 existing peddlers), peddlers take water from private source, where water can be bought at 0.1 Php per gallon, additionally free water for washing from brackish dug well level I, generally water is only boiled for infants before consumption Estimation about 3 containers=60 l per person from peddlers or private water source, additionally around 2 containers from the dug well 3 to 5 containers per person Expenses were not given, but from data above, maximal expenses are 7.5 Php per person (3x2.5 Php) The following amounts per person were estimated Toilet 6 l, Bath 16 l, Cooking 2 l, Washing 40 l, Drinking 2 l = 66 l, which is on the lower end between the 3 and 5 containers of consumed water Only 10 % of the Barangay population have a water-sealed toilet, generally as a pour flush toilet, the rest basically defecates with the use of so-called portable CRs (=buckets which are emptied somewhere in the bushes) or dig their feces in the ground, intimae fences are used for body washing and urinating, for the water toilets, usually no septic tank is used, but a chamber with open bottom where wastewater infiltrates Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

43 8. Are you satisfied with your present situation concerning water supply and wastewater management? Or do you feel the need to change something, if yes what for example?considering wastewater, do you know any possible techniques that could be applied? Any favorites? 9. What do you think/know happens to your wastewater once disposed in septic tanks, sewage systems,.? 10. How do you rate the state of your environment? Clean water? Any smell? Garbage problems? Satisfaction? 11. Do you suffer from any intestinal diseases, stomach problems? How often? How much do you have to spend therefore for a doctor, medicine? Do you have an idea where this comes from? Improvements 12. Who do you think is responsible for your sanitation facilities? Who should be? Do they fulfill their job? Do you feel any responsibility outside of your house e.g. for the environment? immediately and emptying is therefore not required, one example of a full septic tank in use was discovered during a trip in the Barangay Costs Construction Responsibility Satisfaction/ Change Known techniques, preferences? The costs of the few existing water toilets were estimated to Php Residents pay for the material and the labor Within the household, the woman is responsible for the toilet People are not satisfied, they are dreaming about having a toilet and a level II water system (some also a level III) Water toilet in the house preferred, but a communal toilet would also be accepted was not really discussed, because so few people have a toilet and a sewer system is not present anyways People were asked to give a number between 1 (very bad) to 10 (very good), response was 5, so they are aware of some pollution, but are not (yet) severely affected by it Diarrhea was mentioned, especially during rainy days, especially in July Costs for basic medicine was estimated between 100 to 300 Php per diarrhea Illness because water gets contaminated when it is raining, climate change was also mentioned as a reason Funds should be provided by the Government, otherwise no change is possible and people will stick to their old habits One issue for construction of toilets is that the land is not owned by the residents, that most of the residents are squatters and construction needs permission of land owner Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

44 13. See number 7, what would you like to improve considering the water and wastewater sector? 14. Would you be able and willing to contribute something to an improvement of the sanitation facilities e.g. labor, material, money and how much? Ecological sanitation 15. What are your sanitation habits? (body hygiene, hand washing after using the toilet, use of soap, detergents, cloth washing, for defecation, washer or wipers (with the use of toilet paper), seating or squatting pan preferred? As a male could you imagine to sit down while urinating or do you insist to stand, need for urinal?) Do you think there are big differences concerning this topic within the town or Barangay? 16. How is the maintenance of your system, e.g. are the septic tanks emptied regularly? By whom? Private companies? Costs? 17. What happens to the collected material? Is the collected urine used? Are collected feces used? (reaction!) 18. Are you aware that excrements and urine are valuable fertilizers? Do you think there is a health risk? Do you believe that after treatment they can be used without risk? Explanation of ecological Own toilets or at least common toilets and at least a level I water supply system Common agreement that they would contribute to a possible construction of new toilets, they are even planning to construct a public toilet with Barangay funds by the end of this year (November/December 2003) and a working plan for the Barangay has to be proposed (two units (male/female) for about 150 households!!!) Possible contribution of labor and material like sand and gravel Body hygiene, most of them take a bath once a day with common soap, deodorant Cloth washing with detergents Water is used after defecating for most of the people who are using a water toilet washers, people who defecate in the nature tend to use everything that is available, e.g. coconut rasps wipers, should to be determined further for possible user group Seating for water toilet, squatting automatically if no toilet is available, should to be determined further for possible user group For the men, no chance that they will sit down for urinating!!! No really big differences within the Barangay, differences due to available facilities No real septic tanks, therefore also no maintenance required and no costs involved No real collection of material, but use of urine within the household, diluted with water for ornamental plants common if no toilet is available, use of feces not common at all and not wanted Even some use urine for ornamental plants, they do not really think it is a valuable fertilizer, some concerns about smell. Feces is definitely not considered as fertilizer and not wanted to be used due to smell and some health concerns Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

45 sanitation! And sampling of first impressions of people towards it! 19. Could you now imagine reusing urine and feces after a treatment? Would you eat vegetables, crops grown with use of urine or treated feces as fertilizer? If not, please tell my about your reasons, fears or ways to convince you to do so. First judgment of acceptability 20. Are you interested in saving water? Have you heard about dry toilets? (Explanation) Would you use them? 21. Material available for composting toilets, ash, lime, organic waste? 22. How is your energy supply? Do you use gas for cooking? Would you use biogas? 23. How is your waste management? Separation of organic waste and composting? 24. Agriculture: Do you have a garden? How large? Do people generally have an own garden? Do you have agriculture? What kind of crops? Any livestock? Manure management? Production for selfsupply or for sale? Do you use fertilizer? How much, what type and for what costs? How close are the agricultural areas to your house/community? Could you imagine as farmer to use urine and compost of feces? General, they are very concerned about using feces as a fertilizer, even if it was treated before. They cannot really imagine how it will be after treatment and to see an example of a functioning system might help a lot to convince them. To collect and store urine seems to be problematic as well, again concerns about smell. With lots of input, they might accept the system, during the talk, their attitude changed towards the reuse of excreta after some more explanation High interest in saving water!!! It is also common to reuse graywater e.g. from washing to flush the toilet if this system is used. After explanation of the dry toilet principle, they shown high interest in such a system, especially were asking for support for the design of their public toilet project Should be available, like ash from firewood and coconut shells, lime has to be checked, probably not feasible in the region For cooking, use of firewood, biogas not available but would be used No waste segregation, but existing awareness of possible segregation, organic waste separation should be possible Houses near shoreline do not have a garden, but further inland, they have gardens, basically with green leafy vegetables 50 % of the population has agriculture (little different that response at the beginning that more people rely on fishing), crops mainly corn, but also some manioc Limited Livestock for self-supply, poultry, picks, goats, cows in the back-yard, use manure as fertilizer in their own gardens Use of fertilizers like urea, organic fertilizer from poultry farms, maximal expenses for fertilizer around 3000 Php/month Agricultural lands close to houses, about 0.5 to1 km Some could imagine to use urine and compost as fertilizer (still doubts present) Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

46 Pictures taking during Field-trip Bantayan Appendix Figure 21: Meeting in Barangay Sillon, Bantayan Appendix Figure 22: Different bathrooms in Sillon, Bantayan Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

47 Appendix Figure 23: One of the view water-sealed toilets with septic tank in Sillon, Bantayan, near by a well Appendix Figure 24: Meeting with Sanitary Inspectors and Municipal agriculturist Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

48 Appendix Figure 25: Municipal Plant Nursery Bantayan Appendix Figure 26: Infiltrating manure from piggery in Bantayan Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October

49 Appendix Figure 27: Old fish nets contaminating the shoreline of Bantayan Island Ecological Sanitation - An Introduction to the Philippines, Manila, October