China Mercury-related Information Analysis Report

Transcription

1 China Mercury-related Information Analysis Report China Chemicals Registration Center, State Environmental Protection Administration April

2 Content ABSTRACT...3 PREFACE...5 CHINA MERCURY-RELATED INFORMATION ANALYSIS REPORT INDUSTRIES CONSUMING MERCURY FOR INTENTIONAL USE Industries with detailed information...6 GROSS PVC PRODUCTION Products with limited information Industries/activities with information gap THE INDUSTRIES OF MERCURY RELEASE FROM UNINTENTIONAL USE Industries with detailed information Industries with limited information Industries with information gap MERCURY IN VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA Atmosphere Soil Living Organisms Comprehensive Data INTEGRATIVE ANALYSIS Typical area Nationwide Comprehensive analysis and evaluation CONCLUSION REFERENCE...30 APPENDIX 1 Industries intentionally using mercury APPENDIX 2 Industries/activities unintentionally using mercury APPENDIX 3 Mercury in different environmental media. 2

3 Abstract This project is in collaboration with the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) of China and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA). The tasks for this project consist of two parts: (1) Collection of various information relating to mercury in China, including policy and legal standards, science research documents, statistics, publications, etc. (2) Analysis and estimation of data for industries mercury use (including discharges of mercury into the environment from intentional and unintentional use) and the environment (i.e. air, water, soil and biology) for China, according to the categorization in the report of Global Mercury Assessment by UNEP. All materials and data were synthesized into three appendices: Appendix 1: Industries intentionally using mercury; Appendix 2: Industries/activities unintentionally using mercury; Appendix 3: mercury in different environmental media. All mercury emission sources listed in GMA can be found in China to some extent. Among them, there are over 10 industries that intentionally use mercury during their production process, and 4 industries/activities that emit mercury unintentionally. The analysis and evaluation of this report categorizes mercury-related industries into three groups, namely good, medium and bad, according to the amount of available and credible information these industries possess regarding mercury use. Comprehensive basic information is available for industries of the good category, including the background for these industries, statistics for consecutive years, and other more sufficient and reliable information. The industries in the good category include PVC, battery, thermometer and sphygmomanometer producers. For industries/activities assigned the medium category, the industries possess some information related to their mercury use, but the integrity and continuity of this information is of lower quality. These industries include florescent light and reagent producers, and coal burning activity. No information is available for industries in the bad category. These industries include automobile, electric switches, cement producers and metallurgical plants. Different environmental media can also be categorized into good, medium and bad, according to the amount of available and credible information. For 3

4 media such as water, which is categorized as good, sufficient background and historical data from routine monitoring have been accumulated. With relatively more literature, scientists can make scientific evaluations on the regional and national levels. For media such as air, which is categorized as medium, neither background nor historical data from routine monitoring have been accumulated. Yet, with relatively more literature, scientists can make partial scientific evaluations on the regional and national levels. For media such as soil and living organisms, which is categorized as bad, there are neither background nor historical data from routine monitoring. Although there is some relevant academic literature, it is not sufficient for making scientific evaluations on the regional and national levels. The data show that, in China, mercury-related information varies rapidly and significately, especially in the intentional use; weaknesses and inconsistencies in the fundamental data collected; and, mercury consumption is influenced deeply by the policy and management. On the base of analysis, it is suggested before carrying out any plans/actions for making release lists or deductions on essential limitations or restrictions, detailed investigations on the historical development, current status and prospects for mercury must be carried out, and the methods for investigation must be harmonized. 4

5 Preface Mercury is confirmed as a global pollutant. It draws close attention from the public, scientists, governments and international organizations. UNEP completed the Global Mercury Assessment at the end of In February 2005, UNEP Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum passed the international action plans for mercury. China s consumption and release of mercury not only affects the health of its people and eco-environment, but also has deep impacts globally. China s Sate Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) and US Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) initially started cooperating in this area with the objective to summarize and analyze China s mercury situation. This report was completed by the Chemical Registration Center of the SEPA of China, with the support of the Pollution Control Department and Foreign Affairs Office of SEPA. From October 2004 to April 2005, all public information concerning mercury in China was collected, including various policies, regulations and standard; scientific research literature; statistics, and other publications. According to Global Mercury Assessment (GMA), mercury discharge sources are divided into: mercury release resulting from intentional and unintentional use; and the key environmental elements are divded into four parts: air, water, soil and living organisms.all data are analyzed and assessed separately. 5

6 China Mercury-related Information Analysis Report 1 Industries consuming mercury for intentional use 1.1 Industrie s with detailed information Basic information for industries consuming mercury is either relatively complete or easy to acquire; mercury utilization techniques and discharge approaches are already well known; and policies, legal standards and laws have been enacted and are well supported. On the other hand, there have been actions and measures taken in the form of policies and legal standards to restrict the mercury use or render it obsolete. The PVC Industry Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) constitutes a vital part of China s manufacturing economy. The demand for PVC in China is high and is predicted to continue at an increasingly rapid rate. The Chinese PVC industry has its own guild with approximately 100 members. The chemical industry publishes an annual yearbook ( CHINA CHEMICAL INDUSTRY YEARBOOK Newsroom, ) with statistical data for each of the sectors. It is clear for the technics route to manufacture vinyl chloride monomers by mercury chloride as a catalyst. It is determined for the method to estimate theoretically the amount of mercury used and the rough range of key parameters. Some case studies are necessary for determining the value of key parameters to assure the accuracy of estimation. 6

7 The first stage of PVC manufacturing which involves a polymerization reaction utilizes mercury chloride as the catalyst. Firstly, acetylene is produced by the hydrolysis of calcium carbide. Next the acetylene is combined with hydrogen chloride to produce chloroethylene or vinyl chloride monomers with the aid mercury chloride as the catalyst for the reaction. Finally, the vinyl chloride monomers are polymerized to produce PVC polymers. The above reactions can be described as: 1)CaC 2 + 2H 2 O??? Ca(OH) 2 + C 2 H 2 2)C 2 H 2 + HCl CH 2 =CHCl 3)n CH 2 =CHCl CH 2 CH n Cl The use of mercury chloride as the catalyst for producing chloroethylene monomer is a well-established process. Gross PVC Production According to the Yearbook statistics, gross PVC resin production(p gross ) between 1990 and 2002 assumed an upward trend, which can be described by the regression equation: (Hao Chun-ling et al., 2005)? P gross =0.1172x r 2 = The ratio of PVC resin produced by the acetylene technics (R) Based on the Yearbook statistical and P gross data, the gross sales of PVC resin produced by the acetylene technics (P acet )can be calculated using the formula: P acet =P gross * R. Despite a decline in ratio of P acet from 1999 to 2001, the general trend for P acet has been upward since 1990, with an especially large increase in From 1990 to 1997, ratio of P acet fluctuated around 67.45% of P gross. This ratio figure declined to 30.19% between 1999 and 2001 but rebounded to 56.70% in Data from other sources suggests that 60% of the reported ratio figures are related to new expenditure for P acet manufacturing projects. Mercury consumption/wastage for unit production (k) 7

8 In theory, a catalyst will not be consumed in a reaction; and therefore, it s quality and chemical properties will not be changed. But in fact, a small amount of the catalystic mercury chloride will be wasted in the reaction and constitute as a contaminant in the waste acid from the production of vinyl chloride. Hence, mercury losses from the production process need be replenished,or substituted by another catalyst or manufacturing process. The amount of mercury consumed for every metric ton of vinyl chlorde produced is so-called mercury consumption for unit production, expressed as k. The distinction between mercury consumption and mercury wastage, is that the former is mercury used and, after production, remained in waste catalyst, contained in waste acid and other wastes (e.g. emissions); the later is only mercury wasted during the production, i.e. excluding mercury remained in the waste catalyst. According to investigations, the rough range of mercury wastage for unit PVC resin manufactured by acetylene technics has been known. Calculation method for mercury consumption/wastage for unit production To estimate the amount of mercury consumption/wastage (V cons/wast ), Hao Chun-ling et al. (2005) utilized the following computing method: V t = P acet, t *k =P gross t *R t *k Where: V t = amount of mercury consumption/wastage in year t (tons) P acet t : yield of PVC resin produced by acetylene technics in year t (tons) P gross t : yield of gross PVC resin production in year t (tons) R t :the ratio of P acet and P gross in year t k : mercury consumption/wastage per unit production Data and information gaps The amount of mercury consumption/wastage from PVC resin production by the acetylene technics, lies in P gross, k and R. However, the following information is unknown: ---- precise amount of PVC resin produced by the acetylene technics; ---- mercury consumption/wastage per unit of production (k) ---- distribution and scales of mercury after consuming, i.e. remained in waste catalyst, contained in waste acid, and released by other path. Approach and feasibility to narrow the gaps At present, there are no technical difficulty to research the current situation. With some financial support, the information gaps above-mentioned can be 8

9 narrowed by increasing the channels of communication with the Chinese PVC industry guild, and some case studies focused to corporations at different scales. Batteries Industry The use of batteries is part of everyday life, and will continue to be more and more for many years. In China, there are about 400 battery-related corporations, and a Batter Industry Guild that maintains a significant influence over the industry. The information of the industry (e.g. quantity, sizes and yields of corporations) is known and the channels of communication between the guild and environmental protection departments are open. In 1995, the annual consumption of mercury in batteries was metric tons. Since, 1997, however, the industry has been initiating the process of low-mercury and mercury-free. There are many legislation and regulations, polices (such as related to the elimination of mercury from products, construction materials and waste batteries, and excluding foreign investment in mercury-utilizing industries), and other related activities. As a result, the consumption of mercury declined significantly, by approximately 106 tons per year by 2000, mercury consumption had fallen to 18.8% of the amount in However, some data and information gaps remain: A) The actual amount of mercury consumption per unit of production has yet to be determined; b) Information on the production and import of button cell batteries are not clear; c) Counterfeit and inferior products increasingly infiltrate the market making it difficult to accurately measure the amount of mercury consumed. Investigations on the above-mentioned products are currently underway and will be completed by first half of The Production of Medical Thermometers In China, there is a guild for industries that produce medical thermometers. The business enterprises that make up the Guild cover all industries related to fever thermometers and sphygmomanometers (The China Association for Medical Devices Industry, 2002). In 2003~2004, China s mercury-containing fever thermometer output was above 90% of total yield, which translates to million fever thermometers. Exports of mercury thermometers, with more than 60% 9

10 produced, exceeded home consumption. In 2003, following Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), the demand for clinical thermometers increased significantly, stimulating the production of mercury thermometers. However, it is forecasted that the mercury-containing fever thermometer industry will diminish with time, as alternatives and substitutes become available and more feasible. The small number of business enterprises and the relatively notable influence of the Guild has aided in the understanding of this downward trend for mercury-containing thermometer use and the collection of data on mercury output and usage. On the whole, the position of mercury industries and the effects on the environment in relation to thermometers are clear. The management of mercury solid wastes (including defective and broken thermometers), conforms to the provisions set, but problems continue to exist in eliminating them from general circulation. In China, the replacement of mercury thermometers with non-mercury is still at the early stages. The replacement is limited by the high cost of substitutes, a lack of knowledge and ability to overcome behavioral attitudes, and an absence of clinic diagnostic standard. (Hao Chun-ling et al., 2005) Within the industry for medical thermometers, the circumstances for sphygmomanometers and thermometers are similar; except, that sphygmomanometers have more specialized and concentrated consumers, fewer producers, and a greater amount for mercury use in terms of unit production. Phase-out production/technology In China, the production/technology, including mercury-based chlor-alkali production, mercury-based gold extraction, insecticides and high mercury batteries etc., has been phase-out or forbidden. Mercury-based chlor-alkali process: As cited in the Provision of the Catalogue of Eliminated Behindhand Production Ability, Craft and Products (the first passel), implemented on 1 February 1999, mercury-based chlor-alkali production should be eliminated immediately. In China, mercury-based chlor-alkali production has been eliminated in large enterprises since in the Catalogue of the Part of Industries Stopping the Low Level Repetition Construction (2004), the mercury-based chlor-alkali process was included as a the forbidden mothod of production. Mercury-based gold extraction: In China, the practice of mercury-based 10

11 gold extraction was phase-out because it belongs an out dated craft. Insecticide: In China, mercury is forbidden used for agrochemicals and for animals as food.. High mercury battery: see one section of Batteries industries". Restrained products Standards exist for cosmetics, indoor furnishing materials (e.g. wooden vessel solvent paints, inside wall coating, wallpaper) and pollutants-free food etc., The Standards restrict the mercury-content in these materials. 1.2 Products with limited information The information available for product types (e.g.electrical lighting, laboratory reagents, etc.)is scattered, disorganized and less reliable. Electrical Lights China is the world s largest manufacturer of electrical lights, and therefore has the potential to introduce substantial new developments to the industry. There is a Guild in the industry. In 2001, the industry consists of more than 500 different business enterprises of variable sizes but not all business enterprises are covered by the guild. Domestic production qualities of electric light products are internationally on par and is nearing or attaining world advanced level. The development target is to build several enterprises to an international level, and change from a big country producing electric light sources into a power one.as this, industry is vital to the national economy growth, it will be placed continuously developed. In China, current production utilizes liquid mercury or the mercury pill to produce the fluorescent lamps and mercury lights. Substitutes are not yet available. The data about the quantity, categories, techniques etc. related to mercury are available; and there is an industry s development plan.( Liang Zhen, 2002) Information gaps: - The mercury consumption for unit product, which is relative to the scale of 11

12 business enterprises, management, product, craft, etc.and changes greatly. - The influence of price and cost to environmental protection, reform of the craft, substitutes for old products, etc. Chemical reagents industries Mercury-containing reagents make up a small proportion of the industry in chemical reagents. Although, there are 300 to 400 mercury-based chemical reagents, only about 30 of them are in common use. There are few mercury producers, and the majority of these are dispersed (except for few provinces, e.g. Guizhou Province). These producers are mostly town and village enterprises running small-scale operations. They are affected by the policy and management requirements set for the industry. Even though there is a guild present, data and statistics for the industry are difficult to acquire. In 2002, investigations were carried out to collect data from the industry(the Petroleum and the Chemistry Industry Programming Academe, 2002). Howenver, the following information is still unclear: - The quantity and regions distribution of business enterprises; - The product categories and yields; - The downstream Industries and their scales of consumption. 1.3 Industries/activities with information gap For certain industries or activities, there is hardly any basic information on the current status. Potentially, there may be some information sources but this will require an investment of time, effort and financial support. For some other industries mentioned in the GMA (i.e. automobiles, electric switches, artisanal gold mining, religious rituals, pigments, tanning, browning and etching steel, color photograph paper, explosives, fireworks, artisanal diamond production, recoil softeners for rifles, bandages, executive toys, running track surfaces and ammunition, etc.) there is basically no information for China. Among these industries or activities, automobiles and electric switches are large industries. Therefore, there may be some background information available, but the information concerning mercury is negligible. Therefore the followings are needed: - To invest time, effort and money to collect any information or data 12

13 available; and - To refer to foreign literature, then search for more specific information in China, especially for the automobile industry, which is developing dramatically in China. The research and survey should start as early as possible. And proper policy or management measure should be implemented rapidly. Artisanal gold mining is illegal in China. Despite its existence, information about it is too hard to gather. As a result, basic information about astisanal gold mining is sparse. 2 The industries/activeties of mercury release from unintentional use According to the GMA report, combined with the practices in China, the mercury emission from unintentional use comes mainly from cement production, sulfuric acid preparation, metallurgy, and as well as coal burning both from industrial activeties (such as coal-fired power plants) and through daily consumption. A common characteristic of the three industries above-mentioned is their grand scales with numerous enterprises of varying sizes, and their own guilds. The background information about the industries can be acquired comparatively easily. The amount of data and information available concerning mercury is the important impact factor. 2.1 Industrie s with detailed information Coal combustion The GMA report shows that coal combustion is the most important and the primary source of mercury emissions. Coal is China s primary energy source. The combustion of coal has led to environmental degradation in the form of SO 2 pollution and acid rain, which the Chinese government is dedicated to eradicating; and alongside mercury contamination to the land, air and water. There has already been a great deal of scientific research literatures on mercury emission from coal combustion. 13

14 (Jing Zhi-yan, 1992; Feng Xin-bin, Hong Ye -yang, 1996; Wang Qi-chao et al, 1997, 1999, 2001; SEPA, 2001; Qu Li-ya, 2004; Zhou Jin-song et al, 2004) Among them, there are some researches on the national scale with qualitative conclusions which provide a scientific support for policy-makers Many types of coal are present in China due to its large geographical coverage. The data is limited by the inconsistencies in the methodology, which has affected the outcome and application of suitable and feasible mitigation techniques. 2.2 Industrie s with limited information Sulfuric acid production industry The wastewater discharging standard for mercury in this industry has been well established and implemented. Some techniques processes and low level repetition construction in the industry are banned or controlled by the government. At the end of the 1990 s, comprehensive research and data was collected for mercury release from this industry (SEPA, 2001). In Addition, little scattered literatures, including mercury concentration in sulfide ore (Liang Hui-feng, 1998), mercury treatment methods for waste water (Hu Chu-yun, 2002), techniques to eliminate mercury (Zhou Kai-zu, 1992; Dong Feng-ku, 1993; Ma Zhuang, 2004; Yang Rei, 2004) and mercury contaminated sulfuric acid. (Ling Huifeng, 1998; Liu Qi, 2001). Sulfuric acid is a vital component of China s manufacturing industry. Once contaminated with mercury, it will contaminate products arising from the production and usage of this acid in its downstream users(liang Hui-feng, 1998; Liu Qi, 2001). Therefore, efforts to retain to resolve the problem rising from the mercury pollution in sulfuric acid manufacture should be one with main priority. 2.3 Industrie s with information gaps At the end of the 1990 s, a comprehensive research was carried out and data was collected for mercury release from non-ferrous metal refining (SEPA, 2001) The imformaiton released on mercury includes several aspects such as, cement production, the smelting of iron, steel and iron-manganese alloying within the metallurgy industry; emission standards or the policy of eliminating 14

15 inefficient production capacities or crafts eradicating mercury from scattered l lead-zinc smelters (Dong Si-lu, 1997), and a research report on hydrargyrism and its provention in a workplace (Zhang Man-li; Li Xue-da, 2002). There is basically no other information abavilable concerning mercury. 3 Mercury in various environmental media Mercury is released into the environment through various natural processes and human activities. This report discusses the issues related to the anthropogenic release of mercury into the environment. 3.1 Atmosphere Among all human activities, coal-burning is considered to release the most mercury into the atmosphere. This is discussed in detail in section 2.1. Standards Atmospheric mercury is not yet listed as a routinely monitored item in China. In residential areas, comprehensive standards for air pollutants emissions and highest allowance limits for air hazardous substances include mercury. The standards for the incineration of household and hazardous waste stipulate that mercury emissions should be controlled. In the standards, there are restrictions for mercury pollutant emissions and for the release of harmful pollutants from industrial furnaces (including metal melting pots). The emission standards set different limits, with stricter standards imposed on furnaces and kilns built after 1 January 1997, to take into consideration the differences between old and new equipments. Research According to the currently collected materials, the researches on mercury in air are concentrated in its elemental forms, distribution and polluting characteristics(chen Le-yi & Zhang Xiao-shan 1999; Fang Feng-man & Wang Qi-chao 2001; Wang Wen-hua & Liu Jun-hua 2002; Xiu Guang-li et al.2003; Zhao Tian-qiao et al.2003; Shang Li-hai et al.2003; Wang Zhang-wei et al.2004, 2005), mercury precipitation(tan Hong & He Jin-lin 1997, 1999; Tan Hong & Liang Lian 2000; Liu Jun-hua et al.2001; Qiu Guang-le & Feng Xin-bin 2003), flux(fang Feng-man et al 2001), influential factors(fang Feng-man & Wang Qi-chao 2001), and analytical methods(feng Xin-bin 2003), etc. The surveyed sites cover Beijing City (Chen Le-yi & Carl R.J. 2000; 15

16 Liu Jun-hua et al.2001; Wang Wen-hua & Liu Jun-hua 2002; Wang Zhang-wei et al.2004); Chongqing City (Wang Ding-yong & Li Xiao-hua 1996); Guizhou Province (Tan Hong & Liang Lian 2000), which includes Guiyang City (Shang Li-hai et al.2003), Hongfeng Lake Area(Wang Shao-feng 2004), Fanjing Mountain Natural Reserve(Ke Jin-lin & Tan Hong 1999), Chuangchun City (Fang Feng-man et al.2001; Fang Feng-man & Wang Qi-chao 2001), and Hohhot City (Zhao Tian-jiao et al.2003). 3.2 Water Among all the environment elements, the information for mercury in water is the most comprehensive. Firstly, there is adequate background information available on mercury for various major water systems in China. (SEPA 1993a; b; Zhang Licheng et al. 1996). Mercury is a regularly monitored component for water quality. Therefore, national historic data and information for mercury is comprehensive and continuous. Secondly, there are more indicators for water quality monitoring. Thirdly, there are more research literatures, including both regional research and fundamental research. Owing to the abundant information on mercury in water and its contribution to environment protection, mercury once became one of the twelve controlled pollution indices nationwide. Standard Mercury monitoring for water covers two aspects: environmental quality and pollutant emission. Environmental quality standards for surface water, ground water, seawater, fishery water, and irrigation water have been released and implemented. In respect to pollutant emission, there are comprehensive control standards for sewage water and sewage marine disposal. In addition, there are technical requirements for the burning medical garbage, standards for sewage water treatment in urban areas, pollutant disposal from alkali and PVC production plants and other industries. Scientific Research The research fields are concentrated on survey and assessment of the current pollution situation (Li Ting-hui 1991; Wen Yu-fang 1994; Zhang Qi-xian et al.1994; Ren Yong & Zhang Bao-ping 1996; Diao Wei-ping et al.2004), forms and distribution characteristics (Yang Wei-li et al. 1982; Hao 16

17 Xiao-di 1992; Chai Song-fang 1998; Yang Wen-jin 2001; Jiang Hong-mei et al. 2004; Hou Ya-min et al. 2004), biogeochemical features and cycle (Zeng Shao-hua 1998; Yang Wen-jin 2001; Yan Hai-yu 2003), capacity model(liu Fen et al. 2002), sources (Wang Wen-hua et al. 2001), flux (Liu Qi 1999; Sun Xiang-tong et al..2001), prevention techniques (Liu Yong-mao 2000), and analytical methods (Shi Wei & Wang Bing-wu 1992; Xiong Zheng-jie 1999). The surveyed sites were in the Guizhou Province, which included Baihua Lake and catchment (Zhang Wei 2000; Hou Yamin et al. 2004) and Hong Feng Lake area (Sun Xiang-tong et al. 2001), Liaoning Province (Liang Hui-feng 1998), Taiyuan Basin, acidic precipitation area (Yan Hai-yu 2003); several major water systems, which includes the four river mouths in the North, namely Daliaohe River, Ya lujiang River, Luanhe River and Dongcunhe River (Liu Su-mei 2001), (Chen Jing-sheng & Liu Yuji 1993; Liu Qi & Fu Guo-wei 1999), Songhuangjiang River (Liu Yong-mao et al.1998; Su Hua & Liu Wei 2002; Qu Ping-yang 2004; Zhang Xin-yu 2004), the second Songhuajiang River (Jilin-Fuyu Section), Songhua Lake (Wang Ning & Zhu Yan-ming 2000), Yellow River (Deng Rui-wen & Xu Yufen 1983), Wujiang River Catchment (Jiang Hong-mei et al. 2004), upper reaches of the Wujiang River, (Li Ting-hui 1991), lower reaches of Wujiang River (Wen Yu-fang 1994), Min-Tuo Rivers (Wen Yu-fang & Liao Ji 1991), Xiangjiang River (Rao Li-li & Zhang Shen 1982; Jin Xiangcan et al. 1987; Liu Fen et al. 2002), reservoir area of the Three Gorges Dam (Xu Xiao-qing & Qiu Chang-qiang 1999), areas of the middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River (Zeng Zhao-hua 1998), Yangtze River Mouth (Chen Ze-ling 1992), Tingzikou Resrvoir Area (Ren Yong & Zhang Bao-ping 1996), and Zhujiang River (Wu Jian-zhong & Huang Ai-zhu 1997). The research area also covers marine area, such as Bohai Sea (Zhang Xiao-lin 2001), Seashore along Jinzhou City (Wang Dong-mei & Feng Jun 2001), Jiaozhou Bay (Chai Song-fang 1998), sea area adjacent to the Yangtze River Mouth, the inshore of Hong Kong, north part of Beibu Bay, (Qiu Li-sheng 1988), and sediment like Second Songhuanjiang River (Zhang Qixian et al. 1994), Yalu River mouth, Tai Lake (Zhang Yuping & Qu Wenchuan 2001), Yangtze River at the Reservoir of the Three Gorges Dam (Xu Xiaoqing & Deng Guanqiang 1999), Xiangjiang River, and the inshore area of Hong Kong (Gao Jie et al. 2004). 3.3 Soil The information concerning mercury in soil is as follows: Background data is available for the whole of China (China National Environmental Monitoring Center 1994); A number of environment standards for soil have been 17

18 established and implemented; No regular monitoring exists for mercury in soil; Even though literature on mercury may be abundant, it is not systematic and lacks of large-scale research; and is therefore, inadequate for the basis of decision-making for the region or the nation. Standards Currently, the national standards established and implemented include: Environmental quality standard for soils; Standard for pollution control on the security landfill site for hazardous wastes; Standard for pollution control on the landfill site for domestic waste; Control standards for urban wastes for agricultural use; Control standards for pollutants in sludges from agricultural use; Control standards of pollutants in fly ash for agricultural use; and, Discharge standard of pollutants for municipal wastewater treatment plant. Scientific research Research content Since the 1980s, Chinese scientists have conducted comprehensive research in the field of mercury in soil, which covers soil background values for the nation (Chinese National Environmental Monitoring Center 1994) and specific areas (Wang Ya -ge et al. 1983; Li Chun-lan & Xu Qian 1987; Wang Xin 1992; Zhang Mei-qin 1992), environmental capacity (Xiong Xian-zhe et al. 1988); pollution evaluation (Wang He-cai & Xia Hong 2003); pollution prevention and treatment (Guo Cui-hua & Zhang Hong 2000); recovery of contaminated soil (Wang Xin 1994; Qu Liya 2004), prevention strategy (Dai Qianjin et al. 2002); mercury emission flux (Fang Fengman & Wang Qichao 2004); distribution characteristics and influential factors (Liu Ruhai et al.2003); transport of mercury (Tang Qing-he et al.2003), geochemical behavior (Dai Qian-jin et al.2002); geochemical characteristics (Liu Ru-hai et al.2002); mercury species (Liu Jun-hua & Wang Wen-hua 1997); activity of the soil enzyme (He Xiang-wen et al.2001, 2002); and analytical methods (Zhou Jun & Zhou Jian 1997; Chen Su-lan& Chen Wei-bing 1999; Dong Wen-guang et al.2002). Soil/Land types The types of surveyed soil/land include Red Soil (Luo Zhi-gang et al.1996), Brown Soil in meadows (Xiong Xian Zhe et al.1988), wetland in Sanjiang Plain (Liu Ru-hai et al.2003), the ecosystems of sphagnum marsh land (Liu Ru-hai et al.2002), cropland soil (Cheng Ying et 18

19 al.2002), land irrigated with polluted water (Zhang Naiming 2001), cropland ecosystems (Guo Cui-hua & Zhang Hong 2000), landfills (Tang Qing-he et al.2003), swelling soil (Jin Hui & Fu Jiang 1999), surface soil (Liu Jun-hua & Wang Wen-hua 1997; Guo Cui-hua & Shi Jun-hua 1996). Areas The researched areas include Beijing City (Wang Ya-ping et al.2004), Shanghai City (Wang Ya -ge et al.1983), Small Xing anling Mountains (Liu Ru-hai et al.2002), Sanjiang Plain (Liu Ru-hai et al.2003), Wulihe, Huludao City (Zhao Lian-di & Yan Hui-fen 1997), Dalian City (Wang Xin 1992), Taiyuan City (Guo Cui-hua & Shi Jun-hua 1996; Zhang Nai-ming et al.2001; Wang Ying-gang et al.2003), Tibet (Zhang Xiao-ping & Zhu Yan-ming 1994), Suzhou City (Wang He-cai & Xia Hong 2003), Anhui Province (Zhang Mei-qin 1992), Chengdu City (Yao Xue-liang & Liao Yuan an 2002), Guilin City (Qian Jian-ping & Zhang Li 2000), Nanning City (Li Jun-fang 1999), Shenzhen City (Tao Shu et al.1993), area in South China areas (You Zhi-lin & Luo Zhi-gang 1996), and heavy industrial cities (Guo Cuihua & Zhanghong 2000), etc. 3.4 Living Organisms As mercury can easily be accumulated in living organisms, close attention has been paid to the bioaccumulation of mercury up the food chain, especially for aquatic orgnisms. Data in this respect has two characteristics: - Hygiene standards exist for mercury in food products, such as for meat, eggs, dairy, crops, vegetables, fruits, dry mushrooms, aquatic products (fishes in marine or freshwater, shrimp, prawn) and canned foods. - Information for mercury in wild edible aquatic products is very limited; and, the monitoring of mercury concentration in wild fish sold at markets is rare. In terms of mercury accumulation in fish, Zhang Ming-shi and Wang Ai=min (1991) surveyed the aquatic species for methylmercury contamination in the upper reach of Wujiang River; Yu Chang-rong (1992) conducted research on the conversion of elemental mercury into methylmercury in fish; Zhang Ping-qing (1993) researched on the impacts and the trend of mercury on commercial fish stock in the Ningxia section of Yellow River in 1980s; Yu Chang-rong et al. (1994) researched on the general situation of mercury-contaminating fish in Songhuajiang River and predicted the trend of mercury or methylmercury pollution in the fish; Liu Yong-mao et al. (2004) researched on the bioaccumulation of methylmercury in fish inhabiting in Songhuajiang River, and the influencing factors; Feng Dan et al. (2004) investigated the current situation of the mercury contamination fish inhabiting in the Harbin Section of Songhuajiang River; Lu Ling and Chen Hua (2000) 19

20 analyzed the level of mercury contained in several species of fish in Songhuajiang River; Lu Yan-sheng and Shang Fu-quan (2000) and Yan Sheng et al. (1999) surveyed and analyzed mercury accumulation in fish inhabiting in the mainstream of Songhuanjiang river; Yang Hai-sheng and Liu Zhong-xian (2000) surveyed the average level of mercury amount contained in cultivated fish in Mudanjiang City; Gu Yong-he and Liao Li-ling (1998) investigated mercury caccumulation in fish inhabiting in the upper reaches of Wujiang River; Ye Fen-xia (2002) surveyed the current situation of mercury pollution to the marine products of Ninbo area; Xu Xiao-qing and Zhang Xiao-hua (1998) predicted the impacts of the bioavailability of mercury on fish inhabiting in the Three Gorges Reservoir; Xu Xiao-qing and Qiu Chang-qiang (1998) predicted the bioaccumulation of mercury in fish inhabiting the reservoir; Jin Li-jun and Xu Xiao-qing (1997) researched on the distribution of methylmercury in fish inhabiting the Three Gorges Reservoir; Liu Yu-mei (1999) analyzed the source of mercury in reservoir fish; Dong Ke-yu and Lin Chun-ye (1998) the laws of how mercury bio-accumulates and remains in of four types of fish; Huang Hongyu and Xu Yuesheng (1998) monitored the mercury pollution occurring in water produces in Zhuhai City; Xu Xiao-qing and Qu Changqiang (1998) researched on the composition of different elements in carp, which inhabited in the rivers and reservoirs of the Yangtze River catchment; Zhang Hui-ying and Ni Ze-cheng (1997) surveyed the pollution of some pools and mercury-contaminating fish in Yinchuan area. 3.5 Comprehensive Data Comprehensive data is also available besides the single environmental medium, i.e. air, water, soil and living organisms. Pollution source Liu Jun-hua and Wang Wen-hua (2000) conducted research on the pollution pollution sources for two major industrial districts of Beijing. Yao Xue-liang and Yang De-fen (1999, 2000) analyzed the mercury pollution sources in Chengdu Plain. Zhang Lei et al. (2004) researched mercury pollution in some Chinese cities, and the correspondent prevention and treatment strategies. Flux The flux of mercury between different media is a research field that is important not only to the study of the environmental impact of mercury, but also for correspondent environmental policy. Feng Xin-bin et al. (2002) researched the exchange flux of mercury vapor at the interface between natural water bodies and atmosphere in summer time. Wang Shao-feng et al. 20

21 (2004) researched the exchange flux of mercury between the soil and atmosphere, and the influential factors in Lanmuchang mercury mine, Guizhou Province. Li Huabin and Wang Wen-hua (2000) researched the exchange flux of methylmercury at the interfaces of atmosphere, water and soil. Ouyang Shu and Liu De-chao (1998) surveyed the mercury pollution in upland soil-vegetation system. Feng Man and Wang Qi-chao (2002) summarized the methodology for research on mercury exchange at the interfaces of atmosphere, water, and soil. Regional Level Aimed at the mercury pollution resulting from gold mining by amalgamation method, Dai Qianjin and Feng Xin-bin (2004) summarized the progress with regards to the research in this field. In China, acidic precipitation areas make up a large proportion of the country. Moreover, there are overlaps of acidic precipitation areas and mercury-polluted areas. Mu Shu-sen (1992) researched mercury pollution occurring in the soil-vegetable system in some acidic precipitation areas. Wang Ding-yong and Mu Shu-sen (1999) surveyed and researched the cumulative impacts of mercury on the soil-vegetation system in some acidic precipitation areas. Mercury mining has incurred regional environmental problems. Ding Zhen-hua et al. (2004) researched the impacts of mercury pollution on regional ecosystems for Wanshan Mercury mine in Guizhou Province. Huang Ya -li (1999) analyzed the concentrations of some toxic elements, including mercury, existing in the environment of the Xining area, and proposed correspondent prevention and treatment strategies. Lu Xin-wei (2003) researched the health problems occurring in some mercury mines in the area between Guizhou Province and Hunan Province. Wang Xian-guo et al. (2004) researched the environmental geological problems including mercury pollution in Pingdingshan mining area, and proposed correspondent prevention and treatment strategies. Methylmercury Wang Shu-hai et al. (1983) researched the pollution features of methylmercury in the second Songhuajiang River. Su Hua and Liu Wei (2002) conducted theoretical analysis on the hazards of methylmercury in the Songhuajiang River. Liu Yong-mao and Qu Ping-yang (1998) surveyed and researched the environmental parameters of methylmercury. Liu Yong-mao (1999) researched the safe threshold levels of methylmercury and its ecological impacts, prevention and treatment of methylmercury. Liu Yong-mao (2000) proposed a technological and managerial strategy with 21

22 regards to the prevention and treatment of methylmercury in rivers and lakes. Li Hua-bin and Wang Wen-hua researched the exchange flux of methylmercury at the interfaces of the atmosphere, water and soil. Zhang Xin-yu (2004) reviewed the transformation of the mercury pollutant into methylmercury in the Songhuajiang River. Li Yong-mei (1998) researched the methodology for measuring methylmercury in the environment. In addition, for the heath aspect of methylmercury, Pan Yun-zhou (1982) researched methylmercury poisoning in the areas adjacent to the Songhuajiang River. Liu Qi-zhong and Huang Chun-ying (1986) determined the benchmark data for organic mercury, inorganic mercury and total mercury using the hair of healthy Cantonese adults. Qu Ping-yang et al. (1991) researched the amount of methylmercury contained in people living along the Songhuajiang River. Hou Tie-ning et al. (1994) conducted a clinical survey and analysis of fishing populations affected by methylmercury pollution in the Songhuajiang River. Wu Shi-an et al. (1994) conducted environmental epidemiological research on the hazards of methylmercury pollution in the Songhuajiang River. Lin Xiu-wu (1995) summarized the research results with regards to the health impacts of methylmercury pollution on fishing populations in the area of the Second Songhuajiang River over the past 20 years. With aspect to aquatic species, Zhang Ming-shi and Wang Ai-min (1991) conducted a survey on methylmercury contained in aquatic species, which inhabit the upper reaches of Wujiang River. Yu Chang-rong (1992) researched on the conversion of inorganic mercury into methylmercury. Yu Chang-rong et al. (1994) predicted the trend of methylmercury pollution and the total mercury contained in fish in the Songhuajiang River. Liu Yong-mao and Qu Ping-yang (1996) researched on the biomagnification with regards to bioaccumulation of methylmercury in aquatic species. Jin Li-jun and Xu Xiao-qing (1997) conducted research on the distribution of methylmercury in surface water and fish in the Three Gorge Reservoir. 4 Integrative analysis 4.1 Typical area In China, there are several typical areas concerning mercury-polluted and correspondent accumulated information. Songhuajiang River 22

23 The mercury pollution of the Songhuajiang River is one of the earliest environmental problems in China. The initial research and treatment of the river was regarded as the beginning of environmental science and environmental protection in China. Over many years, scientists have systematically researched, monitored, and assessed methylmercury pollution; the law of transmission and the impacts of methylmercury in the environment; the forecast for the trend of mercury and methylmercury pollution; and the prevention and treatment strategies integrated to eliminate mercury pollution (Wang Shu-hai et al.1983; Liu Yong-mao & Qu Pingyang 1998; Liu Yong-mao 1999; Su Hua & Liu Wei 2002). Researches on the quality standards for methylmercury in surface water have also been completed (Liu Yong-mao 1999). Based on the researches on the conversion of inorganic mercury into methylmercury in fish (Yu Chang-rong 1992), Yu Chang-rong et al. (1994)predicted the trend in the total mercury content of fish and methylmercury pollution in the Songhuajiang River. In addition, assessments have also been performed on how the residents living along the Songhuajiang River have been impacted by mercury in different years (Pan Yun-zhou 1982; Qu Ping-yang et al.1991; Hou Tie-ning et al.1994; Wu Shi-an et al.1994; Lin Xiu-wu 1995). Over 20 years of control and treatment, the level of pollution in the Songhuajiang River has been reduced significantly. Guizhou Province As a region accommodating the major mercury mines and with high mercury background values, Guizhou holds ample and systematic mercury-related information. The information includes the situation of mercury mines, especially the impacts of amalgamation process on water, air, soil, crops, ecosystems and humans,and the reclamation of the land in obsolete mercury mines, etc. Researches were also conducted in fields such as the exchange flux of mercury vapor at the interface between soil and atmosphere in the mercury mine areas and their influential factors (Wang Shao-feng et al.2004); the comparison of the exchange flux of mercury at the interface between soil and atmosphere in warm and cold seasons in the Hongfeng Lake area (Wang Shao-feng et al.2004); the species distribution of gaseous mercury in the atmosphere above Guiyang City (Shang Li-hai et al.2003), the atmospheric mercury deposition in Guizhou (Tan Hong & Liang Lian 2000); the flux and wet/dry deposition of atmospheric mercury in mercury mine areas (Tan Hong & He Jin-lin 1999); the deposition of atmospheric mercury in Fanjing Mountain Nature Reserve (He Jin-lin & Tan Hong 1999); the environmental impacts of mercury pollution generated from organic chemical plants (Qu Li-ya 1999); the mercury pollution and its environmental impacts in Wanshan mercury mine area (Ding Zhen-hua et al.2004); mercury contained in the hear of people who live in mercury-polluted areas (Liu Li et al.2003), the prevention and treatment of mercury pollution, and ecological restoration in 23

24 Guizhou Province (Qu Li-ya 2002); and amendment of mercury contaminated soil (Qu Li-ya 2004). Moreover, a monograph (Qu Li-ya 2004) systematically address the prevention and treatment of mercury pollution in Guizhou, which covers the natural environment; mineral resources in the province; mercury emissions from some typical mercury mines; typical model of mercury emission from coal burning; mercury pollution from the chemicals industry; the features and impacts of mercury pollution in the province; and corresponding prevention and treatment strategies. Besides the pollution resulting from the exploitation of mercury mines, literatures show that majority of pollution comes from the burning of coal that is high in mercury. The average mercury content of this coal is higher than the national average (SEPA 2001). Research on mercury continues in the province. Three Gorges Reservoir The Three Gorges Reservoir is adjacent to the Wuling mountainous area which extends into the Hunan Province, Hubei Province, Sichuan Province and Guizhou Province and is a typical area in China with high mercury background values. In 1990, some researches were conducted for the Three Gorges Reservoir with a large amount of data collected. The researchers investigated the current status of mercury pollution in the Reservoir area; the sources of mercury pollution (mercury mines and coal burning); and, the coverage of the resulting pollution. The researchers also documented the characteristics of the mercury pollution, especially the activation effects of mercury in the reservoir. A formula was deduced from the results to estimate the accumulation of mercury in fish. It was observed, after the reservoir stores up water, the activation effect of mercury enhances. Thus the accumulation of mercury in fish intensifies. There is a possibility that the mercury accumulating in fish will exceed the safety level, especially in the lower reaches of the Wujiang River. In fact, the possibility of exceeding the safety level has already passed the alert stage. Considering the origins and level of mercury pollution in the Reservoir, the situation will be worse after the dam is built. The branches on the south bank of the dam, west of the Wujiang River are already facing serious mercury pollution. (SEPA, 2001) Researches were concentrated on predicting the influence of the activation effet of mercury, and the mercury content of fish in dams (Xu Xiao-qing & Zhang Xiao-hua 1999); methylmercury distribution in surface water and fish in the reservoir area (Jin Li-jun & Xu Xiao-qing 1997); the mercury distribution in the coal, soil and sediment in the reservoir area (Jin Li-jun & Xu Xiao-qing 1997); the pollution features of heavy metals in the sediment of the reservoir 24

25 (Xu Xiao-qing & Deng Guan-qiang 1999); the chemical-ecological effects of mercury pollution in the reservoir area (Xu Xiao-qing & Qu Chang-qiang 1999); the of the non-linear and delayed environmental effects in the reservoir area; and the correspondending strategies (Xu Xiao-qing et al.2002). 4.2 Nationwide From 1996 to 1998, the Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS) conducted research on the prevention and control for mercury pollution, which is a commitment under one of the National Ninth Five-Year Programs for environmental protection. The research was the first of its kind to compile a list for industries in China that consume mercury, and proposed the control of mercury use and release. It also provided a detailed study of the characteristics, quantities released and direction of mercury released for various industries; and, a solid scientific foundation for studying the trend of mercury pollution in China. (SEPA, 2001). In 2002, to enhance the management to industries addressing mercury, The SEPA and the former State Economic and Industries Commission worked together to carry out nationwide surveys on the consumption of mercury in the chemicals industry (e.g. PVC and reagents), light industry (including batteries and electric light sources), gold refining, and medical instruments and materials (e.g. fever thermometers, sphygmomanometers and dental materials). The surveys also involved the operations of various environmental protection facilities, the disposal of mercury-containing waste and the development and application of mercury-containing substitutes. The surveys and research helped to determine the demand for mercury in the four industries, the status quo for environmental protection, and the development, and applications of mercury substitutes (Research on the Application of Mercury Chemicals in Mercury Industries by the Environmental Science Research Institute of Guizhou Province). However, the research and surveys did not cover the volume of mercury released, and the industries included were not as many as the research performed in by CAS. There were also other nationwide researches and surveys. Jian Xiao-dong et al.(2004) determined the status quo and studied the prevention of mercury pollution, from the perspectives of production, import, atmosphere and several large water systems. Shen Ying-wa and Jian Xiao-dong (2004) discussed eliminating mercury consumption in China. 25