EFFECTIVE HUMANITARIAN LEADERSHIP IN SUDAN

Transcription

1 York St John UriiversitLj EFFECTIVE HUMANITARIAN LEADERSHIP IN SUDAN Beyond conventionl pths, behviours nd competencies Crine Jonckheere

2 "I declre tht I, Crine Jonckheere, m the sole uthor of this ssignment nd the work is result of my own investigtions, except where otherwise stted. All references hve been duly cited" July 2014 Crine Jonckheere 2014 This mteril is copyright of the uthor. It is reproduced here by permission. Further reproduction without the explicit permission of the uthor is prohibited. If you re citing this work, plese refer to it s: Crine Jonckheere 2014 Effective humnitrin ledership in Sudn: Beyond conventionl pths, behviours nd competencies, Disserttion submitted for the wrd of MA Leding Innovtion nd Chnge; York St John University

3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This is to express my ernest pprecition to Dr Pul Dvis for his outstnding guidnce nd unwvering enthusism throughout this Disserttion process. I lso would like to thnk the MALIC tems both in York nd Zurich for rendering such qulity in lerning. My specil thnks go to Dr Rdu Negoescu for his constnt support nd encourgements, nd to Dr Roy Dmryfor his bility to mke us see nd serch further. A specil thnks to Dr Peter Scott Morgn who hs brodened my understnding on leding for innovtion nd chnge through his insightful nd prcticl perspectives, enbling me to nswer mny of my "whys" nd "hows". Finlly, to my mn for his systemic contributions, ptience nd support, nd to my mother for her inspired reviews of my numerous drfts nd finls, thnk you both so much. 3

4 ABSTRACT Tody, rdicl chnges re occurring in the humnitrin sector. The dominnce of protrcted nd domestic conflict-bsed crises in Muslim-mjority countries is creting n entirely new humnitrin lndscpe tht infringes on stndrd relief ssistnce procedures. More so, it lters the very definition of the overll im nd boundries of humnitrin id (Hyder, 2007; Aly, 2014). Whilst this new humnitrin lndscpe is extensively studied, the nlysis of its impct on humnitrin ledership fils to pper in the relted reserch. Similrly, the numerous enquiries tht seek to uncover n effective humnitrin ledership model scrcely integrte this new contextul relity (Angus & McNicoll, 2012; Buchnn-Smith & Scriven, 2011). To dte, the bridge between the new humnitrin frme nd the core ledership competencies required to fce it hs not been built. This reserch therefore seeks to uncover the ledership competencies nd skills required to led n effective relief intervention in Sudn, defined s one of the most prolonged nd complex domestic crises of the 21 st century to dte (Buston & Smith, 2014). The reserch is built on two distinctive propositions. The first proposition outlines the situtionl strength of Sudn, estblishing the level of influence this context hs on ledership mechnisms nd behviours. The second proposition nlyses the efficient ledership behviours used by leders in this context, so s to trnslte them into the skills nd competencies recognized in secondry reserch. The disserttion pplied the reserch philosophy of methodologicl prgmtism to explore this issue, due to its prcticl nd constructive nture. The pproch ws inductive nd explortory s it serched for unknown nswers of vlue to leders operting in distinctive frmework. The reserch ws constructed on q ulittive design, using the multi-cse study strtegy. The dt collection nd dt nlysis were bsed on methods dpted to the different smple popultions nd reserch phses, entiling multi-levelled dt nlysis. This process enbled tringulted vlidtion of the findings. The reserch findings, combined with the literture review, highlight tht effective ledership in Sudn reltes not only to wht leders do, but lso to who these leders re. Contrsting with the intrepid humnitrin sviour, effective leders in Sudn re systemic thinkers deeply embedded in their context, who cn cretively nd grdully trnscend brriers nd constrints. Built on extensive knowledge nd cognitive cpbilities, their credibility is expressed through b ehviourl flexibility tht enbles the mngement of multifceted tensions, leding the orgniztion nd its stkeholders towrds common gol. 4

5 Tble of Contents ABSTRACT 4 GLOSSARY 7 CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 8 Generl context 8 Problem definition 8 Reserch question nd objectives 9 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 11 LEADERSHIP IN CONTEXT: Criticl review nd gp nlysis 11 Ledership in its orgniztionl context: A leder-follower reltionship: 12 Ledership in its externl environment: A strtegic reltionship 13 Contextul ledership: 15 LEADING IN CONTEXT: A mtter of uthentic flexibility 15 Constrining contexts: 17 Situtionl strength: How the context impcts uthentic flexibility 17 THE HUMANITARIAN CONTEXT: A strenuous nd nebulous lndscpe 18 HUMANITARIAN LEADERSHIP: From inclusive expecttions to contextul needs 21 CONCLUSION 23 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 25 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY: 25 RESEARCH DESIGN 27 Reserch strtegy: 27 Reserch method: 27 DATA ANALYSIS 32 Phse 1: Contextul nlysis 32 Phse 2: Anlysis of dt on behviours nd coping mechnisms 33 RESEARCH ETHICS: 35 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS 35 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS 36 PHASE 1: The situtionl strength of Sudn 36 Clrity of the work-relted requirements 36 Consistency between the different work-relted requirements 37 Constrining forces of work-relted requirement 37 Consequence of constrints on results 38 5

6 Conclusion 39 PHASE 2: Effective mechnisms nd behviours used by leders in Sudn 39 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 45 RECOMMENDATIONS 51 REFLECTION ON THE DISSERTATION PROCESS 52 Bibliogrphy 53 ANNEXES 64 ANNEX 1: Proctive Influence Tctics 65 ANNEX 2: Humnitrin Principles 66 ANNEX 3: Situtionl Strength Dt Compiltion 67 ANNEX 4: Behviours nd Mechnisms Dt Compiltion 73 6

7 GLOSSARY ALNAP: Active Lerning Network for Accountbility nd Performnce in Humnitrin Action ECHO: Europen Community Humnitrin Aid Deprtment GHA: HAC: IASC: ICC: IHL: Globl Humnitrin Assistnce Humnitrin Aid Commission of Sudn Inter-Agency Stnding Committee on humnitrin ffirs Interntionl Criminl Court Interntionl Humnitrin Lw INGOs: Interntionl Non-Governmentl Orgniztions IRIN: Integrted Regionl Informtion Network Remote Mngement Progrmming: progrmmtic responsibilities to locl stff or locl prtners The prctice of withdrwing interntionl stff nd trnsferring SDC: Swiss Agency for Development nd Coopertion 7

8 CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION Generl context Sudn is bewildering working environment. The intriccy of its conflict (Shlin, et l. ( 2012), the unpredictble movement of rmed forces, the constnt emergence of predicments nd the thret to humnitrin workers (ICC, 2013) keep leders on edge. The complexity of Sudn is incresed by musculr governmentl sovereignty on dministrtive nd opertionl decision-mking processes tht re regulted by strict joint-procedures policies (SDC, 2 012). This influence compels orgniztions to develop conformist strtegies (HAC, 2013) nd perform with limited pool of competent stff 1 - be they ntionl or exptrites-, within tightly controlled opertionl window tht frmes progrms in restricted uthorized fields of intervention, whilst denying ccess to distressed res (SDC, 2012). As typiclly found in protrcted crises, the humnitrin setting of Sudn requires both emergency nd development responses. Whilst these different types of interventions demnd distinct ledership skills nd competencies, humnitrin leders in Sudn re expected to perform in n integrted nd multifceted opertionl pltform (Hrmer & Mcre, 2004). The contextul complexity fced by humnitrin leders operting in Sudn is, by no mens, unique (Amstrong, et l., 2014). Rther, the brod reserch into this issue shows tht such contexts re becoming norm. It entils tht the humnitrin sector needs to ssimilte this new prdigm in wy tht provides prcticl responses on the best opertionl pproches. Also, the probbility tht this opertionl frmework requires specific ledership bilities needs to be explored in order to understnd how humnitrin leders re to operte effectively within such context. Problem definition Indequte ledership performnce is defined s one of the principl hindrnces to the efficiency of humnitrin interventions (Tylor, et l., 2012; Hiley, 2006; Buchnn-Smith & Scriven, 2011). Attempts to identify pproprite ledership formts hve been t the center of studies during the lst decde. The extensive rnge of demnding nd often contrdictory skills, competencies nd behviours recommended by these reserches ultimtely yields rther nebulous blueprint of wht constitutes effective humnitrin ledership. 1 Ntionl stff re selected nd recruited by ntionl systems - the procedures to employ exptrite stff re considerbly intense, lengthy nd difficult. 8

9 Whilst Hley (2006) sttes tht the effectiveness of humnitrin leders is "in prt determined by the environment in which they work" (p. 8), reserch into the skills nd competencies of humnitrin leders hs not yet integrted the new lndscpe in which these individuls evolve. Considering the pervsive nture of this trend, it becomes urgent to retckle the reserch into humnitrin ledership so s to provide humnitrin leders with prcticl cues on their working environment nd on the pproprite ledership behviours nd skills required to perform effectively. As Sudn offers n exmple of this new humnitrin environment, this reserch proposes to explore its relity nd define the pproprite ledership behviours nd skills required to work efficiently in this specific context. Reserch question nd objectives The underlying reserch question posed for this disserttion is: Wht, in prctice, re the principl competencies nd skills needed for humnitrin leder to be effective in the Sudnese context? The question seeks to probe if the humnitrin context of Sudn clls for specific ledership behviors or ptitudes. It focuses on wht leders ctully do nd on the coping-mechnisms they pply, however theoreticlly unorthodox tht body of prctice might turn out to be. The objectives of this reserch re therefore to understnd how the contextul frmework of Sudn ffects the disply of ledership nd to identify the ledership mechnisms used tht ensure results nd performnce. These objectives re detiled s follows: - Criticlly review the relevnt literture in order to exmine existing views or theories on ledership in context; - Identify nd evlute the influence of the min contextul fctors on the work, the conduct nd the freewill of humnitrin leders operting in Sudn, nd define its situtionl strength; - Identify nd nlyse comprble effective coping mechnisms (behviours nd styles) used by leders when dpting to these contexts; - Bridge these findings with the skills nd competencies required to develop such behviour nd styles s found in the literture review. The resercher's three yers of experience in Sudn nd her interction with numerous humnitrin leders creted n erly wreness of the difficulties fced by those leding interventions in the country. However, this invluble experience could redily issue in prejudice nd subjectivity on the 9

10 resercher's prt. The use of specific dt gthering nd nlytic mechnisms should limit such interferences. Objectivity nd inclusive sense-mking will be centrl concern. The following chpter presents the literture review of ledership in context. It firstly summrises the criticl nlysis of the cdemic reserch on context-bsed ledership, highlighting the gps in bridging externl contextul relities nd relted ledership requirements. It will then explore the notions of humnitrin context nd ledership, supported by the ltest views nd studies on these concepts. Finlly, the chpter concludes on brief focus on Sudn nd its humnitrin sitution. Chpter three explins the reserch philosophy, strtegy nd methodology nd justifies the selection of these pproches. It describes the different smple groups, the respective dt collection nd nlytic procedures. The fourth chpter covers the findings through twofold presenttion tht defines the situtionl strength of the Sudnese frmework before exmining the efficient behviours nd mechnisms used by prticipnts in this context. The finl chpter generlises these successful behviours nd mechnisms into specific ledership skills by relting them to the situtionl strength nd relevnt cdemic literture. It will lso provide one nswer to the reserch question. 10

11 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW The im of the literture review is to understnd nd reflect on the concept of ledership in context s studied in cdemic reserch nd in the humnitrin prctice domins. It therefore presents twofold discussion tht explores the reltionship between contextul fctors nd the effectiveness of ledership in both fields. Prt one will include relevnt cdemic books nd journl rticles covering the different theories on ledership in context s well s the works relted to the core ledership chrcteristics required to led in contemporry contexts. The second prt of the review will trget published reports, secondry reserch, books nd rticles tht ddress the complexity in leding humnitrin interventions in complex humnitrin lndscpe. This review will criticlly nlyse the respective views nd their complementrities, nd highlight the existing gps in the current studies on ledership in context, whether they be humnitrin-focused or not. The review process serched different sources: - The personl MALIC librry built up by the resercher - The Google Scholr Librry (relted rticles nd their substntil bibliogrphies) - The librries of humnitrin websites - Google Serch engine bsed on key terms tht progressed throughout the reserch. The review strts with the criticl nlysis of the cdemic literture on ledership-in-context. LEADERSHIP IN CONTEXT: Criticl review nd gp nlysis Btemn nd Snell (2004) clim tht the effectiveness of leders is mesured by how well their behviour dpts to situtionl nd temporl contexts. This coincides with Myo nd Nohri (2005) who stte tht "without the bility to red nd dpt to chnging (...) conditions, personlity nd skills re but temporl strengths" (p. 45). Ledership mnifests itself in unique nd chnging situtions tht cll for distinct behviours nd competencies. Ledership in context is notion studied throughout the longstnding cdemic debte on effective ledership. The contextuliztion is trditionlly constructed on two mjor trend lines: ledership in its orgniztionl context nd ledership in its externl environment. The ltest views on ledership in context, however, dvocte for n integrtive contextul frmework tht is "multilevel, multicomponent nd interdisciplinry" (Avolio, 2007, p. 31), thereby defining ledership through the interreltion between "the leder, the led nd the complexity of the context" (p. 31). 11

12 Ledership in its orgniztionl context: A leder-follower reltionship: The study of ledership in its immedite context focuses on the demnds nd contingencies tht shpe the interctions between people (Johns, 2006). It refers to the orgniztionl nd individul chrcteristics tht influence the disply of specific ledership styles nd behviours, such s the rediness of followers nd the job t hnd (House, 1971; Hersey & Blnchrd, 1993; Blnchrd, 2008; Fiedler, 1967) or the orgniztionl needs nd systems (Quinn, 1988). This study finds its roots in two distinct theories, the contingency theory nd the situtionl ledership theory. Situtionl ledership theories s presented by Tnnenbum nd Schmidt (1973), House (1971) or Hersey nd Blnchrd (1993) estblish effective ledership s t he cpcity of leders to dignose the rediness of followers nd to tilor their behviours or styles ccordingly. Situtionl ledership clls for flexibility in the disply of styles (Peretomode, 2012), suggesting tht leders cn -nd should- be proficient t shifting their ledership styles s the sitution demnds. Rooted in the situtionl ledership pproch, the flexible ledership theory (Yukl & Lepsinger, 2004) is " theory of strtegic ledership" (Yukl, 2008, p. 5) tht enlrges the scope of the study by combining both the internl nd externl context. It clls for ledership dptbility responding to lrge rnge of vribles tht determine orgniztionl performnce, such s the fst-chnging environment or the competing demnds from externl stkeholders. Conversely, the contingency theory s d eveloped by Fiedler (1976) sserts tht leders hve n turl style where effectiveness is determined through the leder's interction with combintion of orgniztionl fctors. This theory proposes to "mtch the mn to the sitution" (Fiedler, 1976, p. 6). This more inflexible pproch to ledership suggests tht tsk nd reltionship motivtors re not "esily chnged" nd therefore require specific ledership style (Peretomode, 2012). Whilst this theory still mobilizes considerble interest, fitting person to the job is, in recent views, not so much mtter of "wht" needs to be done but "how" things should be done, introducing the competency modeling system. This methodology ligns the competences, skills nd knowledge of leders with the demnds of the objectives of the tsk t hnd. It emphsizes humn ssets s key competitive dvntge tht cn be criticl for success, enhncing the individul chrcteristics of leders nd their "behviourl repertoire" (Howrd, 2007, p. 19). Intrinsic chrcteristics differentite the competency of individuls, ultimtely predicting future behviours (McClellnd & Boytzis, 1982). 12

13 These two contrsting views on the mngement of the context drw ttention to the fct tht individul chrcteristics s well s flexibility re importnt. In fst-chnging world often described s uncertin or mbiguous, internl situtions re, however, unlikely to be sustined for ny period of time (Mir & Scott-Morgn, 1997). Verstile ledership is incresingly considered s core ledership skill tht enbles the orgniztion to fce strtegic discontinuities nd rpid chnges, mnging the blnce between competing tensions s w ell s internl flexibility nd stbility (De Wit & Meyer, 2010; Yukl & Lepsinger, 2004). The in-depth focus given to the leder-follower reltionship in New theories initilly built rther context-free ccount. Yet, the wys internl or externl environments ffect or moderte the emergence nd slience of new ledership styles eventully chllenged the bilities of Trnsformtionl heroes (Bol & Hooijberg, 2001). The integrtion of soft contingencies progressively mterilized in these normtive studies under the pprecition tht leders re "subject to the forces tht ffect the system" (Grdner, 1990, p. 1). Mrion nd Uhl-Bien (2001) conclude tht, "leders re one element of n interctive network tht is fr bigger then they" (p. 414). Effective ledership is not only m tter of individul competencies, but is defined by how leders will use them to interct with the different stkeholders, the diverse environments, nd with the relities of time nd history. Context hs thus become c ore element of ledership (Avolio, 2007). Ledership in its externl environment: A strtegic reltionship The study of ledership in its externl context essentilly nlyses how such context influences orgniztionl behviours (Johns, 2006). The significnce of the environments in which orgniztions re embedded is underlined by Pfeffer nd Slncik (2003), who emphsize the dependence of orgniztions on the constrints nd control wielded by their socil contexts. Considering the significnt weight of these prominent fctors on orgniztionl decision-mking (Senior & Swiles, 2010), the cdemic discussion on the importnce of externl contexts seems mostly to concentrte on the impct tht these fctors hve on orgniztionl positioning nd on strtegies. Consequently, the cdemic study of ledership nd the externl orgniztionl environment essentilly exmines the strtegic ledership "of orgniztions (Bol & Hooijberg, 2001), relting to their growth nd performnce. The dignosis of externl fctors informs leders on how the orgniztion s w hole cn best "ct upon, enct or dpt" to its externl context or trends (Miller & Friesen, 1982, p. 1020). 13

14 Whilst numerous tools provide leders with mens to define how nd where to best position their orgniztion for future performnce within trgeted industry (Senior & Swiles, 2010; Wootton & Home, 2010; Porter, 2008; Willims, 2013; Pugh, 2011; Kim & Muborgne, 2005), the influence of these externl fctors on ledership development or behviours is poorly evluted. Prtil exceptions to this shortcoming cn be found with Hofstede nd Shwrtz or Turnbull-Jmes nd Ldkin, who propose different but complementry nswers on the wys externl contexts influence ledership expressions. The works of Hofstede (1980) nd Shwrtz (1992) suggest tht the serch for generic ledership formt is likely to prove to be in vin, considering the influence tht socio-culturl environments hve on ledership nd mngement functions nd processes. The combintion of these theories provides n inclusive concern for both ntionl behviours or prctices (Hofstede, 1980) nd ntionl vlues (Schwrtz, 1992). The study of cross-culturl differences, however, ddresses the need to djust orgniztionl ledership nd systems to the culturl vlues of members (House, et l., 2004; Trompenr & Woolims, 2003). It thereby confines the initil theory to the leder-follower reltionship, rther thn on the influence of ntionl contexts on ledership expressions. Turnbull-Jmes nd Ldkin (2008) drw ttention to the fct tht ledership territory is not confined to orgniztionl boundries. Leders must perceive, interpret nd prioritize the externl orgniztionl components so s to mnge the interest, vlues nd strtegies of different rnges of externl stkeholders. To these strtegic ledership competences, these uthors dd tht in order to crete more fvorble long term environment, leders must lso connect to externl fctors nd mnoeuvre them through pproprite communiction styles nd behviours. These theories ssist leders in developing n in-depth wreness of the culturl nd competitive dynmics so s to influence strtegic direction or orgniztionl chnge ccordingly. Yet, less ttention is given to the complex impct these externl triggers hve on ledership conduct. Also, the interction between internl nd externl contexts nd their combined effect on ledership development fils to pper in these theories. This limits the understnding of ledership in unstble, complex or uncertin environments. Such situtions require l edership pproch tht djusts to the chnging vribles of unforeseen or demnding circumstnces (Kutz, 2008). The recent conception of 'contextul ledership' seeks to ddress this by connecting leders to their globl context in structured nd culturlly sensitive wy. 14

15 Contextul ledership: The recent emergence of the 'contextul ledership' theory reltes to the incresing voltility of the externl environment (Kutz, 2008). Contextul ledership is strongly relted to the ide of contextul intelligence, defined by Kutz (2013) nd Nye (2008) s the bility to understnd, lign nd respond to chnging situtions nd uncertin environments in cretive mnner. This bility is built on threefold foundtion tht comprises intuition, knowledge nd intelligence, presuming tht by merging cognitive cpbilities nd experience, leders cn identify nd seize opportunities rising from ech new sitution. The notion of trnsferbility s suggested by these uthors indictes tht leder with contextul intelligence cn perform in ll contexts. This view is not shred by Myo nd Nohri (2005) who rgue tht, in ddition to contextul intelligence, individul underlying chrcteristics lso hve n impct on contextul ledership performnce. McClellnd (1982) joins Myo nd Nohri (2005) in rguing tht the bility to perform in specific sitution or mndte is indeed rooted in the motives, trits, self-concept, knowledge nd skills of pe rson. Whilst contextul intelligence clerly mtters, trits will interct with the context, the nture of which will then influence the emergence of ledership (Avolio, 2007). In conclusion, some leders re better fit for specific contexts thn others. The interction between these situtionl nd dispositionl forces builds contextul ledership (Dli, et l., 2012). Contextul ledership is seen by Mcris (2006) s "wy to understnd the dynmics of ledership nd ledership responsibilities" nd designed for "rel-world leders" (p. 2). This concept emphsizes the need to secure fit between individul ledership chrcteristics such s personl qulities nd chrcter, the wy one functions within context nd n individul's competencies nd experience within the sme context. For Mcris, the de-mystified effective leder is simply the right person for the sitution. Contextul ledership therefore bridges the erly contingency with situtionl views s it combines flexible ledership within pre-defined ledership formt tht corresponds to specific context. Whilst the pproprite ledership frme is situtionl mtter, flexible ledership does, however, require specific skills nd competences. LEADING IN CONTEXT: A mtter of uthentic flexibility Flexible ledership is relted to flexibility in thoughts nd in tctics. Flexibility in thoughts is the bility to mintin n open-minded connection with the evolving sitution in order to rect to threts or opportunities ppropritely. It therefore suggests n ptitude for system thinking mode to cpture the inclusive picture, hypothesis-driven nlysis of the sitution nd its components, nd socil 15

16 intelligence tht cn promote objectivity nd empthy. Flexible ledership is thus rooted in selfwreness nd willingness to lern (Yukl & Lepsinger, 2004; Liedtk, 1998). Flexibility in tctics is the cpcity to del with the complexity of multifceted or evolving sitution by shifting roles nd behviours ccordingly. This customized ledership conveys chnges through pproprite communiction nd ctions. It requires interpersonl skills to connect with individul motivtors nd gends nd pply the suitble pproch. The review of the comprehensive list of "proctive influence tctics" (nnexl) by Yukl (2007, p. 109) does, however, provoke questions on how uthenticity cn previl in such mneuverings. Flexible ledership nd communiction could therefore present tensions in self-mngement s well s in the disply of uthentic ledership, considered by Bennis s n essentil trit to "nlyze the context nd trnscend it" (2009, p. 16). Authentic ledership "is bout uniqueness", bout being oneself (Puente, et l., 2007, p. 12). Chrcterized by objectivity, morls, trnsprency nd self-mngement (Avolio, et l., 2009), uthentic leders develop their own styles nd set of behviours tht re consistent with personl vlues, principles nd personlity (George, 2005). It therefore requires lerning, knowing nd cting upon individul levels of influence, so s to remin uthentic whilst evluting how inner nd outer ttributes cn best be used (Hyes, 2005). Figure 1: Levels of Influence Where I do them Source: (Hyes, 2005) The pprecition of personl levels of influence enbles leders to express their ledership with n intrinsic integrity bsed on self-wreness, sincerity nd mturity. For Bennis (2009, p. 35), integrity prevents leder from "trim(ming) his or her principles, or even ides, to plese". This view is 16

17 strengthened by (George, 2005) who sserts tht uthentic leders "refuse to compromise" (p. 4) when their vlues re tested. Consistent uthenticity enbles leders to fce mbiguity nd to mintin purpose-centered pth towrds the defined gols whilst displying congruent nd ligned vlues nd behviours tht djust to new relities (Puente, et l., 2007). The effectiveness of verstile leders is thus essentilly bsed on their uthenticity s it conveys trust nd credibility (Yukl, 2007). Becoming such leder is self-lerned process, built on the will to lern nd which develops with experience nd prctice (Yukl & Lepsinger, 2004). Consistent uthenticity is, however, t risk when in constrining contexts. Constrining contexts: In constrining contexts, the environment becomes n ctor of importnce rther thn n influentil fctor. It tkes centrl role in strtegic choices s it forces orgniztions "into pttern in its strem of ction, regrdless of the presence of centrl controls" (Mintzberg & Wters, 1985, p. 268). This "limits, disbles or complictes incumbents from executing their responsibilities" (Lm, 1996, p. 181). The level of orgniztionl complince with constrining contexts is, however, mtter of discretion. Indeed, the vibility of orgniztions depends not only on their cpcity to dpt to such externl constrints but lso on their bility to stbilize the structure by progressively identifying if, where nd how the environment cn be encted, so s to reduce uncertinty nd pressures (Pfeffer & Slncik, 2003). Encting constrining contexts entils tht leders hve identified room for ledership mneuvering, nd re wre of the situtionl strength of their context. Situtionl strength: How the context impcts uthentic flexibility The 'situtionl strength' of the context in which this ledership is exerted informs the wys ledership chrcteristics cn be expressed. Meyer et l (2010) define situtionl strength s the "implicit or explicit cues provided by externl entities regrding the desirbility of potentil behviours" (p. 122). Strong situtionl strength induces the situtionl force to previl over the individul dispositionl force, thereby restricting ledership chrcteristics nd behviours. Such strengths cuse "everyone to construe the prticulr event in the sme wy, inducing uniform expectncies regrding the most pproprite response pttern" (Mischell, 1977, p. 347) by providing "cler cues bout wht tht sitution demnds" (Cooper & Withey, 2010). Conversely, wek situtionl strength enhnces nd brings personl dispositions into ply in uncler situtions (Dli, et l., 2012; Mullins & Cummings, 1999). In sum, the context mtters more in strong situtions whilst personlities mtter more in wek situtions (Mischell, 1977). 17

18 Situtionl strengths re, for Meyer et l (2010), bsed upon four fcets: the clrity, consistency, constrints nd consequences (4Cs) of work-relted requirements. Clrity reltes to the vilbility nd comprehension of cues on responsibilities nd requirements, ultimtely defining cler procedures, slient climte nd unmbiguous expecttions of pproprite behviours. Consistency refers to the mutul comptibility of these requirements nd responsibilities, bringing coherence over time mongst the different sources of informtion, nd thereby suggesting s pecific nd similr expected course of ction. Constrints re the forces tht limit the expression of individul freedom on decisions or ctions, such s internl or ntionl policies. Finlly, consequences refer to the scle of negtive or positive outcomes of decisions nd ctions, mening tht the thret of negtive effects will induce specific behviours. Although Mischell (1977) rgued tht wek situtions indicte lck of clrity, strong situtions cn, on the other hnd, be more demnding nd stressful due to the strin put on nturl cognitive nd behviourl inclintions (Shod, et l., 1993). The lter collective work of both uthors concludes tht the ctul influence of situtions vry on the bsis of individul perceptions (Shod & Mischel, 2000). This could indicte tht the strength of sitution is understood nd mnged on the bsis of individul sensitivity nd inclintion, nd is therefore influenced by the initil dispositionl chrcteristics of person. Thus, whilst the situtionl strength hs n impct on the expression of personlity nd therefore on ctul behviours, individul dispositions do hve n effect on the sitution nd its outcomes. The impct is reciprocl. A similr sitution cn not only be perceived but lso be developed differently on the bsis of individul nture nd predispositions. The situtionl strength of humnitrin conflict-bsed contexts is mtter defined through the nlysis of prticulr influentil fctors, including the 4cs noted bove. This sid, the criticl review of the reserch on the generl trends in the humnitrin lndscpe depicts n emerging nd rther constrining generl setting. THE HUMANITARIAN CONTEXT: A strenuous nd nebulous lndscpe The humnitrin context is ctegorized s n emergency-bsed environment lbeled either s frgile, insecure, rpidly chnging or complex, tht requires ctions tht will sve lives, llevite suffering nd protect humn dignity (GHA, 2014; Egelnd, et l., 2011; Amstrong, et l., 2014). Initilly, support supplied long the trditionl 'emergency'- 'erly recovery'- 'development' id continuum provided id ctors, donors nd host countries with progressive frme tht led the country 18

19 from humnitrin responses to developmentl ssistnce, ultimtely creting reformed stte of lw (Mcre, 2001). This is no longer the cse. The surge of protrcted conflicts (OCHA, 2013; Ferris, 2011) prolongs the need for humnitrin id in incresingly frgile nd semi-permnent situtions whilst introducing developmentl id in defined res (Amstrong, et l., 2014). Recently, the stndrdized conceptuliztion of the humnitrin context hs become more nd more relted to protrcted conflict-bsed crises defined by persistent politicl or diplomtic instbilities, ongoing or recent conflicts, thereby creting n bsence of rules of lw nd vulnerbility to r nge of risks (Amstrong, et l., 2014; Hrmer & Mcre, 2004). This prolonged vulnerble sttus renders humnitrin orgniztions more exposed to the rise of ssertive voices from donor countries nd host governments who ffirm their respective control nd sovereignty ever more strongly, ultimtely turning id into politicl tool (Amstrong, et l., 2014; Curtis, 2001). Whilst the politiciztion of humnitrin ction is nothing new (Curtis, 2001), it is incresingly visible t three levels. Firstly, the expnding enggement of donor countries in conflict-bsed crisis through id funding (Slim, 2012) indictes n intensified concern, be it relted to politicl, economic or security issues (Hrmer & Mcre, 2004; Kent, et l., 2013). Secondly, by interfering through id in politiclly chrged contexts, humnitrin orgniztions re integrted into these contexts, nd into the conflict, thereby inevitbly influencing the politicl economy of wr (Anderson, 1999). Finlly, whilst humnitrin ssistnce is incresingly subject to politicl conditionlity nd the legitimiztion of host countries, conflict-bsed crises re grdully becoming more domestic thn interntionl (Regnier, 2011; Collinson & Elhwry, 2012). Domestic conflicts re not only bout occuption or control. Their ultimte purpose is the definition of the ntionl identity, entiling tht the host stte is usully integrted in the conflict (Mcre, 2001). This increses the risk tht id be delivered on the bsis of politicl interest rther thn need (Mcre & Leder, 2000; Werker & Ahmed, 2008) s humnitrin id is conditioned by "politicl, militry nd civilin ctors who cn (...) fcilitte but lso mnipulte or obstruct humnitrin ction" (Bernrd, 2011, p. 893). Thus, the "de fcto hegemony" (Amstrong, et l., 2014, p. 17) tht previously provided Western humnitrin orgniztions with n opertionl utonomy nd detchment from thorny contextul relities hs shifted towrds the obligtion to comply with the distinctive politicl gends of stkeholders. The opertionl bility nd security of INGOs is now embedded in their cpcity to understnd not only their operting context but lso how their mndte, their role nd their presence re perceived. It is on the bsis of this understnding tht they might develop pposite "clculted 19

20 pproches" tht re ccepted nd sustined by the vrious ntionl nd interntionl prties (Amstrong, et l., 2014, p. 3). The necessity for humnitrins to comply nd engge constructively with imposed nd sometimes contrdictory regultions hs direct impct on the mndte, the strtegy nd the modus operndi of relief orgniztions. First, it thereby defines the boundries nd the ims of interventions in context over which these orgniztions hve little control (Egelnd, et l., 2011). It cn lso threten the essence of humnitrin ssistnce tht finds its roots in humnitrin principles (nnex 2). Insted, n instrumentl rtionlity now previls, where pplictions could be trded for opertionl ccess (Amstrong, et l., 2014; Collinson & Elhwry, 2012). Finlly, it cretes isolted "implicit dels with belligerents" (Collinson & Elhwry, 2012, p. 3) nd n individul strtegic djustment so s t o ccess the funds of donors (Esterly & Willimson, 2011). This lst dpttion is defined by Werker nd Ahmed (2008) s the "only mrket-force of non-government sector industry" (p. 8). This competitive lndscpe unvoidbly encourges wht might be termed s secluded fitting strtegies tht ffect cohesion mongst humnitrin orgniztions s whole. It is n pproch tht wekens their individul nd collective positioning, nd therefore their negotition strengths (Tylor, et l., 2012). Humnitrin orgniztions cn no longer bse their ction on trditionl "stte-voiding" humnitrin id policy (Hrmer & Mcre, 2004, p. 6). The cknowledgement of this fct will enble them to drw the needed cvets nd estblish their own principled stndrds for ction before defining "how to engge nd influence ll key ctors involved so s to promote m ore humnized politics nd m ore effective humnitrin ction" (Collinson & Elhwry, 2012, p. 4). Such position would lso enble them to develop prtnerships with the recipient prties. A delicte blnce needs to be found between wht is expected to be done, wht should be done nd wht cn be done, interrelting ethics, politics nd opertions (Slim, 2003). It requires n in-depth understnding of the coding, rules nd systems of host countries (Amstrong, et l., 2014). At ntionl level, promoting humne politics cn be hzrdous process if the locl culture, lws nd regultions re neither considered nor integrted in the reflection. Considering tht conflicts predominntly occurred in Muslim-mjority countries this lst decde (IRIN, 2014) nd tht the mjority of id beneficiries worldwide re Muslims (Hyder, 2007), the understnding of Islmic culture nd lws becomes fundmentl tool in humnitrin dvoccy nd negotitions. 20

21 In the Muslim world, humnitrinism is viewed s n ct of worship. It is n essentil component of Islm nd its prctice is mndtory in Qurnic texts (Krfess, 2005). Islmic lws nd wr lws re deeply engrined in the Qurn nd in the Trditions of Prophet Muhmmd. These texts include the notions of humnity, of restrint nd of mercy to the vulnerble (Aly, 2014). However, the progressive influences of Muslim scholrs hve developed these lws into w ide rnge of distinct interprettions, eventully inducing quite different prctices of Islmic beliefs (Aly, 2014; Nusrt, 2005). Understnding the locl nd individul significnce of Islmic lws cn hve n impct on the outcome of negotitions, on security spects nd on the integrtion of humnitrin principles into relief interventions. It is however delicte mtter tht requires mutul openness, understnding nd enggement (Aly, 2014). Whilst n overll understnding of the new humnitrin context is vluble, ech humnitrin sitution is unique s it combines specific conflict, prticulr politicl context nd different levels of vulnerbility (Amstrong, et l., 2014); ll of these evolve nd shift over time. Estblishing n effective ledership formt within such contexts is, therefore, complex process. HUMANITARIAN LEADERSHIP: From inclusive expecttions to contextul needs Ledership effectiveness is t the centre of the debte on the performnce of humnitrin interventions (Tylor, et l., 2012; Hiley, 2006). Efforts to define pproprite ledership formts show growing concern relted to the expnsion of the humnitrin enterprise nd its chllenges (Buchnn- Smith & Scriven, 2011). There is equl recognition of the growing complexity of the humnitrin scene in terms of donor expecttions nd the humnitrin mndte (Steets, et l., 2009; Richrdson, 2006; Jywickrm, 2011); concern lso for the cler necessity for ledership improvement (Tylor, et l., 2012; Angus & McNicoll, 2012); nd the need for new form of humnitrin response (IASC, 2 012; Angus & McNicoll, 2012). The brod rnge of necessry skills, competencies nd behviours reveled by these studies nd reports on effective humnitrin ledership evolves long c omplex nd occsionlly contentious continuum. The reserch clls for systemic strtegic nd politicl cumen (Mins, 2005; Kings, 2010; Jywickrm, 2011), trnsformtionl ttributes or slient behviours (Ripoll, et l., 2010; Hiley, 2006), reltionl (loclly) or entrepreneuril (internl) styles (Jywickrm, 2011; Nilsson, 2011) nd furthermore for uthentic ledership versus politicl ptitudes (Hiley, 2006; IASC, 2012). The inclusion of ll these 21

22 bilities in the trditionlly ll-embrcing job descriptions from orgniztions propels humnitrin leders towrds mix of cpbilities, tlents nd expertise of which the overll rtionlity could be questioned. Wht truly mtters is to define wht is needed where, when nd how, guiding humnitrin ledership towrds contextul nd situtionl formt. The nlysis of the skills nd mens required to led effective humnitrin interventions in protrcted conflict-bsed crises is still t its very erly stges (Hrmer & Mcre, 2004). This is probbly due to the recent endorsement of this contextul trend nd to the distinctiveness of ech crisis. Recent studies of protrcted nd frgile crises do, however, identify or recommend similr techniques when deling with these contexts. The following Tble 1 underlines some of these ctions. Tble 1: Previline techniques for contemporry humnitrin contexts Prctices Mens Effects Mintin low profile Develop loclized progrmming Crete highly loclized tems Mnge by remote Build reltionship with key stkeholders Limit visibility, void ostenttion, fvor wreness nd responsiveness Subcontrcting to locl or ntionl orgniztions, strengthening the locliztion of id Appointing ntionl stff from the humnitrin dispors; recruiting stff loclly Led interventions from distnce nd decentrlize progrm delivery to locl tems in the field Develop n ctive-cceptnce using outrech strtegies nd prticiption of locl udience Reduce security risks, ese negotition nd cceptnce Fcilitte ccess, reduce security risks nd strengthens locl pproprition Fcilitte locl negotition, limits culturl gps nd reduces security risks No other choice; prioritize empowerment nd development of locl members Esier negotition, get consent; "ern the spce"; Sources: (Collinson & Elhwry, 2012; Egelnd, et l., 2011; Amstrong, et l., 2014; Slim, 2012) The effectiveness of these prctices depends on different fctors. Egelnd et l (2011) rgue tht humnitrin leders re "unble to negotite in strong host stte" (2011, p. 38). Also, whilst the implementtion of highly loclized tems or progrmming might fcilitte locl negotitions on ccess nd security, there is probbility tht the ctul response will become loclized s well nd is influenced by bised ffinities rther thn by humnitrin principles (Egelnd, et l., 2011; Amstrong, et l., 2014). The mission then goes 'ntive' nd loses its pn-situtionl mndte. Finlly, such processes presume tht the locl cpcity is sufficient, which is rrely the cse in frgile contexts. It clls for n cceptnce of probble "slower, lower qulity services" (Egelnd, et l., 2011, p. 21) which might then disrupt contrctul greements with donors. Such n implementtion chnge could crete legitimcy crisis tht is brely controllble through the remote mngement system, considering the culturl nd geogrphicl dissocition such process induces between orgniztions nd the very societies they might seek to ssist. 22

23 These limittions underline, once gin, the influence of the context nd its components on the ' iii i r- '! 'f : ''Uin'Jtf.'' i-wf) Sr '< viv <** S ' selection of ledership behviours or mechnisms. In order to estblish the type of ledership prctices. ' "' t jri ' 8* ',! - " 't ' <" - - required, one must understnd wht the trgeted humnitrin context is, nd how specific it cn get. Humnitrin context in Sudn! -** 0 ' ^" ' ' " - ^ =*'- '?' Sudn hs been t the center of humnitrin concerns for n extended period of time. Recognized by OCHA (2013) s one of the most estblished protrcted crisis, Sudn rnks second in the top three countries which, long with Afghnistn nd Somli, re considered "extremely violent opertionl settings" since 2005 (Egelnd, et l., 2011, p. 11). Whilst presenting specific chrcteristics, ll three countries re united in fcing domestic-bsed conflicts. Due to its prolonged nd numerous conflicts since 2002, Sudn hs been ctegorized s 'frgile stte' : v, 'V" v.;-y' - i-- with high vulnerbility index score (GHA, 2014). Whilst humnitrin needs re consistently high, the.,av'> :. -!3 5*-;v J 1 :. f working conditions fcing humnitrins operting in Sudn remins constrining for both security nd dministrtive resons (ECHO, 2014; SDC, 2012). The intense history of wrfre nd interntionl interventions hs generted n entrenched sense of mutul mistrust nd ntionl concern for the continunce of sovereignty. The distinct climte of hostility demonstrted by the uthorities ginst foreign representtion, orgniztions nd institutions results in restricted ccess to res nd ssets, in multiple dministrtive impediments, in incresed security risks, nd in disregrd or rejection of 'Western construct' humnitrin lws nd principles (Collinson & Elhwry, 2012; Egelnd, et l., 2011). Whilst such restrictive sitution (posed s given to humnitrin orgniztions) hs probble influence on the working environment of leders, the wys it ffects, or fils to shpe humnitrin behviours is n individul mtter. In order to define the situtionl strength of leders operting in Sudn, these leders must identify which fctors delinete their contextul relity nd how this relity impcts their work nd behviours, fctors tht my eventully cll for different ledership trits, skills or competencies. CONCLUSION The criticl review of cdemic nd humnitrin literture supports the present reserch s it reveled the significnce of context in ledership expressions, behviours nd processes. Moreover, it exposes the interreltion between internl nd externl situtionl fctors nd the subsequent complexity in leding in context. Informtion essentil to this reserch emerged from the cdemic literture in tht it 23

24 ttests tht effective contextul ledership is not only mtter of competencies or skills, but lso mtter of individul chrcteristics. Likewise, the humnitrin literture provides interesting new contextul perspectives relted to the humnitrin lndscpe nd its components. Further studies need to uncover the core ledership chrcteristics nd bilities most pproprite for such complex context. To this end, the current reserch could be of use. The discussion turns now to how this Disserttion needs to be encted, in methodologicl terms. 24

25 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This Chpter describes the philosophy tht defines the reserch nd its choice of methodology. The reserch strtegy is explined nd the resons for selecting this pproch re specified. The consequences of selecting this method for the body of evidence recognized nd deemed significnt re set out. The Chpter lso identifies methodologicl lterntives nd explicitly gives the resons for rejecting those lterntives. The reflections in the literture review bove illustrte the vrious sensitivities within the Sudnese context. These plce premium on the ethics of reserch inquiry. This topic is lso therefore discussed below. RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY: The reserch presents p rgmtic pplied-reserch philosophy in the sense tht it trgets -nd indeed follows- the problem by ttempting to improve the understnding of how ledership performnce is influenced by the prticulr Sudnese context. It thereby seeks to provide p rcticl nswer tht is of relevnce to humnitrin leders operting in Sudn, nmely, wht re the skills nd competencies required in such s etting (McKensie & Knipe, 2009; Sunders, et l., 2012)? Consequently, Prgmtism is dopted s the most relevnt philosophy for this reserch s it develops constructive knowledge tht informs potentil future ctions (Goldkhuhl, 2012). This prgmtic pproch is presented in comprison to other vilble reserch philosophies in Tble 2 below. Tble 2: Comprison of Reserch Philosophy Prdigms PHILOSOPHIES PRAGMATISM POSITIVISM INTERPRETIVISM Concern Pttern How things work; Intervention nd Chnge Finding new theories for ction How things re: Observtion, Explntion nd Prediction Testing existing theories for Universl Lws How things re seen: Understnding Beliefs Chllenging the ide of theorizing Type of resercher Anlyst Scientific Socil ctor Position Usefulness Relism Equivocl Probbilities re Interpreted for ction Fctul; evidence-bsed Multiple Epistemologicl Stnce Constructive knowledge Objective knowledge; Hypothesis testing nd Regulristion Subjective nd reltive knowledge Relity bsed on Socio-contextul construct Externl construct Individul construct Process Open process focused on Reserch Question Cusl reltionship, vluend belief-free Integrtion in nd understnding of individul socil relities Reserch methods Plurlist- bsed on RQ Quntittive - rigorous Qulittive - flexible Sources: Br & Vidgen, 1999; Goles & Hirschheim, 2000; Shlin, et l., 2012) 25

26 Considering the scrcity of mteril in the proposed re of this reserch, this study tkes n explortory form by nlysing ledership constructs in "new light" (Sunders, et l., 2009, p. 138) due to sitution of distinctive complexity. This leds the reserch towrds n inductive pth, progressively building theory on ledership requirements within such contexts. The prgmtic, explortory nd inductive nture of this study clls for qulittive pproch so s to gin "cognitive ccess" (Sunders, et l., 2012, p. 163) to the understnding of prticipnts on the mens nd behviours needed to led efficiently in this context. Qulittive informtion enbles the pprecition nd interprettion of the "mening people hve constructed" (Merrim, 2009, p. 13), which is essentil to the course of this reserch. Contrsting with the objectivity nd rther inflexible positivism of quntittive designs, qulittive reserch will trget soft fcts, exploring nd interpreting socil constructs. Trditionlly relted to interpretivism, qulittive reserch tkes prgmtic direction when the reserch ims t understnding how the knowledge is creted, by exploring the "effects nd success of different tctics" (Goldkhuhl, 2012, p. 10). Under the Prgmtic lens, the qulittive reserch becomes functionl. In conclusion, the philosophy of this reserch is constructed under the following formt. Figure 2: Summry of the present reserch philosophy Sources: (Sunders, et l., 2012; Br & Vidgen, 1999; Goles & Hirschheim, 2000; McKensie & Knipe, 2009) 26

27 RESEARCH DESIGN This reserch design describes the prcticl construction of the investigtion, providing informtion on 'wht' is the reserch strtegy, 'how' will this strtegy be built nd 'why' hve such choices been mde (Sunders, et l., 2012). Reserch strtegy: The strtegy of the reserch focuses on identifying the contextul ledership skills nd competencies required to led effective humnitrin interventions in Sudn. The contextul nture of this reserch therefore ddresses contemporry phenomen in rel-life sitution, presented by Yin (1993) s core cse-study chrcteristics. In ddition, s plnned nd conversely to grounded reserch, cse-study cn be guided by conceptul theories tht outline its frmework nd provide n cdemic mening to the cse findings (Hrtley, 1994). The strtegy is therefore bsed on the cse-study of humnitrin leders, so s to "gin rich understnding of the context nd the processes being encted" (Sunders, et l., 2012, p. 179). This entils twofold dt collection nd nlytic process, primrily focused on the definition of the situtionl strength before ddressing the ctul behviours nd mechnisms displyed. Consequently, the strtegy is built on m ulti-methods process tht explores both the context nd the behviours of leders. Reserch method: The reserch method includes the presenttion of its generl pproch, the outline of the multipopultions smple, the description of the multi-levelled dt gthering methods nd the combintion of the multi-methods dt nlysis. Defining the pproch The objective of the reserch strtegy is to identify common perceptions nd similr behviours. The cse-study therefore uses multi-cses pproch, in order to drw inferences on consistent dt (Brymn, 2004). This multi-cses investigtion voids undue generliztion by exploring rnge of inputs from vrious prticipnts, dding plurlist perspective to this reserch (Miles & Hubermn, 1994). In ddition, the design interreltes the sub-contextul relities fced, nd the behviourl processes used by leders cross current relities nd constrints (Meyer, 2011). The study of the reltion 27

28 between these contextul nd behviourl components will define the core competencies nd skills required to disply the expected behviours, inferring the cuslity between vribles (Fiedler, 1967). In order to obtin different perspectives on the min contextul fctors, the multi-cses nlysis of humnitrin leders is supported by tringultion constructed on one dditionl popultion smpling nd on primry literture. This ensures the relevnce nd objectivity of the results (Sunders, et l., 2012). Therefore, different popultion smples re trgeted, s presented in the figure below. Figure 3: Multi-level smpling nd demogrphy Strtegy Cse-study Approch Multi-cses of Humnitrin Leders Tringultion Process 1 Smple Country Directors Hed of deprtments Humnitrin Donors primry literture Demogrphics - 8 INGOs country - 2 INGOs Hed 4 multi-lterl - Sitution directors of Progrms donors including 2 reports (sitreps) - Age Age "emergency - Minutes from - EU ntionlities - EU ntionlities donors" nd 2 Cluster meetings, - 80% mle - 100% femle "development from security - Min. 12 months - Min. 15 months donors" briefing in position in position - 1 hed of - Reports (donor - Prcticed - Previous field institution nrrtive) mngers; min. experience, min 3-3 hed of - Reports from five yers of yers in sections M&E consultncy ledership mngeril experience position ^. J ' These popultion smples were subject to different dt gthering processes under progressive nd inclusive construct, detiled in the next section. 28

29 Multi-levels dt gthering methods The primry nd secondry dt converge towrds the consolidtion of the cse-study of humnitrin leders. The primry dt ws collected subsequently nd differently so s to progressively build the informtion on the context dt collected. 1. Primry dt: The primry dt ws gthered through two different pools of prticipnts. The first pool groups the min prticipnts of this cse-study, the humnitrin leders. They committed to t wo-fold fce-tofce interviewing process in order to inform on the core fctors tht define their work, on the contextul relity they fce nd subsequently, the mechnisms nd behviours they use to mnge these fctors efficiently. These interviews were processed under different formts. The first context-relted interviews followed n in-depth formt supported by open probing questions on specific situtions mentioned by prticipnts, in order to illustrte comments by tngible fcts nd void bstrctions (King, 1994). The second interviewing phse ws developed under the semi-structured formt tht included tools from the Behviourl Intent Interview model (McClellnd, 1998) so s to explore the fctul mechnisms nd behviours displyed by leders when deling with their respective contextul constrints. These interviews focused on "rel-stories" tht were refrmed through fct-finding sub-questions probing the ctul behviours displyed. The donors form the second pool of primry dt. As donors re regulrly updted on the development of humnitrin interventions by their opertionl prtners (INGOs), the interviews were conducted under the semi-structured formt focused on the contextul nlysis so s to confirm, through tringultion nlysis, the mjor fctors tht influence the conception, development nd mngement of these interventions in Sudn. The resercher prepred for the interviews by conducting 3 pilot interviews tht re not integrted in the finl dt. The prctice gined by this process improved the introductory phse of interviews nd enbled the design of ccurte sets of crds with initil nd probing questioning lines. Different dt gthering methods nd reserch instruments were used throughout the process, s seen in figure 4. 29

30 Figure 4: Construct of the primry dt gthering process of the reserch COUNTRY DIRECTORS & HEAD OF PROGRAMS DONORS IKi TWOF( 3LDP ROCESS SINGLE PROCESS j Contextul Fctors Behviors, mechnisms Contextul Fctors PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEWS PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEWS Interview themes bsed on Primry literture - For resercher use only Interview themes bsed on first interview dt per prticipnt Interview themes bsed on dt collect on contextul fctors - for resercher use only; MULTI-METHODS INTERVIEWING SINGLE-METHODS INTERVIEWING In-depth Interviews: Semi-structured - Open questions Interviews - Probing focus on - Behviorl intent tngible contextul fcts; tools: fctul mechnisms, rel storv; Semi -structured Interviews: - Flexible open discussions relted to contextul triggers tht influence humnitrin response - Probing questions on contextul fctors mentioned bv prticipnts of DOOI 1 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS Recorder, note-tking Crds with questioning line, probing questions Recorder, note-tking Crds with personl contextul constrints; Recorder, note-tking Interview Guide bsed on core contextul constrints of Pooll Source: (King, 1994; Brymn, 2007; Sunders, et l., 2012) These rther open interviewing formts were chosen so s to void frming of reflection of leders nd to prevent ny unese due to the sensitivity of the mtters discussed. However, probing questions progressively led towrds concrete experience nd prticulr feelings, thereby consolidting the informtion both on prcticl fcts nd on inner perceptions. All interviews lsted bout one hour nd were conducted sequentilly between the 22 d of Mrch nd the 14 th of My Ech level of interviews followed different questioning line, s suggested in the exmple below. 30

31 Tble 3: Questioning line formt for Pool 1 POOL 1 Situtionl strength Behviours nd Mechnisms Purpose of questioning line for Context-Bsed Interviews Outline the im of the reserch, of the formt of interview, ethics, greement on procedure nd use of reserch instruments Reflection on the working conditions in Sudn Opening question: "So, how is it, working in Sudn?" Reflection the min contextul fctors ; Probing questions "Cn you tell me more bout tht", "Why is tht?" Reflection on the 4Cs imposed by ech fctor; Probing questions bsed on "wht", "how", "Why" Reflection on inner feelings relted to the contextul fctors Reflection on individul contextul fctors nd on mens found to del with them; "cn you tell me how you rel-stories; Open-probing questions: "Wht, how, why did you..?" "how does it work? " "why?" Reflection on personl feelings, ethicl considertion; "wht relly mtters here?." "how do you cope with...",... Confirmtion of core fctors: "wht would be the min dvice you would give to your replcement?" Reltion to topic reserched nd literture review Introduction of the im of the interview nd its process, confirmtion of greement on ethics Introduction to the first contextul elements Trgeting the core of wht defines the working context in Sudn Structuring the informtion; Building the situtionl strength of Sudn Addressing personl dilemms, prepring for future discussion on uthenticity nd ethics Identifying efficient coping mechnisms nd behviours leders use to fce the Sudnese situtionl strength Structuring the informtion for logicl nd chronologicl dt Serching for informtion on integrity nd uthenticity, probing for feelings, thoughts nd ctions during events Focusing on the core contextul nd behviourl elements Secondry Dt: The secondry dt ws serched for insights into the implementtion of relief interventions in Sudn, the strtegies used, nd the constrints or opportunities fced. The choice of documenttion consisted of: - Primry literture: reports to donors or from commissioned monitoring missions; sitution reports ("sitreps"); minutes from Clusters meetings nd from security briefings; contrctul enggements (Technicl Agreements); policy documents. - Secondry literture: Publictions by professionl bodies nd ssocitions, humnitrin censuses, reserch nd nlysis of humnitrin ledership episodes nd studies on Sudn s context-sensitive frmework. The next section presents the methods used nd the coding system creted for the nlysis of the gthered dt. 31

32 DATA ANALYSIS Ech interview hs been trnscribed on seprte documents in which ll personl detils hve been deleted nd replced by specific code. These documents hve been reworked progressively through different highlighting systems, first individully then in n inclusive mnner. The nlysis of dt follows the pttern of the dt collection nd is built on two-phse process. Phse 1: Contextul nlysis The first phse of the reserch ims t ssessing nd estblishing the situtionl strength of the working context s p erceived by humnitrin leders operting in Sudn. This initil step hs proven to be hzrdous process considering tht there is "no greed on wy to conceptulize or mesure" the construct spce of situtionl strength (Meyer, et l., 2010, p. 137). In the bsence of methods to evlute situtionl strengths, the risk of n nlytic bis or generliztion bsed on simplistic pprisl of the dt is rel. To strengthen the vlidity of the situtionl strength evlution, the coding system for such nlysis must be trgeted, integrted nd levelled (Meyer, et l., 2010). Coding system The extensive study on the prcticbility of the situtionl strength concept done by Meyer et l. (2010) provides useful prior frmework for this Disserttion in its efforts to mesure situtionl strength. The first contextul nlysis is therefore bsed on n initil coding system (Shlin, et l., 2012) tht tkes into ccount the four C-dimensions presented by these uthors. Therefore, the Clrity, Consistency, Constrints nd Consequences of work-relted requirements will be used to evlute the trnsversl fctors tht define the sitution of leders. This coding system enbles the resercher to focus on fcts, preventing emotionl interprettions of dt nd comments. This first nlysis focuses on explicit informtion consistent with the reserch question, pprising the strength of the sitution, specificlly: "how do leders perceive work-relted requirements nd expecttions in terms of clrity, consistency, constrints nd consequences?'. These requirements nd expecttions re nlysed through multifceted construct, so s to estblish the strength of these dimensions cross sub-level influentil fctors tht emerge s the core contextul cuses tht shpe the behviour of leders in Sudn. The coding formt is presented in the following tble. 32

33 Tble 4: Coding frme of contextul sub-fctors REQUIREMENTS Level of CLARITY Level of CONSISTENCY Level of CONSTRAINTS Level of CONSEQUENCES Are the work-relted Are they comptible? Do they restrict ction Do they induce requirements cler? nd behviour choices? pressure on outcomes? FACTOR 1 High Low High Low High Low High Low FACTOR 2 High Low High Low High Low High Low FACTOR 3 High Low High Low High Low High Low Source: dpted from (Meyer, et l., 2010 The situtionl strength of the work-relted frme of humnitrin leders will be defined through comprehensive nlysis on how these fctors build on ech other, ultimtely highlighting the generl strengths or weknesses of the sitution. Phse 2: Anlysis of dt on behviours nd coping mechnisms. The nlysis of behviours nd mechnisms used by leders ccounts for ptterns of trits, skills nd behviours tht re effective in Sudn, highlighting the criterion referenced competencies tht led to effective performnce (McClellnd & Boytzis, 1982). The coding of this second phse is developed in two steps. The first step summrizes individul behviours nd mechnisms directly relted to performnce. It evolves from n initil to focused nd conceptulized coding (Sunders, et l., 2012) so s to llow further comprisons. It is bsed on tbultion of vribles tht is progressively constructed on the nlysis of multiple tbulted crosssheets developed by themes nd by prticipnts. This highlighted the core nd underlying vribles by individul, such s presented in the exmple below. Tble 5: Individul coding tbultion on successful behviours nd mechnisms PI Topics coding Mechnism Behviours NATIONAL Issue 1 Mechnism 1 Generl pproch Behviour 1 Chrcteristic 1 Mechnism 2 Behviour 2 Chrcteristic 2 Issue 2 Mechnism 1 Generl pproch Behviour 1 Chrcteristic 1 Mechnism 2 Behviour 2 Chrcteristic 2 DONOR Issue 1 Mechnism 1 Generl pproch Behviour 1 Chrcteristic 1 Mechnism 2 Behviour 2 Chrcteristic 2 Issue 2 Mechnism 1 Generl pproch Behviour 1 Chrcteristic 1 Mechnism 2 Behviour 2 Chrcteristic 2 HR Issue 1 Mechnism 1 Generl pproch Behviour 1 Chrcteristic 1 Mechnism 2 Behviour 2 Chrcteristic 2 Issue 2 Mechnism 1 Generl pproch Behviour 1 Chrcteristic 1 Mechnism 2 Behviour 2 Chrcteristic 2 33

34 The finl tbultion is constructed on selective coding system (Sunders, et l., 2012) tht gthers the replicted issues through mechnisms nd behviourl units. This finl tbultion hs been built through the cross-referencing of individul focused dt, ultimtely selecting principl topics tht consistently emerged in the interviews. This tbultion ws built under the following frme. Tble 6: Generl tbultion of core successful behviours nd mechnisms Finl coding PARTICIPANTS PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 MECHANISMS TOPIC 1 Mechnisml X X "..." X X X X Ntionl (ex:complince) Mechnism 2 TOPIC 2 Mechnism 1 Mechnism 2 TOPIC 1 Mechnism 1 Donor Mechnism 2 TOPIC 2 Mechnism 1 Mechnism 2 TOPIC 1 Mechnism 1 HR Mechnism 2 TOPIC 2 Mechnism 1 BEHAVIOURS TOPIC 1 Behviour 1 X "..." X X X X X Ntionl Behviour 2 TOPIC 2 Behviour 1 Behviour 2 TOPIC 1 Behviour 1 Donor Behviour 2 TOPIC 2 Behviour 1 Behviour 2 TOPIC 1 Behviour 1 HR Behviour 2 TOPIC 2 Behviour 1 Overll, the sense-mking of dt is built-in process tht progressively reltes direct behviourl evidence to situtionl strength chrcteristics. This process uses tools from the Behviourl Event Interview (BEI) model in the sense tht it focuses on the motives tht justify ttitudes nd mechnisms 34

35 nd estblish the ttributbility of similr techniques to specific contextul needs (McClellnd, 1998). The sense-mking of dt is however focused on nlogous situtionl trends rther thn on chronic individul conducts bsed on personl beliefs or vlues, thereby distncing itself from the BEI m odel (McClellnd, 1998). RESEARCH ETHICS: The sensitivity of the reserch topic is relted to the risk tken by interviewees in expressing their pprecition of contextul fctors nd the systems they use to fce them, due to preceding governmentl intrnsigent rections to open displys of personl opinions by members of the humnitrin community. An orl greement of confidentility ws mde with ll prticipnts who were ressured by the further steps plnned by the resercher to ensure the protection of the dt. These steps included the coding of ll trnscripts, the removl of nmes or plces, nd the trnsfer of the recordings onto personl USB stick until their finl deletion, t the end of the nlysis. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS The min limittion of this reserch is tht its smple popultions comprise only Western leders nd donors who ccepted to prticipte to this reserch. This unintended smpling selection limits the findings to rther homogeneous culturl view, thereby influencing the results of the reserch nd limiting its generliztion (Meyer, et l., 2010). Also, s the resercher hd no ccess to field res, the smple focuses on prticipnts bsed in Khrtoum, the Sudnese cpitl city. The culturl bises noted by reserchers like Hofstede et l (see Chpter 2) my then prove of significnce here. However, country directors re well wre of nd deeply engged in the globl complexity of leding interventions throughout Sudn. Their nunced judgements my thus offset mny of these rurl-urbn divisions. Through personl experience, the resercher hs built her own opinion on the problem stted. Bises nd subjectivity bsed on these pre-understndings (Gummesson, 1988) could hve influenced the interviewing nd nlysis processes. The decision to design scrupulous coding formts nd to process the dt under tringultion method enbled the rtionliztion of the informtion with more distnt nd potentilly objective view on the problems studied (Sunders, et l., 2012). 35

36 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS This Chpter will present the results nd the clssifiction of the situtionl strength of the working context of prticipnts, nd nlyze the ensuing effective coping mechnisms nd behviours used. PHASE 1: The situtionl strength of Sudn The first phse of this reserch evlutes the situtionl strength of the working context nd focuses on the perception of leders on the clrity, consistency, constrints nd consequences of their work-relted requirements. These requirements emnte from the min influentil sub-fctors tht define the contextul relity of leders in Sudn. Three fctors consistently emerged from the interviews: - The control encted by ntionl uthorities on humnitrin ffirs; - The limited ccess to, nd performnce of qulified humn resource; - The complex funding systems of donors. Ech of these fctors imposes distinctive nd often diverging work-relted requirements, preventing the formtion of consistent frme of ction, behviours or skills. The initil perception of this generl context therefore outlines, t first sight, wek situtionl strength. Leders pper to operte in complex socil system tht interferes with the chrcteristics of strong situtions, expressed through cler consistent cues on wht is expected (Mischell, 1977). Yet, the coding system used for the reserch enbled detiled nlysis of these fctors, providing results tht question this ssumption. Clrity of the work-relted requirements The description of the contextul relity by leders shows tht they re generlly well wre of wht is expected from them, whether from focl donors or from different governmentl bodies. The strtegies of these donors present individul prerequisites nd expecttions tht re clerly stted nd mde to provide leders with unmbiguous formts for ppels. At governmentl level, the overll control on humnitrin opertions is expressed through unequivocl requirements nd demnds, clling for explicit protocols, behviours nd ctions. But, s one prticipnt sttes, leders "know the music" (P ). The requirements relted to the mngement of stff pper cler for leders, whether they hve exptrite tems in the field or not. Leders gree on the limited cpcity of ntionl stff nd on the shortfll in exptrite technicins nd mngers to support them, compelling them to personlly focus on the "generl mngement of issues" t centrl level (P ). This, long with the restriction on 36

37 trvel due to security or governmentl constrints, ffects their presence in, nd support to the field. More stisfction is found in leders who cn void the remote-mngement system due to the presence of exptrite bse-mngers in the field. Despite evident efforts to provide the needed considertion to foreign or ntionl stff, leders delegte "with strict control" (P ) supported by precise plnning, monitoring nd communiction tools. Consistency between the different work-relted requirements The consistency in nd cross the requirements of donors nd ntionl uthorities is strongly lcking. At donor level, ll leders nd two donors stress evident disprities mongst the expecttions, strtegies nd opertionl regultions of the funding institutions in Sudn. Although this lck of cohesion nd collbortion eses, in some wys, the complince with individul demnds through specific behviours nd ctions, it entils constnt timely djustments to institutionl nd individul expecttions, whilst ttempting to mintin cohesive progrm. More importntly, leders stte tht stkeholder divergence prevents them from securing the link between relief nd rehbilittion responses, considered s of "prmount importnce" for sustinble results (Georgiev, K. Europen Commissioner for Interntionl Coopertion, Humnitrin Aid nd Crisis Response, cited in (Bernrd, 2011, p. 903) nd which is, by definition, specific to protrcted crisis (Hrmer & Mcre, 2004). At governmentl level, whilst the pressure imposed by the requirements of ntionl uthorities is consistent, the rticultion of these pressures seems to differ gretly whether t federl, stte or locl levels, generlly depending on the individul sitting behind the desk. Behviours nd ptterns of communiction therefore will vry. The degree of collbortion between donors nd governmentl bodies cn be questioned considering the disprities mentioned by leders nd donors in terms of trgeted priority res tht re brely ccessible, of conflicting expecttions in humn resource mngement systems nd of the different levels of considertion given to the respect nd prcticlity of humnitrin principles. As one interviewee noted: "Everybody wnts something else!"(p ). Constrining forces of work-relted requirement The constrints imposed by donors nd Sudnese stkeholders re high. Donors hve n obvious power in Sudn nd use it freely. All leders, without exception, confirm this fct through comments such s "we re dictted by their requirements" (P ), or "We must know very well wht the donor wnts" 37

38 (P ). This hs n impct on the design of interventions, but lso on the behviours of leders who must "djust to their styles, their techniques nd their personlities" (P ). At ntionl level, the imposition of the constrints enforced by Sudnese governmentl bodies on humnitrin ctions is confirmed by both opertors nd donors working in Sudn. Although the leders perceived this control quite individully, in the end, it is the "government tht decides if, where nd how we work or... not" (P ). The ntionl frme clerly forbids ny utonomy or free-will in interventions nd lso compels humnitrin leders to disply certin types of behviours tht hve been compred by one interviewee to "role ply" (P ). In ddition, the mndtory cll for the 'sudniztion' of humnitrin personnel obliges leders to disply ledership styles tht prevent the development of innte dispositions or behviours. Conscious tht their stff is "spied on, controlled" (P ) or "culturlly bound to ethnicl rules nd duty" (P ) leders djust their behviour ccordingly. Consequence of constrints on results The non-lignment to the strtegy of leding donors will led to denil of grnt, fct hs been sserted both by leders nd donors. Whilst funding is the sinews of wr for humnitrin id in generl, the lloction of grnts is prticulrly importnt in Sudn s it ppers tht the number of exptrite mngers nd technicins pproved by the uthorities is prtly relted to the size of the budget. Leders evlute the monitoring system of their donors with w ry eye, stressing tht wht mtters is to know how the evlution will be done nd ct ccordingly: "some donors only wnt to hve nice reports nd good numbers" (Pl-23.18), while others will mke cute nd methodicl monitoring visits. From this viewpoint, the influence of constrints on results vries, depending on the donor's identity. On the other hnd, the constrints imposed by ntionl bodies ll seem to converge towrds the 'strong' consequences pool. Leders nd donors illustrte through numerous exmples tht lck of complince with ntionl requirements, no mtter how voltile or restrictive they my be, hs direct impct on the sustinbility of relief interventions. Since the turmoil of , the country seems to void the expulsion of orgniztions for politicl resons. Yet, diverse overt nd covert obstructive methods re used to block the opertionl procedures of humnitrin orgniztions until they finlly volunteer to deprt. 38

39 At Humn Resources level, the consequences of the constrints on results re high. They force leders to behve in specific wys without relly knowing "wht works or not" (P ) nd hve direct impct on the results of humnitrin interventions. As one leder stted, "we do the best we cn, without vision, without flexibility nd without control" (P ). Conclusion In conclusion, despite initil evidence, the situtionl strength of the working context of humnitrin leders operting in Sudn is generlly strong, s summrized in the tble below. Tble 7: Summry of findings on the situtionl strength of Sudn REQUIREMENTS DONORS LEVEL OF CLARITY LEVEL OF CONSISTENCY LEVEL OF CONSTRAINTS LEVEL OF CONSEQUENCES Are the work-relted requirements cler? Are the work-relted requirements comptible? Do these requirements restrict freedom of ction nd behviour? Are behviours or ctions influenced by effect on outcome? High Low High high Low requirements NATIONAL High Low High High Requirements HR sitution High High High High requirements Source: dpted from (Meyer, et l., 2010) Leders know how frmed nd constrining their context is nd djust their ctions nd behviours ccordingly so s to provide their progrmmes with the mximum chnces of success. Sudn is hrd nd demnding plce tht is delt with on d ily bsis. The different mechnisms nd behviours used by the prticipnts in their serch for mens of performnce re presented in the next section. PHASE 2: Effective mechnisms nd behviours used by leders in Sudn It ppers tht, in such p re-frmed context, little room is left for cretivity, innovtion or uniqueness. Indeed, ll but two of the prticipnts crete trgeted responses tht comply with the different existing requirements, ttempting to progressively construct multi-finnced progrmme in which they cn find some professionl stisfction. As stted by one interviewee," in fct, it is like pu zzle, we tke pieces from here nd there, nd redesign our frme of ction" (Pl-16.30). This pproch could be likened, to some extent, to the Bricolge process. Orgniztionl 'bricolge' reltes to the entrepreneuril bility to "do things with whtever is t hnd" over time (Levi-Struss, 1966, p. 17), by developing fmilirity with, nd building on, the environment nd its components (Duymedijn & Ruling, 2010). Developing fmilirity with the environment 39

40 ppers to be of generic importnce to leders in Sudn who use different techniques nd behviours to gin knowledge of their context nd of the prticulr chrcteristics of their stkeholders. Figure 5: How to know nd be known by key stkeholders in Sudn KNOW YOUR DONOR: Techniques: Know the generl context of donors Lern the wys of ech institutions Join NGOs Forums, Clusters, "sit down, get informtion, tips nd hints" (P5) Mp key potentil donors: who funds wht where nd then "go to the mrket with your wres"(p5) Network formlly nd informlly: understnd preferences, limittions nd prticulrities of individuls Build network of donors nd informers. Behvior: «Be visible in n perceptive wy Observnt, sk questions BE KNOWN BY DONORS Techniques: Constnt networking in informl nd forml occsions Trigger interest by difference - "be competitive" (P6) Adpt converstion nd priorities per institutionl nd individul specificities Built personl reltionships, "get close" (PI) Behviors: Be visible but s low-key professionl (don't overdo) Demonstrte ethics nd humnitrin concern Demonstrte strong contextul knowledge Flexible, open nd understnding KNOW YOUR NATIONAL PARTNERS: Techniques Get fmilir with the context nd system Lern the history of your orgniztion, previous issues Networking for informtion on key prtners, their sensibilities nd priorities, "find wht works" (PI) Sty on long-term bsis Ask dvice nd support from key ntionl prtners Behviors Empthetic Lerner "Ply the gme" \ BE KNOWN BY NATIONAL PARTNERS Techniques Adpt converstion to individul specificities nd positions, "At centrl level, it is more forml" (P8) Develop prllel network of cscding influence (community leders, sheiks, Ministries..) Behviors: Adjust communiction styles; void Western 'stright to the point' interventions "never get upset" (P5) "do the Slmleks" (P7) "crete bond"(pl) "don't provoke" (P4) "show tht you cn ply the gme" (P3) Deliver s greed upon However, the frequent ssocition mde between 'Improvistion' nd 'Bricolge' processes (Duymedijn & Ruling, 2010) is not relevnt in the Sudnese context where every step is stndrdized, vlidted nd controlled. Whilst context-bsed improvistion tkes plce in highly uncertin 40

41 environments (Bker, et l., 2003), the strong situtionl strength of Sudn prevents intuitive or rpid tcticl moves (Duymedijn & Ruling, 2010). For similr resons, the "rel-time experience" (Miner, et l., 2001, p. 319) or "unforeseen results" (Leone, 2010, p. 11), chrcteristics of the Bricolge process, re unrelistic in the studied context. Despite these reservtions, there remin similrities with the Bricolge process. One lies in the fct tht most prticipnts build their progrms on the bsis of the environment nd its components, intercting nd shping existing products nd resources (Bker, et l., 2003; Duymedijn & Ruling, 2010). Others, however, will dopt cretive pproch, plnning for differentition nd innovtion. Both pproches seem to provide successful results but induce rdiclly different techniques nd behviours, s demonstrted in the figure below. Figure 6: Comprtive ssessment of successful techniques nd behviours models ADAPTATION INNOVATION Externl repertoire focus: Donor strtegies, ntionl expecttions Incrementl originlity within on-hnd frmeworks; "provide plus"(p6), "find unfilled re" (P7) Growth through t hnd opportunities: new ccess, new grnt in existing frmework Expecttion-relted interprettion: "tell them wht they wnt to her" (Pi) Consolidtion: Opportunistic portfolio growth Differentition through high professionlism Work on the progressive presence nd qulity Immedite resolve of problems with stkeholders Behviours: Cretive strtegic thinking: "serch for the demrction line" (P3) Demonstrtion of culturl know-how, professionlism, commitment, in both emergency nd development fields Amenble:"don't impose your view"(p8), Competitive: win grnts by better fit nd originlity Expert: Cn esily djust to development nd emergency contents; "know the key words, the prctice" Externl conformism: demonstrte llegince t centrl level; "void being into their lens" intent-driven: work on discreet vritions loclly; "know where you wnt to go, then tke side rods but never shortcuts"(tdh) Internl repertoire focus: Orgniztionl expertise, core competency Incrementl innovtion: contextuliztion of core competency Engge nd empower locl structures, prtners : "find common grounds for priorities" (P6) Niche-relted systemic nlysis Growth through new opportunities: "open new doors" (P5)" leve the frme" (P5) Added-vlue nd exclusivity-relted interprettion: "be different" (P6), "trigger interest" (P5) Consolidtion: Focus on ntionl 'niche building': prtnerships, lobby for pproprition Long-term socil impct Behviours: Cretive strtegic thinking: intent-driven Lible: demonstrte in-depth enggement to the cuse Expert: highlight orgniztionl know-how, mster the Niche; "set the bsis, then the support"(p5) Ressuring: "Get redy for ll the nswers" (P6), "fce prnoi" (p6) Leder: show direction but "don't move lone"(p5) 41

42 The innovtion pttern brings specific benefits. The fct of introducing new perspectives in the id response in Sudn is seen s p ositive fctor by the trditionl development nd emergency donors interviewed. Leders stte tht they get better response from "less rigid" (P ) bilterl donors in serch of differentition thn multilterl donors 2. Also, the cretion of ntionl colition tht supports nd implements the progrm seems to ese negotitions t ntionl level, reducing pressure nd ntgonism. In comprison to the rther derisive comments of some dptive leders, innovtionfocused leders pper less exsperted by ntionl regultions nd more confident in the finl outcome of the progrms. However, this pttern presents prerequisites tht re not esily obtined. First, it suggests tht the orgniztion hs the field ccess nd mens to develop extensive prticiptive reserch nd groundbsed nlyses needed to trget expertise t its best. Secondly, it requires tht their hedqurters gree to follow such strtegy which could entil less funding volume, less visibility nd "Sudnized' response implemented by ntionl prtners. In ddition to the need for different techniques nd behviours, these processes use different designs. Figure 7: Comprison of design between dptive nd innovtive processes Adpttion: Top-Down Design Bottom-up implementtion Erly prticiption of key Donors ; uthorities "Integrte nyone who cn sy no" Consensus on ctivities, trget groups nd loction; "void the obstcle, stisfy expecttions" Strt smll, with prospect of growth on-hnd regions Innovtion: Bottom-up Design <] [> Top-down Implementtion Prticiptive ssessment proces: with "niche-relted" ctors; locl pproprition " Get locl, build colition from the roots" (Sudniztion) Climb the ldder of influence with llies Extend pproprition by prtnerships "sell strong product" Strt big, im for centrl ction nd pproprition before decentrlizing " Trget the hed " 2 Bilterl donors represent donor government tht directly provides id to recipient government or to n INGO operting in the recipient country; multilterl donors re the first recipient of donor countries' funds (UN, World Bnk) who then dminister nd llocte the funds locly. 42

43 Wht differentites these pproches is the ultimte gol of the progrm. Adptive interventions trget the consolidtion of orgniztionl presence nd usully initite decentrlized ctions t locl level, progressively building regionlly. Innovtion, on the other hnd, ims first for centrl ction. The design colition is built from the roots to the hed, reching prominent notbles of potent sectors who then get involved in its construct, support its implementtion nd federte the process before decentrlizing it to provinces. Whilst the innovtion construct trgets the pproprition of the progrm by host institutions with the support of expertise-relted technicins from the orgniztion, the dpttion process requires lrger pool of internl humn resources s it covers broder scope of res nd domins of interventions. In the dpttion frmework, the restricted number of exptrites in the field nd the limited skills of ntionl members mke the remote mngement system complicted. Overll, leders hve to compose with the "lck of rigor"(p3-39) s well s the lck of utonomy nd objectivity of their locl stff by using successful techniques nd behviours, s presented below. This figure uses selective quottions of interviewees where pproprite, to highlight the identified differences. Figure 8: techniques nd behviours used under the "dpttion" pttern 43

44 Whilst the prticipnts seem to hve found their wy to operte in Sudn, the rub lies in the elsticity of the ethics they revel. The dpttion-focus prticipnts rgue tht they "comply within certin limits" (GL) but tht they do "compromise on certin principles" (P ) during negotitions with ntionl uthorities. In probing further, these prticipnts inform tht these principles re of personl nd institutionl nture. Although ll see this s ne cessry, their irrittion nd cynicism is plpble, leding to the ssumption tht they feel their uthenticity is ffected. In ddition, morl codes pper to weken in the negotitions with donors, who re no fools nd re mrkedly nnoyed by the pretense of some humnitrin leders in terms of their cpcity, their ccess nd results. Although this reserch provides no mens of identifying whether ny prticipnt ws centre-stge in the comments of donors, only one prticipting leder mentioned the importnce of mintining t rnsprent communiction with donors. Considering tht ll dpttion-focus leders stress the need to djust their behviours nd their progrms to the expecttions of donors, questions cn be rised on the long-term sustinbility of those grnts if unuthentic behviours, forged cpcities nd fictitious ccess were detected. In conclusion, in both dptive nd innovtive ptterns, effective leders enct their environment nd diversify their interventions, either through responsive or innovtive pttern. They dpt their behviours nd mens ccording to institutionl nd individul expecttions. Despite their importnce, uthenticity nd ethics re constntly t stke in such context. In the next Chpter, the skills nd competencies required to disply the bove-mentioned behviours nd techniques will be presented nd discussed. 44

45 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This Chpter reflects on the reserch findings nd the broder lessons derived from the secondry reserch to develop smll number of key propositions on the nture of ledership function within the specific demnds of working in humnitrin relief in Sudn. The rt of performing in the Sudnese humnitrin context lies in the bility to respond proctively to its multi-fcetted constrints nd requirements - without grievous loss of uthenticity. This clls for prior interprettion of the overt nd covert components tht build the environment (Nilsson, 2011). The numerous mechnisms nd behviours displyed by the prticipnts to mster their context or to know nd be known by their stkeholders revel the importnce of djusting thinking before tking ction. The wy the environment is "registered, encoded, trnsformed, stored nd retrieved" (Nilsson, 2011, p. 14) is n inner construct. Before envisging recting contextully to multi-fcetted nd constrining expecttions, leders in Sudn need to know who they re, how they function nd wht they stnd for so s to regulte their emotions nd respond to distinct socil or culturl requirements in perceptive mnner. Therefore, emotionl intelligence is the prime skill required to rech culturl nd socil dequcy, nd indeed, contextul intelligence, s presented in figure 9. Figure 9: Continuum of inner intelligence Emotionl Intelligence Socil Intelligence > Culturl Intelligence Contextul Intelligence DEFINITION: Ability to recognize, discriminte nd mnge inner emotions nd perception DEFINITION: Encting emotionl intelligence on bsis of individuls, their moods, temperment, motives DEFINITION: Ability to function efficiently in vriety of culturl contexts DEFINITION: Ability to understnd n evolving environment & cpitlize on new trends BUILT ON: Self-wreness, self regultion, empthy, motivtion & socil skills BUILT ON: Emotionl intelligence, situtionl pprisl, socil understnding BUILT ON: Culturl cognitive drive, motivtion, openness in thinking nd behviors BUILT ON: Culturl nd socil intelligence, knowledge, intuition V, ENABLES: - Grsp of inner vlues nd motives - Control of emotions - Sense nd understnd ENABLES: Timely djustment of one's thinking nd ction ENABLES: -Tuning of behviour, communiction styles -Adpt tctics -Know when to flex ENABLES: Discernment, seize opportunity, consistency CHARACTERISTICS: Increse with ge nd experience CHARACTERISTICS: Requires prctice, empthy nd humility CHARACTERISTICS:: Lerning, enggement nd experience CHARACTERISTICS:: Grows with experience 45

46 Source: (Livermore, 2011; Ang, et!., 2011; Livermore, 2009; Golemn, 1998; Bol & Hooijberg, 2001; Grdner, 1985; Sternberg, 1985; Yukl & Lepsinger, 2004; Nye, 2008; Kutz, 2013) (Erley nd Ang 2003) All four components of this continuum re essentil ledership skills for humnitrin leders who need to develop flexibility in thought nd to prcticlly djust to their distl nd proximl contexts (Yukl & Lepsinger, 2004). As demonstrted in the bove chrt, ech of these skills grows through experience, knowledge, prctice nd on-going lerning long the ssimiltion-ccommodtion loop. Proposition 1: To be effective in the Sudnese context, humnitrin leders need contextul intelligence built on strong interpersonl skills, culturl openness nd experience. However, the literture review shows tht contextul intelligence is ttined through prticulr individul chrcteristics tht fit the context nd mndte. Wht mtters here is to define those tht re essentil to ledership in Sudn. The prticipnts demonstrte the will to lern nd understnd their context. Rther thn being confined to specific opportunistic gols, they serch nd bsorb informtion constntly, through reding, meetings or networking in forml nd informl situtions, looking for updtes on security, politicl or humnitrin mtters. A rich knowledge bse is, for Perkins nd Slomon (1989), "direct determinnt for performnce" (p. 16) tht enbles leders to optimize their strtegic thinking nd decision-mking in unfmilir or problemtic situtions. A high bsorptive cpcity to recognize nd ssimilte informtion will fcilitte further ccommodtion "towrds new ends" (Bol & Hooijberg, 2001, p. 517) nd lso "circumvent procedures" (ALNAP, et l., 2011, p. 50). Proposition 2; Leders determined to lern their distl nd proximl contexts re better prepred to fce hzrds nd seize opportunities. The coping contextul djustment mechnisms used by leders in Sudn demonstrte two core encted skills: flexibility in tctics nd their cretivity in responding to limittions nd constrints. Flexibility is skill tht is expressed by highly experienced nd skilled leders (Nilsson, 2011, p. 50) who cn fce different situtionl types of chllenges simultneously nd hve lerned to crry competing roles nd behviours in n integrted mnner. Such flexibility is expressed in their bility to know "wht to do, how to do it nd when to do it" (Yukl & Lepsinger, 2004, p. 236). Yet, in the Sudnese context, this flexibility tends to pproch n ethicl borderline, somehow tinted by diplomtic mbiguity. 46

47 The prticipnts keep conventionl ctivities relted to humnitrin diplomcy, such s promoting humn rights or dvocting respect of interntionl lws (Regnier, 2011), t distnce. As shown in the situtionl strength nlysis, the 'consequences' relted to the diverse requirements re, t high level, considerble. This induces c utious nd decentrlized diplomtic diligence. These diplomtic efforts re incessnt nd trnsverslly required in multidimensionl negotitions, demnding flexible behviours nd techniques. The diplomtic skills displyed by prticipnts re exclusively relted to orgniztionl benefits s they im to differentite their orgniztion from others. For donors, who tlk to ech other frequently, such diplomtic pplictions cn pper deceitful when humnitrin leders compre, criticise or denigrte other orgniztions, or when they lck consistency in their multiple rgumenttions. Attempting diplomtic negotitions demnds prior bilities. Diplomtic bilities find their roots in the interpersonl skills developed through emotionl, socil nd culturl intelligence, so s to tctfully led counterprts to common grounds nd greements, in trustworthy mnner (Regnier, 2011). It is crfted intent-focus process tht presupposes extremely good communiction bilities such s body-lnguge wreness, communiction tctics, consistency nd self-control (Skillsyouneed, 2012). In this specific context, behviourl flexibility must lso be grounded in personl ethics, honesty nd consistency. Proposition 3: Experienced humnitrin leders with strong interpersonl nd dptive skills re more likely to disply trustworthy diplomtic behviour. Cretivity is the second skill tht enbles leders to perform. By seizing opportunities through differentition or by rdiclly shifting between intervention-bsed pproches, leders cn mke difference tht donors pprecite nd tht triggers the curiosity of ntionl stkeholders. Indeed, despite their frmed strtegies, donors do serch for impct nd distinction nd ssert their openness to pioneering interventions s long s they enter their frme of references. Aginst ll odds, cretive strtegic thinking is therefore vluble sset for humnitrin leders in Sudn. Cretive thinking is bout expnding the boundries of reflection by chllenging personl mentl models, by enlrging the scope of comprehension through ssocited views on relities nd opportunities so s to develop n ew contextul pprecition, therefore conception (De Wit & Meyer, 2010; Gvetti, 2011). Cretive thinking is, however, only relevnt if it integrtes the strtegic purpose of the orgniztion, suggesting tht it is intent-driven nd is supported by fcts so s to determine its 47

48 desirbility nd fesibility (Brdley, et l., 2012). The cretive proposition must be contextulized nd purposeful. The importnce of strtegic purpose cnnot be stressed enough. The tendency to diversify interventions so s to mintin sufficient finncil mttress hs, for donors, questionble impct on the credibility nd the stbility of orgniztions. The on-going ssimiltion nd ccommodtion processes should not impede the pursuit of s trong strtegic direction. Intent-driven skills relte to the bility to rticulte, communicte nd mintin sense of purpose tht is conveyed internlly nd externlly (Kings, 2010). Undenibly, when considering the use of bricolge techniques in Sudn, it is essentil to develop n internl stbility nd n externl cohesion through c ler mndte over time (Mir & Scott-Morgn, 1997). Proposition 4: humnitrin leders operting in Sudn need strtegic thinking bilities to generte n effective differentition through consistent nd coherent cretivity on long-term bsis. Another technique used by dptive leders is to ssert their expertise in both development nd emergency domins, so s to gin funding from both sides of these distinctive dministrtive systems. Besides the fct tht simulting systemic bility is seen negtively by donors, the need to combine relief nd development id is unvoidble in protrcted crisis, nd such dul bilities should be considered indispensible (Hrmer & Mcre, 2004). Yet, the secondry literture is noticebly silent on the ledership skills required to mnge nd integrte both development nd emergency interventions. These cll for rdiclly different knowledge nd expertise, sometimes even suggesting contrdicting methods nd skills (Kopink, 2013). Sudn, in its protrcted chrcteristics, requires leders who mster both concepts of id, so s to bring strength nd consistency to the ptchwork of diverse nd constrining opportunities tht they fce. Proposition 5: Effective leders in Sudn mster both emergency relief nd development id configurtions. One fctor triggered the resercher's ttention throughout the dt nlysis. A different degree of derision nd contempt is clerly mrked between dptive nd innovtive leders. Although ll express their nnoynce relted to the government control nd restrictions imposed over their opertions, stronger personl stisfction nd fulfilment is felt in leders who hve led pioneering interventions. As one of these leders sid, they will "ply the gme, but under (their) own terms". These leders develop 48

49 progrms in which they clerly believe. This preserves their ethics nd integrity, despite behviourl ccommodtions. The direction is set nd compromises re mde within boundries defined by the expertise nd vlues of the orgniztion. In ddition, these leders develop progressive ntionl colitions nd prtnerships tht ese negotitions nd communiction ctivities. They seek to llevite the risk of losing their self-esteem or principles. More importntly, they thereby protect their uthenticity, essentil to purpose-centred context trnscendence nd to genuine considertion (Bennis, 2009; Puente, et l., 2007). Proposition 6: Effective leders in Sudn preserve their uthenticity by developing context-bound innovtive responsiveness to the humnitrin needs of Sudn. Finlly, innovtive ptterns lso fcilitte the mngement of Humn Resources considering tht interventions re expertise-driven nd re implemented through ntionl prtners. This reduces the pool of ntionl stff nd limits the need for exptrites to specific experts nd senior mngers. Conversely, dptive leders constntly fce chllenges imposed by the humn resources sitution in Sudn. Whilst the remote-mngement system decentrlizes opertionl decision-mking to the field, the precrious qulity of the context, the culturl stndrds nd the constnt setbcks force leders to remin in control. They re ccountble nd responsive. They provide the direction, coordinte the motions nd develop proximity through mechnisms such s mobile tems or direct nd frequent monitoring systems. These leders remin 'visibly' in chrge (Hnnh, et l., 2009), thereby neutrlizing the negtive effects of leding t distnce. To disply the required -nd trditionlly expected- uthority despite this distnce, leders need chrism (Hnnh, et l., 2009). Chrism is demonstrtion of competence, confidence nd intent (Yukl, 2009), tht demnds self-efficcy formed from lerning nd experience (Wood & Bndur, 1989). In close ledership reltionships, chrism stimultes the follower's identifiction through behviourl models. In distnt ledership reltionships, however, chrism is m tter of inherent uthority built on expertise, performnce nd inspirtion s perceived nd ttributed by tems rther thn individuls, creting sense of belonging nd cohesiveness (Ygil, 1998; Antonkis & Atwter, 2002). Therefore, ledership chrism in Sudn refers to the bility to convey professionlism nd intent to tems through typicl trnsformtionl ttributes such s idelized influence (Bss, 2008), nd lso 49

50 through specific trits such s ssertiveness nd decisiveness, defining, from distnce, cler tem gols nd unmbiguous direction in order to enhnce the cohesion nd performnce of tems. Proposition 7: Effective leders in Sudn re ssertive tem-leders who demonstrte high proficiency nd purpose. In conclusion, contextul intelligence is the essentil skill required to led effective humnitrin interventions in Sudn s it enble leders to understnd, lign nd respond to different situtions nd complex environments in cretive mnner (Kutz, 2013; Nye, 2008). It entils tht experience nd interpersonl fcilities re the first ledership trits required for this context s they develop two culturl intelligence components, knowledge nd cognitive cpbilities. Sudn requires leders who re proficient in dynmic tensions mngement. In this context, tension mngement reltes to the rt of blncing differing nd often contrdictory perspectives, demnding different styles, behviours or skills. It lso includes the bility to mintin the blnce between the needed ledership demonstrtions nd one's inner vlues or chrcteristics. Whilst this equilibrium requires dptbility in style nd flexibility in thought, it must be rooted in centrl purpose so s to void strtegic, opertionl or individul drifts (De Wit & Meyer, 2010). By encting their environment, leders mintin control over their strtegy nd their personl boundries, emphsizing "choice over complince" (De Wit & Meyer, 2010, p. 443). Therefore, effective leders in Sudn hve strong strtegic thinking bilities nd cute self-mngement skills, blncing fcts, experience nd ides with visionry opportunism, whilst keeping personl boundries nd the end in mind (Hercleos, 1998; Rimond, 1996). Effective leders in Sudn exist nd mke d ifference. Yet, it would be mistke to confuse effective leders with effective ledership, which relies on more thn the cpbilities of single person. Further reserch is needed to evlute how stkeholders cn best ccompny these leders in their dptive or innovtive quest. Fields of reflection re suggested below. 50

51 RECOMMENDATIONS At orgniztionl level, it is worth evluting how leders re identified, supported nd motivted in existing recruitment, trining nd evlution formts. Most orgniztions tend to replicte internl systems or tools despite the distinctive contexts nd requirements of their vrious progrms. This cn undermine the selection, development nd enggement of leders. Contextuliztion is concept tht should be well integrted t hedqurters level before reching the field. Also, the mngeril procedures between the orgniztion nd its leders-in-country re worth reconsidering. As the identifiction of the 'next-best-move' is likely to come from the country leder's intimte reltion with the environment, modifictions in the decision-mking tree of some orgniztions might be needed in order to provide leders with orgniztionl support rther thn dditionl limittions. A demnd-driven response provided by hedqurters could, in such cses, be prticulrly relevnt. Expecting leders to be flexible nd cretive entils tht the orgniztion, s whole, functions under n open nd supportive frmework tht promotes these behviors nd skills (Yukl, 2009). This will require n djustment of orgniztionl culture, which demnds time nd mngeril drive. The cretion of specific HQ support unit tht designs trgeted procedures nd provides specific support to leders would ese this culturl shift, progressively developing the orgniztionl proficiency within the new humnitrin environment. Finlly, on more generl term, the question is whether nd how donors nd orgniztions re prepred to fce relity tht chllenges their principles, their vlues nd their mndte. Whilst the debte on the elsticity of humnitrin principles is importnt in the redefinition of the humnitrin sector (Leder, 2000), tody, orgniztions nd donors should lso exmine their motivtions nd ptness to operte within this new frmework. 51

52 REFLECTION ON THE DISSERTATION PROCESS This reserch ws undertken for personl resons relted to my concern when observing how humnitrin interventions were led in Sudn. Why do some leders mnge to rech their gols nd others don't? Where does the difference lie, truly? Who re these successful leders? I wnted prcticl nswers tht could be of use to leders. Whilst my profession essentilly concentrtes on solving problems nd finding nswers, this specific project hs rdiclly chnged the wy I usully operte. Rther thn fst-pced, experienced-bsed reflection, I lerned how to probe, nlyze, connect nd defy informtion nd ides in multifceted nd objective perspective. I enjoyed the serch, the questioning nd ssocition of views, progressively building w eb of interconnected informtion nd knowledge. I lerned to resist first-hnd conclusions, sking myself "re you sure bout tht?", something I rrely did before. My engrossment in this process enbled me to void personl ssumptions nd to question dt nd theories through double-loop lerning. This unprejudiced connective thinking bility is skill tht I shll nurture s it will impct the relevncy of future decision-mking nd my performnce in generl. However, this is my first disserttion ttempt nd my first reserch project. Although it ws n exciting nd chllenging mentl journey, my lck of prctice s n interviewer turned tht process more into crusde. Untrined nd unwre of the different socil profiles nd styles of interviewees, I lcked the verstility to identify nd djust to their behviourl clues. No mtter how well prepred I thought I ws, ech interviewing session hd its specific expecttions, rhythm nd reltion well set by the interviewee. Mnging the rpid djustment to individul chrcteristics while concentrting, listening nd probing, s well s discrding ny form of personl interference, turned out to be quite strenuous process. Clerly, ny further reserch will require more prctice in dpting my socil skills to such situtions. Overll, this reserch project hs widened my knowledge of the humnitrin sector considerbly. Initilly trgeting the 'unique sitution of Sudn', the pprecition of the scope of chnge in the humnitrin field gthered from the literture review, ltered the bredth nd the construct of this reserch. Inductive study demnds flexibility tht I first discrded in n ttempt to mintin the disserttion proposl in focus. Loss of time nd frustrtion could hve been esily voided with better prepred mind. Tody, t the end of this project, I tke with me not only the prcticl lerning of reserch process, but lso whole new working environment tht I will, from now on, ddress differently. 52

53 Bibliogrphy ALNAP, HFP & DMLA, Humnitrin nd Disster Mngement Ledership: A Collbortive Reserch nd Development Inititive, London: ALNAP. Aly, H., Cn Islmic Lw be n Answer for Humnitrins?. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 2 My 2014]. Aly, H., Islmic Lw nd the Rules of Wr. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 2 My 2014]. Amstrong, J., Burke, J. & Byley, S., The Future of Humnitrin Security in Frgile Contexts: n nlysis of trnsformtionl fctors ffecting humnitrin ction in the coming decde, London: EISF- Europen Intergency Security Forum. Anderson, M., Do No Hrm: How Aid Cn Support Pece - Or Wr. Boulder: Lynne Riener Publishers. Ang, S., Vn Dyne, L. & Tn, M., Culturl Intelligence. In: R. Sternberg & S. Kufmn, eds. The Cmbridge Hndbook of Intelligence. New York: Cmbridge University Press, pp Angus, K. & McNicoll, K., The Business of NGO Ledership: Reflection on Ledership from NGO CEOs, Oxford: Oxford Brookes University. Antonkis, J. & Atwter, L., Leder Distnce: A review nd proposed theory. Ledership Qurterly, 13(6), pp Avolio, B., Promoting More integrtive Strtegies for Ledership Theory-Building. Americn Psychologist, 62(1), pp Avolio, B. et l., Unlocking the Msk: A look t the process by which uthentic leders impct followers ttitudes nd behviors. The Ledership Qurterly, Volume 15, pp Avolio, B., Wlumb, F. & Weber, T., Ledership: Current Theories, Reserch nd Future Directions. Annul Review of Psychology, Volume 60, pp Bker, T., Miner, A. & Eesley, D., Improvising Firms: bricolge, ccount giving nd improvistionl competencies in the founding process. Reserch Policy, Volume 32, pp Bss, B., The Bss Hndbook on Ledership. 4th ed. New York: Free Press. Bss, B. & Riggio, R., Trnsformtionl Ledership. 2d ed. New Jersey: Lwrence Erlbum Assocites. 53

54 Btemn, T. & Snell, S., Mngement: the New Competitive Lndscpe. 6 ed. New York: McGrw- Hill/lrwin. Bennis, W., On Becoming Leder. 2d ed. Phildelphi: Bsic Books. Bernrd, V., The Future of Humnitrin Action. Interntionl Review of the Red Cross, 93(884), pp Blnchrd, K., Situtionl Ledership. Ledership Excellence, 25(5), p. 19. Bol, K. & Hooijberg, R., Strtegic Ledership Reserch: Moving on. Ledership Qurterly, 11(4), pp Bolden, R. & Gosling, J., Ledership Competencies: Time to Chnge the Tune?. Ledership, Volume 2, pp Br, K. & Vidgen, R., Interprettion, Intervention nd Reduction in Orgniztionl Lbortory: frmework for in-context informtion system reserch. Accounting Mngement & Informtion Technology, Volume 9, pp Brdley, C., Lowell, B. & Smit, S., Mnging the Strtegy Journey. McKinsey Qurterly, June. Brymn, A., Qulittive Reserch on Ledership: A criticl but pprecitive review. Ledership Qurterly, Volume 15, pp Brymn, A., Business Reserch Method. London: Oxford University Press. Buchnn-Smith, M. & Scriven, K., Ledership in Action: Leding effectively in Humnitrin Opertions, London: Overses Development Institute. Buston, O. & Smith, K., Globl Humnitrin Assistnce: Report 2013, Bristol: Development inititives. CCL, Ledership nd Tlent Development in Interntionl nd Development Orgniztions, Brussels: Center for Cretive Ledership. Chtmn, J., Improving Interctionl Orgniztionl Reserch: A Model for Person-Orgniztion Fit. Acdemy of Mngement Review, 14(3), pp Collinson, S. & Elhwry, S., Humnitrin Spce: review of trends nd issues, London: Overses Development Institute. Cooper, W. & Withey, M., sgepub.com. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 12 Mrch 2014]. 54

55 Cummings, L. & Mullins, J., Situtionl Strength: A Frmework for Understnding the Role of Individuls in Inititing Proctive Strtegic Chnge. Journl of Orgniztionl Chnge Mngement, 12(6), pp Curtis, D., Politics nd Humnitrin Aid: Debtes, Dilemms nd Dissensions, London: HPG - Humnitrin Policy Group. Dli, R. et l., Dissecting Situtionl Strength: Theoreticl Anlysis nd Empiricl Tests, Belvoir: United Sttes Army Reserch Insitute for the Behvoril nd Socil Science. Dy, A. & Power, K., Developing Leders for World of Uncertinty, Complexity nd Ambiguity. The Ashridge Journl, pp De Wit, B. & Meyer, R., Strtegy: Process, Content nd Context. 4 ed. Andover: Cengge Lerning EMEA. Deng, L. & Gibson, P., Mpping nd Modeling the Cpcities tht underlie Effective Cross-Culturl Ledership. Cross-Culturl Mngement: An Interntionl Journl, 16(4), pp Duymedijn, R. & Ruling, C., Towrds Foundtion of Bricolge in Orgniztionl nd Mngement Theory. Orgniztionl Studies, Volume 31, pp Esterly, W. & Willimson, C., Rethoric versus Relity: the Best nd the Worst of Aid Agency Prctice, New York: New York University - Development Reserch Institute. ECHO, Humnitrin Aid nd Civil Protection. [Online] Avilble t: en.htm [Accessed 18 My 2014], Egelnd, J., Hrmer, A. & Stoddrd, A., To Sty nd Deliver: Good prctice for humnitrins in complex security environments, New York: OCHA. Ferris, E., Megtrends nd Future of Humnitrin Action. Interntionl Review of the Red Cross, 93(884), pp Fiedler, F., A Theory of Ledership Effectiveness. New York: McGrw-Hill. Fiedler, F., The Ledership Gme: Mtching the Mn to the Sitution. Orgniztionl Dynmics, Volume Winter, pp Fink, G., Neyer, A. & Kolling, M., Understnding Cross-Culturl Mngement Interction. Interntionl Studies of Mngement nd Orgniztion, 36(4), pp Fleeson, W., Sitution-bsed Contigencies Underlying Trit-Content Mnifesttion in Behvior. Journl of Personlity, 75(4), pp

56 Ford, J., Deprtmentl Context nd Forml Structure s Constrints on Leder Behvior. Acdemy of Mngement Journl, 24(2), pp Grdner, H., The Mind's New Science: A history of cognitive revolution. New York: Bsic Books. Grdner, J., On Ledership. New York: Free Press. Gvetti, G., Hrvrd Business Review - The Mgzine. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 18 Novermber 2013]. George, B., Ledership is Authenticity, Not Style. In: Mngement Skills, s.i. John Wiley nd Sons, pp GHA, devinit.org. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 11 April 2014]. Goldkhuhl, G., Prgmtism vs Intrepretivism in Qulittive Informtion Systems Reserch. Europen Journl for Informtion Systems, 21(2), pp Golemn, D., Wht Mkes Leder?. Hrvrd Business Review, Nov-Dec.pp Goles, T. & Hirschheim, R., The Prdigm is ded, prdigm is ded... Long live the prdigm: the legcy of Burrell nd Morgn. The Interntionl Journl of Mngement Science, Volume 28, pp Gummesson, E., Qulittive Methods in Mngement Reserch. Lund: Chrtwell-Brtt. HAC, Directives for Humnitrin Work, 2013, Khrtoum: Humnitrin Aid Commission, Sudn. Hiley, J., NGO Ledership Development: review of the literture, Oxford: Intrx. Hnnh, S., Eggers, J. & Jennings, P., Complex Adptive Ledership: Defining wht constitutes effective ledership for complex orgniztionl contexts. In: G. Gren, ed. Knowledge-Driven Corportion: Complex Cretive Destruction. US: Age Publishing, pp Hnnh, S., Ulh-Bien, M., Avolio, B. & Cvrrett, F., A Frmework for Exmining Ledership in Extreme Context. Mngement Deprtment Fculty Publictions, Volume 39, pp Hrmer, A. & Mcre, J., Beyond the Continuum: The chnging role of id in protrcted crisis, London: HPG-Humnitrin Policy Group. Hrtley, J., Cse Studies in Orgniztionl Reserch. In: C. Cssel & G. Symon, eds. Qulittive Methods in Orgniztionl Reserch: A Prcticl Guide. London: Sge Publiction, pp Hyes, R., Ledership Development: Leding for Growth, s.l., Excel Communiction. 56

57 Heifetz, R., Grshow, A. & Linsky, M., The Prctice of Adptive Ledership: Tools nd Tctics for Chnging Your Orgniztion nd the World. Boston: Hrvrd Business Press. Hercleos, L., Strtegic Thinking or Strtegic Plnning. Long Rnge Plnning, 31(3), pp Hersey, P. & Blnchrd, K., Mngement of Orgniztionl Behvior: Utilizing Humn Resources. Engelwood Cliffs: Prentice Hll. Hofstede, G., Culture's Consequences: Interntionl Differences in Work-relted Vlues. Beverly Hills: Sge Publiction. Hofstede, G., Culturl Constrints in Mngement Theories. Acdemy of Mngement Journl. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J. & Minkov, M., Cultures nd Orgniztions: Softwre of the Mind. New York: McGrw-Hill. House, R., A Pth Gol Theory of Leder Effectiveness. Administrtive Science Qurterly, pp House, R. & Adity, R., The Socil Scientific Study of Ledership: Quo Vdis?. Journl of Mngement, Volume 23, pp House, R. et l., Culture, Ledership nd Orgniztions: The Globe Study of 62 Societies. Thousnds Oks: Sge Publiction. Howrd, A., Best Prctice in Leder Selection. In: J. Conger & R. Riggio, eds. The Prctice of Ledership: Developing the Next Genertion of Leders. Sn Frncisco: Jossey-Bss Inc, pp Hunt, J., Ledership: A New Synthesis. Newbury Prk: Sge. Hyder, M., The Journl of Humnitrin Assistnce. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 2 My 2014]. IASC, The IASC Trnsformtive Agend: Opertionl Implictions for NGOs, s.l.: s.n. ICC, Sixteeth Report of the Prosecutor of the Interntionl Criminl Court to the UN Security Council Pursunt to UNSCR 1593, The Hgue: ICC - Office of the Prosecutor. IRIN, Wrs in the World. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 3 My 2014], Jywickrm, S., Developing Mngers nd Leders: Experiences nd lessons-lerned from Interntionl NGOs, Hrvrd: Huser Center for Non-Profit. 57

58 Johns, G., The Essentil Impct of Context on Orgniztionl Behvior. Acdemy of Mngement Review, 31(2), pp Kent, R., Amstrong, J. & Obrecht, A., The Future of Non-Governmentl Orgniztions in the Humnitrin Sector: Globl Trnsformtions nd their Consequences, London: Humnitrin Future Progrmme. Kim, W. & Muborgne, R., Blue Ocen Strtegy: How to Crete Uncontested Mrket Plce nd Mke the Competition Irrelevnt. Boston: Hrvrd Business School Press. King, N., The Qulittive Reserch Interview:. In: C. Cssel & G. Symon, eds. Qulittive Methods in Orgniztionl Reserch: prcticl guide. London: Sge Publiction, pp Kings, C., Strtegic Ledership in 21st Century Humnitrin Orgniztions: A Preliminry Scoping Exercice, London: King's College London. Kolditz, T., In Extremis Ledership: Leding s if your life depended on it. Sn Frncisco: Jossey- Bss. Kopink, J., Humnitrin Aid: Are Effectiveness nd Sustinbility Impossible Drems?. [Online] [Accessed 12 Mrch 2014], Krfess, J., The Influence of the Muslim Religion in Humnitrin Aid. Interntionl Review of the Red Cross, 87(858), pp Kutz, M., Towrds Conceptul Model of Contextul Intelligence: ATrnsferble Ledership Construct. Ledership Review, Volume 8, pp Kutz, M., Contextul Intelligence: Smrt Ledership for Constntly Chnging World. Perrysburg: Roundtble Group. Lm, J., Adpting to Externl Environmentl Constrints: Clssroom Techers' Strtegies. McGill Journl of Eduction, 31(2), pp Leder, N., The Politics of Principle: The principle of humnitrin ction in prctice, London: Oversees Development Institute. Leone, L., A Criticl Review of Improvistion in Orgniztions: open issues nd future reserch directions, London: Druid. Levi-Struss, C., The Svge Mind. Chicgo: University of Chicgo Press. Lichtenstein, B. et l., Complexity Ledership Theory: An interctive perspective on leding in complex dptive systems. Emergence: Complexity nd Orgniztion, 8(4), pp Liedtk, J., Strtegic thinking: cn it be tught?. Long Rnge Plnning, 31(11), pp

59 Livermore, D., Leding with Culturl Intelligence: The New Secret to Success. New York: Amcom. Livermore, D., The Culturl Intelligence Difference: Mster the one's skills you cn't do without in tody's globl economy. New York: Amcom. LRNCorportion, Impertive for the 21st Century Business Leders: Strtegies for Resilience nd Growth, New York: LRN. Mcre, J., Aiding Recovery: The Crisis of Aid in Chronicl Politicl Emergency. London: Zed Books. Mcre, J., Humnitrism: Fcing New Chllenges. In: K. M. Rohn, ed. Gret Decision. New York: Foreign Policy Assocition, pp Mcre, J. & Leder, N., Shifting Hnds: the Serch for Coherence betwen Politicl nd Humnitrin Responses to Complex Emergencies, London: Oversees Development Insitute. Mcris, C., Contextul Ledership. Updte, 4(01-06), pp Mir, A. & Scott-Morgn, P., The Accelerting Orgniztion: Embrcing the Humn Fce of Chnge. New York: McGrw-Hill. Mrion, R. & Uhl-Bien, M., Ledership in Complex Orgniztions. Ledership Qurterly, Volume 12, pp Myo, A. & Nohri, N., In Their Times: The Gretest Business Leders of the Twentieth Century. Boston: Hrvrd Business School Publishing. Myo, A. & Norhi, N., Zeitgeist Ledership. Hrvrd Business Review, 83(10), pp McClellnd, D., Identifying Competencies with Behviorl Event Interviews. Psychologicl Science, 9(5), pp McClellnd, D. & Boytzis, R., The Ledership Motive Pttern nd Long Term Success in Mngement. Journl of Applied Psychology, 67(6), pp McKensie, N. & Knipe, S., Reserch Dilemms: Prdigms, Methods nd Methodology. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 19 Jnury 2014]. Merrim, S., Qulittive Reserch: A guide to design nd implementtion. Sn Frncisco: Jossey- Bss. Meyer, C., Field Methods: A Cse in Cse Study Methodology. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 17 Mrch 2014], 59

60 Meyer, R., Dli, R. & Hermid, R., A Review nd Synthesis of Situtionl Strength in Orgniztionl Sciences. Journl of Mngement, Volume 36, pp Miles, M. & Hubermn, A., Qulittive Dt Anlysis. 2 ed. London: Sge. Miller, D. & Friesen, P., The Longitudinle Anlysis of Orgniztions: Methodologicl Perspective. Mngement Science, 28(9), pp Mins, H., Ledership for chnge in complex systems. Austrlin Psychitry, 13(1), pp Miner, A., Bssoff, P. & Moormn, C., Orgniztionl Improviztion nd Lerning: A field study. Administrtive Science Qurterly, 46(2), pp Mintzberg, H. & Wters, J., Of Strtegies, Deliberte nd Emergent. Strtegic Mngement Journl, Volume 6, pp Mischeil, W., The Interction of Person nd Sitution. In: D. Mgnuson & N. Endler, eds. Personlity t the Crossrods: Current Issues in Interctionl Psychology. Hillsdle: Lwrence Herlbum, pp Mishel, W., Towrds Cognitive Socil Lerning Reconceptuliztion of Personlity. Psychology Review, Volume 80, pp Mullins, J. & Cummings, L., Situtionl Strength: A Frmework for Understnding the Role of Individuls in Inititing Proctive Strtegic Chnge. Journl of Orgniztionl Chnge Mngement, 12(6), pp Nilsson, S., Civil nd Militry Ledership Processes in Situtions of Extreme Environmentl Demnds, Krlstd: Krlstd University Studies. Nusrt, H., Humnitrin Lws nd Islm. [Online] Avilble t: 1/24-25.html [Accessed 2 My 2014]. Nye, J., The Power to Led. New York: Oxford University Press. OCHA, Strtegic Response Pln - Sudn, Khrtoum: OCHA. OCHA, World Humnitrin: Dt nd Trends 2013, New York: United Ntions Publiction. Peretomode, O., Situtionl nd Contingency Theories of Ledership: Are they the sme?. Journl of Business nd Mngement, 4(3), pp Perkins, D. & Slomon, G., Are cognitive Skills Context-Bound?. Eductionl Resercher Assocition, 18(1), pp

61 Pfeffer, J. & Slncik, G., The Externl Control of Orgniztions. 2 ed. Stnford: Stnford University Press. Pfeifer, J., Crisis Ledership: The Art of Adpting to Extreme Events, New York: Hrvrd Kennedy School. Phillips, B., Nel, D. & Webb, G., Introduction to Emergency Mngement. New York: CRC Press. Porter, M., Competitive Advntge: Creting nd Sustining Superior Performnce. 2 ed. New York: The Free Press. Porter, M., The Five Competitive Forces tht Shpe Strtegy. Hrvrd Busines Review - the Mgzine, Volume Summer, pp Puente, S., Crous, F. & Venter, A., The Role of Positive Trigger Event in Actioning Authentic Ledership Development. Journl of Humn Resource Mngement, 5(1), pp Pugh, D., Sweet Spot-Sour Spot Anlysis: Bidder's Dozen: Golden Rules for Winning Work, s.l.: Lore Interntionl Insitute. Quinn, R., Beyond Rtionl Mngement: Mstering the Prdoxes nd Competing Demnds of High Performnce. Sn Frncisco: Jossey-Bss. Rimond, P., Two Styles of Foresight: Are We Predicting the Future or Inventing it?. Long Rnge Plnning, 29(2), pp Regnier, P., The Emergence of Humnitrin Diplomcy: Identifiction of c ommunity of prctice nd prospects for interntionl recognition. Interntionl Review of the Red Cross, 93(884), pp Richrdson, F., Meeting the Demnd for Skilled nd Experienced Humnitrin Workers. Development in Prctice, 16(3 & 4), pp Ripoll, M., Rodriguez, F., Brrs, A. & Antino, M., Ledership in Entrepreneuril Orgniztions: Context nd Motives. Psicothem, 22(4), pp Shlin, M. etl., Pece in Sudn? A Window of Opportunity, Uppsl: Life nd Pece Institute. Sunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A., Reserch Methods for Business Students. 5 ed. Hrlow: Person Eduction Limited. Sunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A., Reserch Methods for Business Students. 6 ed. Hrlow: Person Eduction Limited. Schwrtz, S., Universls in the content nd structure of Vlues: Theory nd empiricl test in 20 countries. Advnces in experimentl socil psychology, Volume 25, pp

62 SDC, S. A. f. t. D.. C., Mission Report, Khrtoum: s.n. Senior, B. & Swiles, S., Orgnistionl Chnge. 4th ed. Hrlow: Person Eduction Limited. Shod, Y., Mischell, W. & Wright, J., The Role of Situtionl Demnds nd Cognitive Competencies in Behvior Orgniztion nd Personlity Coherence. Journl of Personlity nd Socil Psychology, Volume 65, pp Shod, Y. & Mischel, W., Reconciling Contextulism with the Core Assumptions of Personlity Psychology. Europen Journl of Personlity, Volume 14, pp Skillsyouneed, The Art of Tct nd Diplomcy. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 17 April 2014]. Slim, H., Is Humnitrism Being Politicitized? A Reply to Dvid Rieff. The Hgue, Presenttion to the Dutch Red Cross Symposium on Ethics nd Aid. Slim, H., Innovtion in Humnitrin Action, s.l.: University of Oxford. Steets, J. et l., Improving Humnitrin Assistnce: A Trnstlntic Agend in Action, Berlin: Globl Public Policy Institute. Sternberg, R., Beyond I.Q.. Cmbridge: Cmbridge University Press. Tnnenbuw, R. & Schmidt, W., How to Choose Ledership Pttern. Hrvrd Business Review, Volume My-June, pp Tylor, G. et l., The Stte of the Humnitrin System, London: ALNAP. Trompenr, F. & Hmpden-Turner, C., Riding the Wves of Culture: Understnding Culturl Diversity in Business. 2 ed. London: Nichols Breley Publishing. Trompenr, F. & Woolims, P., Business Across Culture. Chichester: Cpstone Publishing Ltd. Turnbull-Jmes, K. & Ldkin, D., Meeting the Chllenge of Leding in the 21st Century: Beyond the Deficit Model of Ledership Development. In: K. Turnbull-Jmes & J. Collins, eds. Ledership Lerning: Knowledge Into Action. Hmpshire: Plgrve, pp Weick, K., Sensemking in Orgniztions. Thousnds Oks: Sge Publiction. Werker, E. & Ahmed, F., Wht Do Nongovernmentl Orgniztions Do?. Journl of Economic Perspective, 22(2), pp Willims, G., Super Tools for Cpture: Three Super Tools to Construct Mrket Lndscpes, Identify nd ssess Key Comp etitors nd Predict Competitor Actions. [Online] Avilble t: 62

63 Willims.pdf [Accessed 22 October 2013]. Wood, R. & Bndur, A., Impct of Conceptions of Ability on Self-Regultory Mechnisms nd Complex Decision-Mking. Journl of Personlity nd Socil Psychology, Volume 56, pp Wootton, S. & Home, T., Strtegic Thinking: A Nine Steps Approch to Strtegy nd Ledership for Mngers nd Mrketers. 3 ed. London: Kogn Pge Limited. Ygil, D., Chrismtic Ledership nd Orgniztionl Hierrchy: Attribution of Chrism to Close nd Distnt Leders. Ledership Qurterly, 9(2), pp Yin, R., Appliction of Cse Study Reserch. Applied Socil Reserch Series, Volume 34. Yin, R., Cse Study: Reserch, Design nd Methods. 2 ed. London: Sge. Yukl, G., Best Prctices in the Use of Proctive Influence Tctics by Leders. In: J. Conger & R. Riggio, eds. The Prctice of Ledership. Sn Frncisco: Jossey-Bss, pp Yukl, G., Kplndevries.com. [Online] Avilble t: [Accessed 2 April 2014], Yukl, G., Ledership in Orgniztions. 7th ed. New Jersey: Person Eduction Ltd. Yukl, G. & Lepsinger, R., Flexible Ledership: Creting Vlues by Blncing Multiple Chllenges nd Choices. Sn Frncisco: Jossey-Bss. 63

64 ANNEXES 64

65 ANNEX 1: Proctive Influence Tctics Rtionl Persusion Inspirtionl Appels Consulttion Exchnge Collbortion Apprising Ingrtition Personl Appels Legitimting Tctics Pressure Colition Tctics The gent uses logicl rguments nd fctul evidence to show tht request or proposl is fesible nd relevnt for importnt tsk objectives The gent ppels to the trget's vlues nd idels or seeks to rouse the trget person's emotions to gin commitment for request or proposl. The gent sks the trget person to suggest improvements or help pln proposed ctivity or chnge for which the trget person's support is desired. The gent offers something the trget person wnts, or offers to reciprocte t lter time, if the trget will do wht the gent requests. The gent offers to provide ssistnce or necessry resources if the trget will crry out request or pprove proposed chnge. The gent explins how crrying out request or supporting proposl will benefit the trget personlly or help to dvnce the trget's creer. The gent uses prise nd flttery before or during n ttempt to influence the trget person to crry out request or support proposl. The gent sks the trget to crry out request or support proposl out of friendship, or sks for personl fvor before sying wht it is. The gent seeks to estblish the legitimcy of request or to verify tht he/she hs the uthority to mke it. The gent uses demnds, threts, frequent checking, or persistent reminders to influence the trget to do something. The gent enlists the id of others, or uses the support of others, s wy to influence the trget to do something. Source: (Yukl, 2007, p. Ill) 65

66 ANNEX 2: Humnitrin Principles PRINCIPLES THEORY PRACTICE HUMANITY The impertive of sving nd Anlyze the politicl effects of id protecting lives, lleviting suffering on ccess, protection nd wherever it is found compromises NEUTRALITY Aid should not fvour ny side in Develop cute politiclly-wre conflict nor engge in controversies (rther thn politiclly-driven) of politicl, rcil, religious or surveillnce to preserve integrity ideologicl nture IMPARTIALITY Humnitrin ction should be Negotite ccess to id for ll crried solely on the bsis of need, popultions of the selected res mking no distinction on the bsis of rce, ntionlity, gender, religions, beliefs or clss or politicl opinions INDEPENDENCE Humnitrin ction must be Blnce the politiciztion of id with utonomous from politicl, security, intrinsic principles-> how fr cn we economic or other objectives go? Source: Collinson nd Elhwry (2012), Mcre (2001), Leder (2000) 66

67 ANNEX 3: Situtionl Strength Dt Compiltion AREA Clrity: re work-relted requirements cler? Consistency: Are work-relted requirement Ntionl Authorities PI P2 P3 consistent? Constrints: Are work-relted requirement constrining? Consequences on results? HIGH LOW HIGH LOW HIGH LOW HIGH LOW Upon GVT to decide where to work or not. Country serches to hve control on humnitrin intervention "ech step in controlled, nothing cn be done without uthoriztion" Cler governmentl behvior demnding orgniztionl complince Detiled Technicl Agreement on opertions rtified by GVT Detiled regultions on ntionl expecttions, procedures, ccess to res, to stff String control system, M&E by GVT stff Confusion on wht they ctully wnt: ex of IDP in cmps, no cler move or ction, on the contrry No consistency between stkeholders; the locl guy for HAC is from the re, he does cre much bout wht KH wnts, more formlized t federl level; difference t locl levels, must djust to guy n n More interctions with ministries t locl level nd with HAC in KH. A certin disconnect with HAC nd security. Support t locl level, but not t ntionl level. Cn induce tensions nd chnge inta n At GVT level: coherence on pressure plced by levels of GVT coordintion bodies n At integrted level: no coherence with other stkeholder expecttions on behvior (ORG/DONOR/Stff) Must negotite for ccess, of no, compromise on next best re You re constntly on the border line in terms of personl ethics nd principles. (53.27) Tkes lot of time All ctions cn be suspended or cncel if the NIS nlyzes them s thret to their security No ccess to emerging crisis Threts of blockge if non-complince to regultions / thret of stff pool reduction if too limited funding/ Presence in SD vlidtion on bsis on M&E by GVT bodies / very limited expts on field / no ccess of CD in 3 out of 4 res / extensive time, finnces nd effort for simple greement; " THE biggest problem, clled HAC who is controlling nd hmpering most of our efforts" n n n No cler visibility, so no rel ide, thus repliction, without understnding new needs -> qulity? Temporl djustment to stte nd donor expecttions, sort of limbo stte, no one knows wht is going on, the donor or us. Compromise on principles when cceptble. Drw lines but cn work with ntionl NGO who is close to the GVT, "we ccept tht becuse no other lterntive". Complicte to work with ll popultions, s no uthoriztions. So ccept to work with more locls, in identified zones in hope to progressively spred No bility to rect promptly to crisis High: Wrong decision implies expulsion from res or from country "(..) tkes lot of energy to relte with them, discuss with them, hving them pprove ech single sheet of pper" n n n

68 ) o.c 3 < TO C o CTJ z PI P2 P6 Cler individul expecttions, especilly in institutionl, not UN, where it is rel mess Protrcted brought new rules nd control; Obligtion to work with ntionl INGOs Objective to reduce the interntionl presence to nihil in 2016; Frme through T.A. tht sets the rules nd expecttions - not much spce to ct n Procedurl frme existing but not relly respected by ntionl uthorities who hold it; n Different types of donors, ll for different mndtes, need to shift from one to the other; No consistency with ntionl strtegy, conflict of gend (ER/EM), some zones re stted ER but in fct re EM, thus donors don't fund them n N: t Gvt level: only refers to centrl level for the moment n CONTEXTUAL CRISIS: everything is morcelled, it is ptchwork of mny sub-groups, different types of popultions No rel coherence on the long-term Impossibility to build vision in this country Donors not ligned to ntionl desidert Constnt pressure for complince to regultions; no freedom of ction, of strtegic pproches; Weekly confronttion to obstcles Lots of constrining rules nd regultion tht ll go one wy, ginst orgniztions who re compelled to follow them, but the others prties re not respecting them Advised by HAC to keep "low-profile" due to two previous expulsion of 2 CDs, n n n Impct on progrms, need to combine short term nd long term in sme res, thus difficult, more work to mke bridge in terms of HR nd finnce constntly, hrd to get longterm results Very high (ssez terrible) consequence if no complince to regultion frme: expulsion, nongrt, threts,.. Follows directions from HAC, goes to plces tht re ccepted, new introduction to Blue Nile following recent ccess; " there re needs everywhere, nywy" n n n P7 Completely frmed, t ll levels Difference in ntionl prties mngement t centrl nd locl levels: more flexibility t community bsed level n No consistency with donors nd orgniztionl strtegies, feels "ecrtele" under the different expecttions No complince = numerous risk nd lot of pressure, security risks, lck of support from donors too, who know if we re in the "red" vision of ntionl uthorities n Must fit in, brings problems in terms of ccess, people dying nd no ccess. Frustrting for stff nd for orgniztion n P8 High in regultion, control, limittions defined behviors: complince Competing bodies with different expecttions Little knowledge of Arbic culture by leders High in generl restrictions Low t cscding level High: no freedom of behvior: complince nd diplomcy n High: no compromise, no complince, no greement n 68

69 DONORS PI P2 P3 Clrity: re work-relted requirements der? Consistency: Are work-relted requirement consistent? Are work-relted requirement constrining? Consequences on results? HIGH LOW HIGH LOW HIGH LOW HIGH LOW 1. Individully yes you must know very well wht the donor wnts, wht they wnt to support, 2. Short term funding, mx one yer for emergency, lck of funding, so erly recovery not included Adpt to donors' expecttions, dictted by their requirements Respond nd compose to the guideline of donor: look where we wnt to be nd do, see who funds wht, nd we djust Some donors re completely inflexible, such s emergency donor More constrining nf focus becuse less funds in generl Conformism with donors' strtegy on themes nd res of support n ECHO insist on expt presence but it lso keen on security issues -> complex Decentrlized UN funding system, leding to confusion on grnt lloction nd greement Extensive delys in securing grnts "It tkes one yer to hve n greement on grnt with OFDE" Country needs incresing of funds but funding probbly going down -> focus on specific mndte Shift of strtegy nd pproch s per new rrivl of director (ECHO) -> must dpt too No, very cler lines of demrction between them nd no consensus " on fit le grnd ecrt constmment" UN funding re complicted: constnt chnges, short term funding, reduction of grnts in on-going project, etc n Lck of coherence (ex schools in cmps): donors with the hed in the snd n No consistencies within donors' own criteri (UN), internl tension t donor levels, loss of time, uncler process, uncler expecttions nd strtegies Some donors hve high regultions nd contrctul constrints - strong monitoring of qulity of opertions Adptbility to ech donor formt in terms of reporting, monitoring, hs n impct on the level of ttention, qulity put in the interventions. Short term funding of some donors, reduces the frme of ction, the vision In one re, we will djust our proposl under the emergency or development scheme, nd present it respectively Extensive work nd time needed to blnce the funding proposls from locl to centrl levels,; " 6 months from gencies in the field nd in the cpitl, trying to get signture, constntly dpting our views" Some donor only wnt to hve nice reports nd numbers n n No possibility to work on longer term issues should be ble to ddress the issues better No good vision of wht is going on, thus sme type of strtegies Constntly dpt priorities to get funding Pool of expts depending on funding No freedom to go where we wnt, do wht we wnt s very smll proper funds Avoid pproching donors who re too complicted No possibility to rect rpidly, s ll greements needed No flexibility in ctions/ interventions in zone of no interest of donors Short term funding reduces performnce of ctivities Must comply to donor's desidert nd delys or no funding n n n 69

70 P4 P5 Cler expecttions, know wht to provide nd how to do it High clrity in terms of institutionl nd individul requirements t donor level to (. O z o P6 Cler expecttions, like it, know where we go nd how it works P7 P8 Existing strtegies nd proposls templtes from ech donors, "they ctully tell you wht to right" Cler expecttions from donors, own objectives n Less funds due to lck of trust in Gvt - trust -crisis for no respect of donors' enggement n Less funds thus donors tend to refocus nd limit their frme of ctions, more strict, more limittive Within one donor yes, Only two donors, not much inconsistency Hrd to mnge ll expecttions, better to choose for one relief method, but not possible due to Ntionl limittions No long term vision of donors All externl stkeholders re complied to follow ntionl strtegic direction but only INGOs do it -> Hrd to combine both donors nd Gvt rules n n No common vision or strtegy, ctully no strtegy t ll on long term n Cler demrction between emergency nd development donors n No common strtegy even in one domin of ction, different expecttions, rules, procedures Limits the frme of ction, sort of tight up to externl (frm org) mndte Hrd to combine both: ntionl nd donor to hve funds nd ccess - Alwys move from one to the other, no wy to sustin ny progrm, they don't wnt it to work Constrining only if no rel focus in terms of re or mndte Must fit the tbles s expected, more flexibility once the proposl is ccepted, if the core lines of ctions re respected Limittions in ctions nd hrd to fulfill mndte of orgniztion n n n n n No complince = reduction of future funding, bd "press" mongst donors who know ech other If no complince, no future funding Less expts if less funding NGOs must comply to donors so mny revise their position nd ply on terms to re-develop emergency to get funding. -> lck of focus, of coherence nd thus performnce Poor results will cncel future funding Less funding entils les expts Donors hve full power on NGOS, thus lots of hypocrites round, people tlk more thn they work. Less performnce becuse no mens to mintin focus on long term No complince =no future funding n n n n 70

71 C X PI Clrity: re work-relted requirements cler? Consistency: Are work-relted requirement consistent? Are work-relted requirement constrining? Consequences on results? HIGH LOW HIGH LOW HIGH LOW HIGH LOW Mndtory to hve direct mngement on field -> expts on ech bse P2 No expt on the field - Ntionl strengthening for sudniztion -> limited mount of stff 2. orgniztionl decision to void y fix expt on the field for security P3 P4 P5 No expts on the field -cler Sudniztion: regultion on number of expts + ctul pressure: no fund, no expts "they wnt us to recruit loclly" Limited eductionl bckground, little bilities to tke decisions, to sell project, to mnge finnces. Lck in eduction thus no relevnt stff, lso influenced by the culture of esclvgism, no one tkes decision here, big boss does, nd you comply, very strong socio-culturl effects, tht impct on decision-mking nd inititives. n No esy to mnge locl s we re not there; hrd to evlute the needs of the stff, to respond to it. Hrd to detect wht works nd why, or not. Poor resources ntionlly, 6 month to find HR officer Not well educted, lower level then needed, lot of coching required, or directive, it depends n Not very loyl to orgniztion, fst turnover, big HR wr for the good Sudnese stff Different level of competencies, utonomy, rigor n n Fst turnover, HR wr mongst orgniztions Difference s longstnd stff who know nd re engge, vs others who don't relly commit, just there for the money n Supervision needed s there is n expecttion for "direction" The socio-culturl system helps the fct tht messge re herd, must be behind, becuse needs someone to mke thing run. Must be behind, next, hed,.. some good stff, motivted nd trust, but lwys risk due to locl pressure nd culturl rules n Need to sustin Expt: motivtion? Getting pressure from HAC on totl of expts Use of relocted for less influence. 2. lower competencies, less rigor Work with unprofessionl stff Locl GVT control o the stff: "the stff is ctully controlled, spied on" Must show we re there, even t distnce. Constnt monitoring needed to hve the expected results, presence must be felt Must design everything, prepre ll, check if done, why not, be behind people, etc, mke the mchine move forwrd. Thus needs expts, so rel complicted s no expts here Less constrints due to expts presence n Locl GVT control o the stff: "the stff is ctully controlled, spied on" n n 1 m pretty sure tht the qulity we hve now is becuse we hve expts on the field; 1 m not so sure we would get the sme results with locl Locl mngement, punctul control 2. question rised on qulity, due to no direct ledership 3. risk of bis nlysis due to distnce Remote ledership with little monitoring for security nd HAC resons Recruitment of impts" ll the decision on the field re of Impts" Limited funding (ECHO) Less performnce compring to other countries Must not expect too much if no one is there to monitor n n HR monitoring not included in progrm evlution n n 71

72 P6 P7 cc I P8 No expts, thus strong need for locl supervision from centrl level little enggement, little pssion Very limited cpbilities on field, demnds different mngement system versus other countries Constnt problems with HR, in terms of recruiting, mintining, trining. Even with good trining brod, little improvement n Limited openness from stff thus difficult to know here they stnd, how they grow They do not only work for orgniztion, lots of externl pressures nd expecttions, culturl bounds, so hrd to define reltion of trust or stbility Overll need for direction, monitoring They re ll under pressure loclly, so we must be conscious bout internl ffirs. People ll work for the money, not for the mndte, so more esy to motivte if good stff n Must probe to feel who needs wht, but they ll cover ech other Different In cpitl or field Reduce the orgniztionl cpbilities, don't expect too much, strt smll, try to trin nd coch Requires remote mngement nd relocted stff to hve proper functioning bse. Things move when goes on the field, presence pprecited by stff but hrd to visit ll bses frequently Must remin creful bout externl pressures, need to keep hnd on decision nd finncil spending. n n n Less effective results, but there re wys if you trget their bounds to either culture, villges, etc, but thn risk of fvoritism. Definitely poorer nd longer results, little possibility to develop pproprite mngement nd support, frustrtion Time nd ptience needed, but not lwys possible string risk of bis in work s externl pressure n n n 72

73 ANNEX 4: Behviours nd Mechnisms Dt Compiltion Prticipnts PI P2 P4 PS P6 P7 P8 Knowledg TOPICS know ntionl stkeholders Contextul knowledge Contextul experience D "we scn. Alwys, everything, everywhere" (more thn 2 yers presence) "1 spend 40% of my time in meetings, forums, 1 need to know" " 1 hve been here XX yers, so, well, 1 know the music" Q "Before some meetingl brce myself' MECHANISMS - NATIONAL Bi "the thing is, we must know ll wht is hppening, but never write bout it" 19 "must sty on longterm-bsis' H "know ech of of them s they re ll different" "know the relity of our prtners, how fr they cn go" O "It is funny, in the end, we re like ctors" Q "role ply" "things re lwys on the move, so 1 must know wht is going on" <c z o < 3 "5. E c o ro <u OL O Communiction Mpping of key contcts Find wht works Complince to desidert Negocitions Compromises Ethics Prticiptive process Prticiptive end nd beginning Competitiveness O "identify key stkeholder per issue" Know individul chrcteristics H'flnd wht works" "find common interest t locl level" "ccept the nerby spot" "border line between wht is right nd wht is pproved" Q "Integrte everyone who cn sy no" g "tht is the only wy, it must become theirs" g "find plces no one goes to or ctivities no one does" "know your key prtners" Q "work in designted res with designted popultions with no "negocite on res" O ccept locl INGOs depiste politicl inlfuence "ethicl inflexibility on certin principles" H + "Integrtion of locl communities g "things chnge, the relity chnge, so there re lwys openings" "we keep djusting, ll the time" "denied when ethics is touched" "good reltionship with communities" "Find wys together" Know wht is going on Mobile tems mobile tems Deliver the service Work on future improvement build forml nd informl contct Immedite deling with problems O it is the gvt tht decides if, where nd how we work, or not" "ethics must previl on opertionlly" "be wre of ethicl issues, otherwize we get lost" " s greed upon" D "once we re there, we cn grow" "we then work loclly, bit by bit" NA: "1 don't wnt to get into their gmes" B3 "screening, csting of relevnt ctors t ll levels" "built key prtnership of influence" "don't move lone" "Serch for the mondre ligne de reistnce " Q "go round obstcles, find wht relly we cn bring, in or out the frme" Of "stisfy expecttions but mintin ethicl line in line with own expertise nd org principles Q innovtion in produt, in process, in sudniztion nd in selling g "mnge on contextul bsis" p Communicte new elements, trigger interest "void being into the loop" q "there is lwys wy if you hve somethingspecil to provide" 531 "Even in our progrmme, we hve to stick to the regultions" "We work with universities, they relly wnt to engge" H We don't relly compromise, we find common grounds" s " it is bout who we re, wht we re, nd find the bridge" Of "we don't build our progrmme, we build their project" be different, trget dded-vlue " provide plus" 0 "then the progrmme gets decentrlized t regionl level" Q "some people here mkes things move" " it is simple. Some cn work, others cnt, the question is why" "respect " l lettre"of " proceduril frme" O "it is like tresure hunt, the first one there gets the gold" 01 Mobile tems g "when we re in trouble, we lerned it from other NGOs. Then, it is nelry too lte" pj " in th end, it is oout people; who is in ch rge, who c n put pressure" "they re the bosses" "you would not believe how mny hours we spend on discussions, pleding, negotiting" "1 do compromise on certin principles" integrtion of locl NGOs 0 "everydy communiction" g "theycome nd sk why you did not do such nd such, even if they know the nswer" "we grow on the spot" Q "t centrl level, it is more forml"

74 Prticipnts PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 TOPICS BEHAVIOURS-NATIONAL NATIONAL Communiction ^ inter-ngos g Listener, in ll Networking networking for forums nd working informtion groups Low profile El Culture-bsed communiction Adjust otculurl expecttions Avoid terms or ttitude Empthetic H "mke checklist of forbidden words" jig "crete bond" "present things in certin wy" D "present things certin wy" Q Visible empthy (demonstrte 0 "djuts.dothe slmlek" 0 "crete dilogue nd trust" b B "culturlly ccepted" Listen lotempthetic Q B B "They dont like "visible" people" Q "show tht you cn ply the gme" B "void conronttions" "bow the hed' B B "void Westernlike rtionl thinking nd communiction, B find wht suits them" "dont provoke Q Get known through locl ctors, B jg not directly "never get upset" Work on their own system, build B ide internlly "soft communiction, soft infiltrtion" B "mnge on contextul bsis" B gj commum sense, it you wnt people in, you must behve s B expected B 1 rect the sme, but dont ct the sme wy" g "We dpt our expertise to their stndrds, their B "B ig mouth hve short term success here" B B "do theslmleks" g "forexmple,words like protection crete rection, you trct their ttention" forums, meetings, working groups H H " Full control on our emotions, ofour ttitude" s "Don't impose your view" concern) needs" Behvior Flexible nd mlleble Mintin direction nd ethics B "dont get stubornon fixides" B "know how fr you cn go" H "don't insist, work on future positioning" ^ "complince within limits" Q "there is point wherelcnnotgony further" "ethics previl" jg Flexibility for little things, keep people hppy 0 "Mintnethicl line" B B g djust behvior on the mood of counterprts. 0 "1 know how to be" Generl complince B Q fl B B Q 74

75 Prticipnts PI P2 P 3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 ; 00 TJ (U $ O c ft e _o ro cu Ck O TOPICS Know (institutionl&individu pre-discussions l) Mpping who funds "see who funds wht how wht" Know wht is expected Q Emergency vs development g "in fct, it is like puzzle, we tke Bricolge pieces from here nd there" Strtegic dpttion H "nd void tricky HI ones" Know their specificities "some donors re completely unflexible" g "nd present g different project respectively" mintn orgniztion in uncler wters then dpt to ech donor H "must know very well whtthe donor wnts" MECHANISMS - DONORS 'Find the entry point" "we cover both, it is not esy" "we djust ll the time" g "sit down, get informtion, hints nd tips" g "go to the mrket with your g w res" "ech hve their indiviudlity, know them nd dpt" g (12 yers in development, 8 yers in emergency) " they ll serch for something new" g "1 hve worked with ll ofthem before, 1 know how they function" g "dpt the project to their key-words, to their indictors" "1 revised it three time lst yer" "everybody wnts somethingelse" "we re dictted by their requirements" to cc O Z o Q <s> C.o re Q. o c.o 8 c 3 E o u Tcticl djustment Adjust vs monitoring system H "Some only wnt nice reports" g "Most donors re not llowed to Strict orgniztionl O "djust to their styles, their technics, their reputtions" g " It is big one-dy Multi-levelled funding system B Competitiveness / innovtion Be different zone, product Complince Specific communiction pproch Trnsprence controlled communiction Communictor: trnsprency Visibility Built reltionship with g option nlysis for differentition: who does wht where g "we try to go where there re few NGOs O "tell them wht they wnt to her "get close" g story: meeting two donors with different gends H get close", show experience g "we completely dpt totheir expecttions" 'whtever hppens, 1 let them know, before g rumors strt" "meet them, formlly nd informlly" "Serch for the demrction line" g " open new doors" "breks through doors no one hs tried before" g be different in terms ofres nd products O "bring in ll their keywords" H "tell them wht they wnt to her" "timely informtion' X timely informtion H "be wre of wht to sy when' Xtimely informtion: wht to sy when "ech donor hs his style" X timely informtion "find your niche tht suits them" " be competitive in content nd form" show" find unfilled res g Q difference between donors noted "must sell difference, somehow" " It is question of how we present things" H "Get redy for ll the questions" H g "the smllest thing cn become huge bythe second" g "They re meetings where they expect us to be, so 1 go" donor 75

76 Prticipnts PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 TOPICS BEHAVIOURS-DONORS */> O z o o Networking, be there B gg "they fund "build the trust", Low-key professionl people nd NGOs they trust" "work on the future" H nlyze the mrket, lobby for Entrepreunril intervention", void risk-voidnce behviors D Demonstrte ethics depending on donor "drwthe lines t some point" "We cn sometimes question the qulity of our intervention" Q "trigger jjg "prepre for interest, be know for good resons" meetings, now wht you will sy" 0 think differently, trigger Q interest, be competitve importnt to "not difficult if donors; "mintin you re sure of wht neutrlity" to do" {H in meetings where donors go Constntly wre, redy "screening for next funding" P "there is rel competition for funds, for locl stff, for res" D lern from the mistkes of other NGOs Short funding, never-ending fun reserch Adptble, flexible behvior Mnipultor "go with the flow, sy wht they wnt to her" g "we do the grnd ecrt constntly" gg Chnge behvior, discourse refdonor 5 " not too much honesty, find the wy" g "Must prove there is still need, tht it is n emergency, it works" g within limits, dont buy nything El Not ply, but model to void crise ^ dpt to donor B "trgetingthe right sector with the right words" H Adpt to donor nd to new constrints

77 Prticipnts PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 TOPICS BEHAVIOURS - DONORS to 0 O z o Q Networking, be there D g "they fund 0 "build the trust", Low-key professionl people nd NGOs they trust" "work on the future" g nlyze the mrket, lobby for Entrepreunril intervention", void risk-voidnce behviors Demonstrte ethics depending on donor Q "drwthe lines t some point" "We cn sometimes question the qulity of our intervention" Q "trigger g "prepre for interest, be know for good resons" meetings, now wht you will sy" 0 Think differently, trigger D interest, be competitve 0 importnt to "not difficult if donors; "mintin you re sure of wht neutrlity" to do" g in meetings where donors go Constntlywre, redy "screeningfor next funding" Q "there is rel competition for funds, for locl stff, for res" lern from the mistkes of other NGOs Short funding, never-ending fun reserch Adptble, flexible behvior D g "we do the grnd ecrt constntly" g Chnge behvior, discourse ref donor g within limits, dont buy nything 0 dpt to donor g Adpt to donor nd to new constrints Mnipultor Q "go with the flow, sy wht they wnt to her" Q B " not too much honesty, find the wy" g "Must prove there is still need, tht it is n emergency, it Q Not ply, but model to void crise "trgetingthe right sector with the right words" works"

78 Prticipnts PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 in UJ u tc D O V) UJ cc < 2 X TOPICS Delegte with control Be ccessible Adpt style Directive style Controller Be the coordintor, bridge people Culturlly wre Authenticity B P Open office, constnt in nd out, vilble B "...end up telling wht to do" S Decision-mking Q pillr "trditionlly, they need strong chiefs" "We cn less delegte in this context" 8 coching, mentoring, directing,.. B n blnce empthy nd directive "It requires high level of supervision, ccompnying, supporting" 0 "be the intermedire" gg "constntly nvigte in, cross nd round the progrmme" B "different lines of responsbilities" BEHAVIOURS-HR "need to know wht in going on, show you re there" B B Q depend on people, on the emergency "t point, 1 give orders, becuse then things move" Q Q "Connect people" Bi 0 "... even for litle things like dys off' B D 0 "hve to be quite cler bout gg wht 1 wnt" "to get rel feedbck from the 'l tried to wit but they never come with solutions" (locl stff) 0 "fishingfor informtion on how things go" pit depends on the people, it is resultbsed thing" "you need strict control on everything here" D u B P Alternte different styles in line with people H "we do the best we cn, without vision, without flexibility nd without control" field is notsmth "must be behind, Mondy AM meeting on "low level of utonomy, INGOre very sucessful t here, so we must be lert" B p "it is better to hve fce-to-fce s discusion, more s respect come out of it" before, next to people field progress of rigor" gg link internl nd externl; centrl focus point No: "we must drw line on who we re" 13 B 9 78